University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)

College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

Lecture one (English Language)

Parts of speech

Prepared by:
Badriyah Noori Mashaan
(Master's student)

Supervised by:
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ako Subhi

Parts of speech

1
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

A part of speech (also called word classes) is a linguistic category of words. The words that we
use can be divided into eight classes (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections) defined in terms of their purpose, place, meaning, and use within
sentences.

Each part of speech plays a distinct role in sentence construction and contributes to the overall
clarity and coherence of communication.
1. A noun: A noun is a type of word that represents a person, thing, or place. Like (Ali, city,
Egypt, tree, dog). They can be classified into various types, including:
a. Proper nouns: are the names of specific a person, things, place, idea. (e.g., Ahmed, Maria,
Iraq, Seas, Oceans, Week days, Months of the years, Season of year, Nile). Note They
always begins with a capital letter.
b. Common nouns: are general names for a person, things, place, idea. (e.g., boy/ man,
women/ girl, river). Note They don’t begin with a capital letter, unless they begin a
sentence. They can be either concrete or abstract:
Concrete nouns: refer to objects, people, places, or things that can be perceived through
the five senses; such as calculator.
Abstract nouns: refer to ideas or qualities that cannot be perceived through the five
senses; such as freedom and truth.
Example: This is my friend Adam→ (friend ►common noun, Adam ► proper noun).

2
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

c. Countable nouns are words that represent objects, people, or ideas that can be counted.
These nouns have a singular and a plural form, allowing them to be quantified with numbers,
such as "one book," "two books," or "three books." Countable nouns can be preceded by
articles like "a," "an," or "the," and can be modified by quantifiers like "some," "many,"
or "few." Examples of countable nouns include "apple," "chair," "student," and
"idea."
d. Non-countable nouns: also known as mass nouns or uncountable nouns, are words that
represent substances, materials, or abstract concepts that cannot be easily counted or divided
into discrete units. These nouns typically do not have a plural form and cannot be preceded
by articles like "a" or "an." They are often quantified using words like "some," "much,"
or "little." Examples of non-countable include "water," "rice," and "knowledge."
2. Verbs: is word that expresses an action, states of being, or occurrences and are essential
for conveying meaning in a sentence (the key elements that make a sentence complete,
describing what the subject is doing). They can be classified into:
a. Auxiliary verbs, also known as "helping verbs," are a class of verbs that work in
conjunction with main verbs to form different verb tenses, voice, and moods. They provide
additional information about the action or state expressed by the main verb, such as the time,
frequency, or certainty of the action. The most common auxiliary verbs include: -
 Verbs to Do: Do, Does, Did.
 Verbs to Be: is, are, am, was, were.
 Verbs to Have: have, has, had.
 Modals: can, could, will, would, shall, should, ought to, might, must.
Examples of Auxiliary Verbs:
 I am studying for my exam.
 She has finished her project.
 They will be arriving later today.
 You should take a break.
 We can go to the park this afternoon.
b. Main verbs, also known as "lexical verbs," are the primary verbs that express the action,
occurrence, or state of being in a sentence. They carry the core meaning and can stand alone
without the need for an auxiliary verb. Main verbs can be action verbs (e.g., "run," "sing,"
"read"), linking verbs (Connect the subject to a complement, such as a noun or adjective,
to describe a state of being) (e.g., "be," "become," "seem"), or stative verbs (e.g., "know,"
"understand," "like").

3
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

c. Transitive verbs are action words that necessitate a direct object to convey a complete
thought. These verbs describe an action that is directed towards a specific person or thing.
Examples of transitive verbs include "to write," "to read," "to eat," and "to call." In the
sentence "She wrote a letter," the verb "wrote" is transitive, and "a letter" is the direct
object that completes the action.
d. Intransitive verbs: do not require a direct object to express a complete thought. These
verbs describe actions that are self-contained or do not directly act upon a specific object.
Examples of intransitive verbs include "to sleep," "to laugh," "to walk," and "to sneeze."
For instance, in the sentence "She slept soundly," the verb "slept" is intransitive, as it
does not require a direct object to convey its meaning.
3. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun or stands in for an unknown noun.
The noun which the pronoun replaces is called its antecedent. Pronouns help us avoid
repetition and make our language more concise and flowing. Types of Pronouns:
A. Personal Pronouns
B. Possessive Pronouns
C. Reflexive Pronouns
D. Demonstrative Pronouns
E. Interrogative Pronouns
F. Relative Pronouns
G. Indefinite Pronouns
H. Intensive Pronouns
This table below show types of Pronouns with classifications for each type:

A. Personal Pronouns: Used to refer to specific people or things, such as "I," "you," "he," "she,"
"it," "we," "they."
Subject→ Used as the subject of a sentence,
1. such as "I," "you," "he," "she," "it," "we,"  She is my best friend.
"they."
Object→ Used as the object of a sentence,
such as "me," "you," "him," "her," "it,"
2. "us," "them." The object case pronoun  The book is beside him.
functions as a direct or indirect object, or as an
object of a preposition.
Possessive→ Used to show ownership, such as
3. "mine," "yours," "his," "hers," "its,"  This book is mine.
"ours," "theirs."

