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HOCHIMINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPT. OF HEAT & REFRIGERATION ENGINEERING

THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT TRANSFER

BASIC CONCEPTS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. NGUYỄN THẾ BẢO

 Basic Concepts

1. Thermodynamic System

2. Properties of substances

3. State, processes and cycles

4. Heat and Work

5. Ideal gas and real gas

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 Introduction
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and
temperature and their relation to energy and work.

Energy (heat)  Work Work  Transfer heat

(from low temp. zone to
higher temp. place

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 Introduction
 The objective of Thermodynamics is to:

Determine the PROPERTIES and ENERGY of a

system as well as the ENERGY CHANGE of the
system


m

Ex:

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 1. Thermodynamic System

A thermodynamic system is a region defined by boundaries

of particular natures, together with the physical surroundings
of that region, which determine processes that are allowed
to affect the interior of the region, studied using the principles
of thermodynamics.

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 1. Thermodynamic System

Substance?? Hot source?? Cold sink??

Thermodynamic Heat & Work transferred when the
System: working substance changed its state ??
Boundary between the system and the
surrounding ??

Examples

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Examples of Thermodynamic
systems (1)

Hot coffee cup

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Examples of Thermodynamic
systems (2)

Internal Combustion Engine

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Examples of Thermodynamic
systems (3)

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 Classification of
thermodynamic systems
- Closed system: no substance may be transferred in
or out of the system boundaries

- Open system: substance may flow in and out of the

system boundaries

- Thermally isolated system: no heat is exchanged

with its environment.

- Isolated system: it does not interact with its

surroundings in any way. Mass and energy remains
constant within the system, and no energy or mass
transfer takes place across the boundary 10
Example of a “closed system”

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Example of an “open system”

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Ex. of an “isolated system”

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 2. Properties of substance
 At a specific condition, the state of a substance can
be determined = 2 independent properties

 PROPERTIES in thermodynamics:
- Temperature T
3 basic measurable
- Pressure p
properties
- Specific volume v
3 calculated properties
- Internal energy u
- Enthalpy h
- Entropy s
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Example of state property

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 Temperature T

 a measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or

substance with reference to some standard value
- Mercury, alcohol thermometer: basing on
 Temperature the thermal expansion of solids or liquids
measured by using with temperature
Thermometer - Resistance Thermometer: basing on the
resistance change of material with
temperature
- Thermocouple: basing on the voltage
 Units: change with temperature

- Degree Celsius (oC):

o
C 
5
9
 o
F  32 
- Degree Fahrenheit (oF): F  1.8 C  32
o o

- Kelvin (K):
o
K  o
C  273
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Comparison of Temperature
Scales

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Comparison of Temperature
Scales

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 Absolute Zero and the
Kelvin Scale

t (oC)
The pressure-temperature relation leads to the design of a
constant-volume gas thermometer.
Extrapolation of measurements made using different gases
leads to the concept of absolute zero, when the pressure
(or volume) is zero.

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 Pressure p
 is an expression of force exerted on a surface per unit
area
- Pressure gauge: to measure the pressure difference
between the absolute pressure of a substance and the
 Measuring atmospheric pressure
- Barometer: to measure the atmospheric pressure pkt
instrument:
- Vacumeter: to measure the vacuum pressure pck
pck  p kt  p

1 Pa (Pascal) = 1 N/m2
 Units: 1 bar = 105 Pa = 750 mmHg
1 at = 9.81 x 104 Pa = 0.981 bar = 10 mH2O = 735.6 mmHg
1 mmHg = 133.3 N/m2
1 mmH2O = 9.81 N/m2

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Example of Pressure (1)

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Example of Pressure (2)

F1 A
p1  p 2   1
F2 A2

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Example of Pressure (3)

Gravitational acceleration
g = 9.81 m/s2

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Example of Pressure (3)

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Example of a pressure gauge

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 Working principle of a
Barometer

