ETHICS

FINAL TOPICS
_Ma’am Sol Banganay
  Kantian ethics i a deontological
model of morality
s that focuses
on the intentionor duty of the
moral agent. Derived from the
Kant's Ethics or Greek word 'deontos , meaning
Ethical Theory duty or obligation, this
' theory
emphasizes performing actions
based on moral duty rather than
outcomes. It i often referred to
as deontologism
s .
 Morality is determined intentio
by or
motive,not consequences.
n
Kant's Ethics
or Ethical
Theory The essence of morality is fulfilling one’s
dutyto do what isgood.
Key
Principles
Actions are judged as right or wrong
based on themotive to do good,
regardless of their results
Timberza
( , p.
44).
 An act ismoralonly if it is
performed out of sense
a
of duty,not personal
Kant's Ethics
inclination or pleasure.
or Ethical
TheoryKey
Principles Thewil to do good as a
moral
l obligation is central
to Kant’s ethics.
 Dutyis doing what one
isobligedto do, also
Kant's Ethics
known asobligation.
or Ethical
TheoryKey
Principles Good will is presumed in
everyone, and fulfilling
this will is our
duty.
 Golden Rule and Universalizability

The Golden Rule:"Do unto others what you

want others to do unto you."

Kant's Ethics To determine dutyin a given situation, one must

or Ethical test theuniversalizability
of the act.

Theory Act according to the maximyou would wish all

rational people to follow, as if it were universal
a
lawor code of behavior.
An act passes this test if it aligns with the
categorical imperative, meaning it is done
without anymental reservation.
The good involves the principle of universalizability. Kant
argues that there are four formulation of this principle

Formula of the Law of Nature: Act as if the Formula of the End in Itself:
Treat humanity,
maxim of your action could become a whether in yourself or others, always as an
universal law.It emphasizes modeling end, never as a means. This reflects respect
behavior that all rational agents could for human dignityand avoids exploiting
follow, based on good willand others for selfish purposes (Prof.
Bitanga;
acceptabilityto others. Archimedes, p. 70).

Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: Act as if

you are establishing yourself as moral
a
Formula of Autonomy: Act as if yourwill
standard. Never exploit others and always
creates universal law. Actions should be
recognize theirsanctity and dignity.Acts
self-evidently good, requiring no additional
motivated by external recognition rather
justification or proof of their goodness.
than internal moral duty do not fulfill this
formula (Prof.Bitanga, 2018).
 Distinction between a Perfect Duty and an
Imperfect Duty

 PerfectDuty : A duty that we are obliged to do

all the time. Examples include no killing,no
harming others physically,
andnolie .
 Imperfect Duty: Duties we shoulds perform as
oftenas possiblebut are not expected to do
always. Examplesinclude being charitable and
loving(Timbreza , 2007).
Criticisms of Kantian Ethics

Treatment of Rational
Categorical Beings:Kant’s
Conflicting Duties:
Imperatives and requirement to treat
Kant’s principles lack a
Subjectivity: others asrational
clear way to resolve
Categorical beingsposes problems
conflicting duties.For
imperatives may fail to in cases such as
example, while it is
establish duties in bioethics. For instance,
one’s duty to tell the
cases involving determining whether a
truthrevealing a
maximsthat cannot seriously deformed
patient’s
, true health
be universally applied fetusqualifies as a
condition might
due to subjective rational being raises
shorten their life.
reasons. ethical dilemmas
(Timbreza, 2007).
 UTILITARIANIS
M
 Ethicians classify ethical theories as either teleological or
deontological ethics.
 Teleological – Focuses on outcomes or purposes
(Greek:telos="end" or "purpose"
Ethics ).
 Deontological – Focuses on duties and intentions.
Ethics
 As a consequentialist model,
utilitarianism determines moral
valuation according to the
consequence of the act.

An act is rightif it produces

UTILITARIANISM happiness or benefitfor those
affected.

An act is wrongif it leads to

sadnessor harm.
 Key Features of Utilitarianism

Emphasizesoutcomesrather thanintentions
or motives
.

Focuses on happiness
as the ultimate measure of morality.

The morality of an action is judged solely by its resulting impact—

good or bad—on people’s well-being.

Contrasts with Kantian Ethics, which prioritizes intentions over

consequences.
  Thismoral theory was
first introduced by
UTILITARIANISM: Jeremy Bentham and
Origin and Key James Mill in the18th
Thinkers century. Later, it was
popularized by John
StuartMill (1806– 1873.
UTILITARIANISM Core Principles

Actions are good if Focuses on

they promote consequences
A. Principle of Utility
happiness and bad rather than
(John Stuart Mill
)
if they produce intentions or
unhappiness. motives .

An action is rightif it
Emphasizes
B. Greatest promotes the
maximizing
Happiness Principle greatest happiness
pleasureand
(Bentham and Mill) for the greatest
minimizingpain.
numberof people.
  C. Calculus of Pain and Pleasure (Bentham)
• Evaluates actions based on:
• Intensity – How strong is the pleasure or pain?
• Duration – How long does it last?
• Certainty – How likely is it to happen?
• Propinquity – How soon will it occur?
• Fecundity – Will it lead to more pleasure?
• Purity – Is it free from pain?
• Extent – How many people are affected?
 Criticisms of Utilitarian
Ethics
 Sacrifice of the Few for the Many
• Prioritizes majority happiness, possibly
ignoring and
fairnesfor minorities. justice
 s
Difficulty in Predicting Consequences
• Impractical to
foresee all outcomesof actions before making
decisions.
 Neglect of Intentions and Motives
• Focuses solely on results, allowing morally questionable
motives to beoverlooked if the outcome is positive.
Background of Rawls’s Theory of Justice or Fairness