4
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

B. Possessive Pronouns: Indicate ownership or relationship, such as "my," "your," "his," "her,"
"its," "our," "their.
Independent → Can stands alone without a ………...+ possessive Pronoun
1. noun, such as "mine," "yours," "his," - This house is yours.
"hers," "its," "ours," "theirs." - This shirt is mine.
Adjective→ Used before a noun to show Possessive Adjective + noun
2. ownership, such as "my," "your," "his," - Your house is big
"her," "its," "our," "their". - My shirt is green.
C. Reflexive Pronouns: The word ‘reflexive’ means something that is directed towards the self. A
reflexive pronoun, “Objects that refer to the same subject. Such as "myself," "yourself,"
"himself," "herself," "itself," "ourselves," "themselves."
1. Myself→ Ex. I blame myself.
2. Yourself →Ex. You should address the letter to yourself.
3. Himself → Ex. Rahul was so tired of following diets that he decided to give himself a cheat
day.
4. Ourselves→ Ex. We built a house for ourselves.
5. herself→ Ex. She made herself coffee
6. itself→ Ex. The dog bit itself.
7. themselves→ Ex. Teena and Tyson have been preparing themselves for the entire semester.
D. Demonstrative Pronouns: points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun:
"this" and "these" , "that" and "those".
This→ Used to refer to something close or
1.
nearby.
That→ Used to refer to something farther
2.
away.
These→ Used to refer to multiple things that
3.
are close.

Those→ Used to refer to multiple things that

4.
are far away

E. Interrogative pronouns: is used to ask questions: "who," "whom," "which," "what”.

1. Who→ for people (used as the subject of a verb) Who loves pies?
Whom→ for people (used as the object of a verb You saw whom?
2.
or preposition) You went with whom?
What→ An animal or thing from a large or What is the country with the highest
4.
unspecified number of options. proportion of vegetarians?

5
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

Which → An animal or thing from a limited Which is your favorite flavor, vanilla or
5.
number of options. strawberry?
F. Relative Pronouns: You can use a relative pronoun to link one phrase or clause to another
phrase or clause: "who," "whom," "that," and "which."
The woman who called yesterday is my
1. Who→ refers to people
friend.
I lost my wallet which my mother gave
2. Which→ refers to object and animals.
me.
They visited the street where they lived
3. Where→ refers to place.
there.
Valentine`s day is the day when people
4. when→ refers to time
are happy.
I don`t know the reason why she doesn`t
5. Why→ refers to reason.
like ice cream.
The boy whose phone just rang should
6. whose→ refers to possession
stand up.
7. Whom→ refers to people(object) I know the boy whom sits next to you.
Austin was the place that I graduate from
8. That→ people, things and animals
university.
G. Indefinite Pronouns: are pronouns that are used to refer to someone or something in a general
way, without being specific about whom or what you're referring to. The main group of
indefinite pronouns is formed by various combinations:
Singular→ another,both, everything, nothing, an  I have seen everything worth seeing.
1. y, each,  It seems there is nobody who can
neither, one, anybody, either, nobody and none. help.
 Few came to the banquet.
 Many expressed concern about the
Plural→ all, few, more, much, most, several,
2. new law.
both, some and many.
 Several raised their hands in
support.
H. Intensive Pronouns: is a pronoun used to emphasizes its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are ide
ntical in form to reflexive pronouns.
Himself
Herself Singular
1. “She herself wrote the report.”
Itself
Oneself
Themselves
“They themselves organized the
2. Ourselves Plural
event.”
Yourselves

6
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

4. Adverbs: An Adverb always modifies a verb. Most adverbs are formed by adding (ly) to
the adjectives.
Examples: slow + ly →slowly, nice + ly→ nicely, happy +ly →happily
 Some adverbs do not end in ‐ly. Such as (everywhere, here, never, so, fast,
much and rather).
There are many kinds of adverbs:
a. Adverbs of manner: express how an action was done.
Examples:
 I closed the window carefully.
 The soldier fought bravely.
b. Adverbs of time: express the time when an action is or was done.
Examples:
 I’m going to leave for Cairo tomorrow.
 What’s going to happen next?

7
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

c. Adverbs of place: express when an action is done.