Ex: with 1mm H2O

1 mmH 2 O  gh  1000 x 9.81 x 0.001  9.81 N / m 2  9.81 Pa

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Working principle of a Manometer

  850 kg / m 3 ; h  55 cm; Patm  96 kPa

Ex:
850 x 9.81 x 0.55
PGas  Patm  gh  96   100.6 kPa
103

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 Working principle of a
Manometer
Ex: Use a Manometer to measure the pressure
difference between 2 sections of the flow

P1  1 g a  h   P2  1 ga   2 gh

P1  P2   2  1 gh

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 Specific volume v

 number of cubic meters occupied by one kilogram of a

particular substance V
v (m3/kg)
G
1
or: v

where: + G: mass of the substance (kg)
+ V: volume of the substance (m3)
+ : density of the substance (kg/m3)
 Attention: specific volume v is a state property, volume V is NOT a
state property

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Example of specific volume

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 Internal Energy u

 is a property that can not measured directly  determined by

calculation
 The internal energy of a system consists of:
- Kinetic energy Ud due to the motion of the system’s particles
(translations, rotations, vibrations)
- Potential energy Ut due to the intermolecular forces
U  Ud Ut (kJ)
 For 1kg of a substance:
u  u d  ut (kJ/kg)
where: ud is the internal kinetic energy; ut is the internal potential
energy of 1 kg of the substance

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 Internal Energy u
u  u d  ut

 According to the Thermodynamic Theory:

- Internal kinetic energy ud only dependent on temperature
- Internal potential energy ut dependent on the average
distance between molecules, i.e. dependent on the specific
volume u  f (T , v)

 For ideal gas: intermolecular forces are zero so the internal energy
of ideal gases is only dependent on temperature

 Units: kJ, kcal, kWh (SI system) or BTU (British Thermal Unit)
 Note: in thermodynamic problems, we do not have to determine the
absolute value of internal energy; what we need is to determine the
change in internal energy of the substance or the system 32
 More about U
 is the internal energy due to the motion and
intermolecular interaction in the substance.
Ex: - In the case of a solid

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 More about U

 Ex: In the case of a gas

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 Enthalpy h

 is a property that can not measured directly  determined by

calculation
 Enthalpy of 1 kg of a substance is calculated by:

h = u + pv (kJ/kg)

 For ideal gas, because u và pv are only dependent on

temperature so i is also dependent only on temperature
 Note: in thermodynamic problems, we do not have to determine the
absolute value of enthalpy; what we need is to determine the change in
enthalpy of the substance or the system

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 Entropy s
 The change in entropy ds of 1 kg of a substance in a
reversible process is calculated by:
q Q
ds  or dS  (dS = G ds)
T T

in which: q is the amount of heat transferred in an infinitesimal reversible

process
- T is the absolute temperature (K)
 Units: kJ/kg.K, kcal/kg.K
 Note: -  ds
Q
 0 for any cycle

-   T  0 if the cycle is reversible

Q
-   T  0 if the cycle is irreversible

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 3. State, process and cycle
• Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all
the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the entire
system, which gives us a set of properties that completely
describes the condition, or the state, of the system.
• At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
• At a specific condition, the state of a substance can be
determined = 2 independent properties

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 3. State, process and cycle

• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to

another is called a process, and the series of states through which
a system passes during a process is called the path of the process

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 3. State, process and cycle

• The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a

particular property remains constant.
• An isothermal process, for example, is a process during which
the temperature T remains constant
• An isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P
remains constant;
• An isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which the
specific volume v remains constant.