Examples:
 I shall stand here.
 I’ve looked everywhere for my lost pen.
Some words that end (ly) can be both adjectives or adverbs. Most of them refer to
time.
Daily Yearly
Weekly Monthly
 A daily newspaper is published daily.
 We get up early to catch an early train.
d. Adverbs of frequency: tell how often we do something. Such as: Always, often,
sometimes, usually, seldom, Rarely, Never, and Occasionally.
5. Adjective: is a word that describes something (a noun). Some adjectives are: big, cold,
blue, and silly.
Types of Adjectives
Adjectives can be divided into different categories based on their functions when used in a
sentence. The different types of adjectives are:
A. Descriptive adjectives
B.Possessive Adjectives
C. Interrogative Adjectives
D. Demonstrative Adjectives
E.Comparative adjectives
F. Superlative adjectives
A. Descriptive adjectives: are the most common. They are used to describe the
qualities of nouns. Examples of some common descriptive adjectives include tall, red,
beautiful, strong, delicious, Colorful, Fragrant, Spicy, Glittering, Pointed, Bumpy,
Tangy, Spongy and Slippery.
B.Possessive Adjectives: These adjectives, like possessive pronouns, are used to show or
represent possession of a quality. For example: my, your, his, her, their, its, whose, etc.
C. Interrogative Adjectives: An adjective that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun
by asking a question is called an interrogative adjective. There are only a few adjectives
that can be termed as interrogative adjectives. They are whose, what and which.
Examples:
 Pronoun: Which fell?
8
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

 Adjective: Which trapeze artist fell?

D. Demonstrative adjectives: are mainly used to describe the position of a subject (a
noun or pronoun) in space or time. This, that, these and those are the demonstrative
adjectives in English. Eg. These apples are wonderful.
E.Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two objects they
modify (larger, smaller, faster, higher). They are used in sentences where two nouns are
compared, in this pattern:
 Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object).
 Examples→ My house is larger than hers.
→This box is smaller than the one I lost.
→Your dog runs faster than Jim's dog.
F. Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit
of a quality (the tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest). They are used in sentences
where a subject is compared to a group of objects.
 Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object).
 Examples→ My house is the largest one in our neighborhood.
→This is the smallest box I've ever seen.
→Your dog ran the fastest of any dog in the race.
6. Prepositions: are words that are used to link one part of the sentence to another.
Prepositions show the position of the object or subject in a sentence. Some examples of
prepositions are in, out, besides, in front of, below, on, over, under, near, opposite,
etc.
Examples of prepositions used in sentences:
 The teacher asked the students to draw lines on the paper so that they could
write in straight lines.
 The child hid his birthday presents under his bed.
 Mom asked me to go to the store near my school.
 The thieves jumped over the wall and escaped before we could reach home.
7. Conjunctions: are a part of speech that is used to connect two different parts of a
sentence, phrases and clauses. There are three kinds of conjunctions:
a. Coordinating conjunctions: join sentence parts of equal grammatical status. They are:
(and for, or, yet, nor, so). Ex. I have not finished my project, yet I went out with my
friends.

9
University of Kirkuk (English Language) Lec_1_ (Parts of speech)
College of Nursing 2024-2025 By: Badriyah Noori (Master's student)

b. Correlative conjunctions: join words, phrases, and clauses, as well as whole sentences.
They are: (both ... and), (neither ... nor), (either ... or), (not only ... but also).
 Ex. She is both intelligent and beautiful.
→I will either go for a hike or stay home and watch TV.
→Jerry is neither rich nor famous.
c. Subordinating conjunctions: connect clauses of unequal status. A subordinating
conjunction introduces a subordinate or dependent clause, which is unable to stand alone
as a complete sentence. They are: (after, even, if, that, while, although, even though,
though as, if, unless, in order). Ex. Jane did not go to work as she was sick.
8. Interjection: is a word or phrase used to express a feeling or to request or demand
something. Some examples of interjections are oh, wow, alas, yippee, etc. It is always
followed by an exclamation mark.
 Examples of interjections used in sentences:
• Wow! What a wonderful work of art.
• Alas! That is really sad.
• Yippee! We won the match.

References :
1. Jufri, A. (2023). A study of engineering student’s ability in understanding parts of speech
at sttind padang. Journal of Social and Economics Research, 5(1), 195-199.
2. Kehler, A., Kertz, L., Rohde, H., & Elman, J. (2007). Coherence and coreference
revisited. Journal of Semantics, 25(1), 1-44.
3. Kaiser, E., Runner, J., Sussman, R., & Tanenhaus, M. (2009). Structural and semantic
constraints on the resolution of pronouns and reflexives. Cognition, 112(1), 55-80.

10