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 3. State, process and cycle

A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial

state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final
states are identical.

p
3 q1 2

4 1
q2
v

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 4. HEAT & WORK
 Heat: The transfer of energy from one body to another as a result of
a difference in temperature or a change in phase.
- Rule: + If the object receives heat: Q (+)
+ If the object releases heat: Q (-)
 Work: The transfer of energy in the application of a force to move a
body in a certain direction
- Rule: + If the object produces work: W (+)
+ If the object receives work: W (-)

UNIT: - SI system: 1 J (joule) = 1N.m = 107 erg ; 1 cal (calo) = 4.18 J

- British system: 1 Btu = 1055 J = 252 cal ; 1 Wh = 3.413 Btu
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 4. HEAT & WORK

Mechanical
Equivalent
of Heat

Joule demonstrated that water

can be heated by doing
(mechanical) work, and showed
that for every 4186 J of work
done, the temperature of water
rose by 1C0 per kg.
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4. HEAT & WORK

Hot source
Q1
Heat Engine W
Q2
Cold source

Q1 > 0: Heat received

Q2 < 0: Heat released
W >0: Work produced

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4. HEAT & WORK
Hot source

Q1
Heat pump, W
Refrigerator
Q2
Cold source

Q1 < 0: Heat released

Q2 > 0: Heat released
W < 0: Work received
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 5. Ideal gas and real gas

 IDEAL GAS is a hypothetical gas whose molecules occupy

negligible space and have no interactions

 Real gas can be considered as ideal gas at low pressures and

high temperatures

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 Equation of Ideal Gas

pv  RT or: pV  GRT

in which: - p (N/m2): absolute pressure of the gas

- v (m3/kg): specific volume of the gas
- V (m3): volume of the gas
- T (K): absolute temperature of the gas
- G (kg): mass of the gas
- R (J/kg.độ) gas constant

R 8314  is the molecular weight of 1 kmol (Ex:

R 
   of O2 is 32 kg, of N2 is 28 kg, etc)

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Equation of Ideal Gas

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Equations of Gas Mixtures

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Equations of Gas Mixtures

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Equations of Gas Mixtures

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Equations of Gas Mixtures

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Equations of Gas Mixtures

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 Equation of Ideal Gas

Exercise 1:

A 1 m3 tank is filled with a gas at room temperature 20°C

and pressure 100 kPa. How much mass is there if the
gas is:
a) Air
b) Propane

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 Equation of Ideal Gas

Exercise 2:
A cylindrical gas tank 1 m long, inside diameter of 20cm,
is evacuated and then filled with carbon dioxide gas at
25oC. To what pressure should it be charged if there
should be 1.2 kg of carbon dioxide?

MPa

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 Terminology
Thermodynamics: Nhiệt động lực học
Thermodynamic system: Hệ nhiệt động
Closed system: Hệ kín
Open system: Hệ hở
Thermal isolated system: Hệ đoạn nhiệt
Isolated system: Hệ cô lập
Boundary: Ranh giới
Surrounding: Môi trường xung quanh
Substance: Môi chất, chất công tác
Hot source: Nguồn nóng
Cold sink: Nguồn lạnh
Property: Tính chất nhiệt động
State: Trạng thái (nhiệt động)
Absolute pressure: Áp suất tuyệt đối
Specific volume: Thể tích riêng 5
 Terminology
Specific heat: Nhiệt dung riêng
Internal energy: Nội năng
Internal combustion engine: Động cơ đốt trong
Refrigeration: Máy lạnh
Process: Quá trình (nhiệt động)
Process path: Đường đi của quá trình
Cycle: Chu trình
Heat: Nhiệt (lượng)
Work: Công
Ideal gas: Khí lý tưởng
Molecules occupy negligible space: Phân tử chiếm thể tích kg đáng kể
Real gas: Khí thực
Low pressures & high temperatures: Áp suất thấp và nhiệt độ cao
Gas mixture: Hỗn hợp gas
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 Terminology
Thermometer: Nhiệt kế
Resistance thermometer : Nhiệt kế điện trở
Thermocouple: Cặp nhiệt điện
Barometer: Áp kế
Vacumeter: Chân không kế
Pressure gauge: Đồng hồ đo áp suất
Kinetic energy: Động năng
Potential energy: Thế năng
Isothermal process : Quá trình đẳng nhiệt
Isobaric process : Quá trình đẳng áp
Isochoric (isometric) process : Quá trình đẳng tích
Reversible : Thuận nghịch
Irreversible : Không thuận nghịch
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