Rawls’s theoryof justiceas fairness The Enlightenment period focused

i rooted in historicaldevelopments, on reason and scientific progress,
beginning
s with the French promoting independence,
Revolution , which introduced the innovation, and equality of value
ideals of liberty, equality, and among disciplines. It encouraged
fraternity
. These principles shaped critical thinking and questioned
modern thought, emphasizing established authority, including
autonomy, rationality, and religion, leading to specialization
independence as essential and a belief in human capability
elements of human freedom. without divine intervention.
Libertwas understood as autonomy —the
freedom
y to act and make choices
independently.Equality emphasizedequal
value and dignity, advocating respect and
tolerance for diverse perspectives.
Fraternit
emerged from equality, highlighting
ymutual
respect and recognitioneven among those
with differences.

TheRomantic period shifted focus from grand

narratives to
individual contributions
,
embracingunity in and valuing
ordinary people’s roles in achieving collective
diversity
progress. It promoted
tolerance, emphasizing
the importance of small but meaningful
contributions rather than grand
achievements.
 Rawls’s theory draws from these historical
contexts, blending Enlightenmentrationalityand
Romantic inclusivity . It underscores fairness,
equality,and respectas foundational principles,
recognizing the dignity of every individual and
the value of their contributionsto society.
  John Rawls’s theory of justice as fairness
emphasizes principles such as tolerance,
equality,independence,reason, and respect
while acknowledging that justice remains
imperfectin reality. Rawls highlightsthe obvious
John Rawls’s inequalities in society, particularly the wide gap
betweenthe richand the poor, which raisesthe
Justice as need for fairnessin addressing these disparities.
Fairness  Justice, at its core, i defined as givingwhat i
due, and fairnesssinvolves recognizing and s
addressing unequal distributions of resources .
Rawls advocates for fair redistribution to uplift
the less fortunate and create a more just
society .
 Justice as Fairness in a Liberal Society

 In a liberal society, justice as fairness operates under

principles of democracy, tolerance, openness, and
equality. Such a society is led by a government that
listens to the needs of its citizens and strives to
provide not only what is best but what is morally best, as
emphasized by John Rawls.
 Democratic and Responsive:
The government
promotes fairness by organizing education,
business, and lawmaking to bring out the best
for society.

Characteristics
of a Liberal Moral Focus:Justice aims to treat all citizens as
equal and free, ensuring fairness in their
Society interactions.

Egalitarian Approach:
Rawls rejects
utilitarianis
in favor of
equality and , focusing
m on
transforming society’s
fairness basic to support
justice and meet the needs of all, especially the
structure
disadvantaged.
 Structural Justice and Social Cooperation

 Rawls highlights that justice must bloom within societal

structures like families, schools, and institutions. These
structures profoundly affect people's lives, shaping
relationships, rights, and opportunities. Ensuring
fairness requires:
Negative Thesis: Inequality due to birth (rich or poor) is
undeserved and should not dictate access to services.
 Positive Thesis: Equality is based on reciprocity, and
resources should be distributed fairly, benefiting the
least advantaged (Difference Principle).
Principles of Justice as Fairness

1. Equal Opportunities for All: The government must initiate

changes to address inequalities, filling social and economic
gaps.
2. Fair Distribution of Resources:
 ❑ Open Access: Positions and opportunities should be open
to everyone under fair conditions.
❑ Greatest Benefit to the Least Advantaged: Policies
should prioritize the needs of the poor, ensuring fairness
in resource distribution and economic policies.
 Rawls emphasizes social
cooperation to achieve a decent
and just life. Cooperation should
be fair and reciprocal, addressing
historical inequalities and
prioritizing reforms to uplift the
 disadvantaged, ensuring fairness as a guiding
principle for a just society.
Timbreza’s Explanation of Rawls’s Twofold
Principles of Justice
 Timbreza (2007) elaborates on Rawls’s Theory of Justice as Fairness by
presenting two key principles:
1. Equal Access to Basic Human Rights and Liberties
Rawls’s first principle guarantees that every individual has equal liberty of
citizenship, ensuring fundamental rights such as: • Right to vote and
eligibility for public office
• Freedom of speech and peaceful assembly
• Liberty of conscience and freedom of thought
 • Right to property ownership
• Protection from arbitrary arrest and seizure
➢ This principle affirms the inherent equality of all citizens in terms of legal
rights and freedoms, establishing a foundation for democratic fairness.
2. Fair Equality of Opportunity and Distribution of
SocioEconomic Inequalities
Rawls’s second principle recognizes that inequalities exist,
but emphasizes that these disparities are acceptable only
if they benefit everyone, particularly the least
advantaged in society. This principle promotes:
• Fair opportunities for all individuals to access social and
economic benefits.
• Legitimacy of inequalities when they serve the
common good and uplift those in need.
 What is Globalization?

The process of integration among people, companies,

Globalization and governments globally.
and Its
“The spread of products, technology, information, and
Repercussion
Moral jobs across national borders and cultures.” (Investopedia)
s
Promotes global interdependence through free trade.

Driven by international trade, investment, and

information technology.
 Globalization in the
Philippines
• Early trade with foreign countries
Globalization and (e.g., jars of foreign origin in
Moral
Its archaeological findings).
Repercussions • Role in theAcapulco trade and
Galleon trade during Spanish
colonization.
• Globalized practice is not new. It
was called in early years of
merchantism.
 Globalization and
Its Mora
l Repercuss
ions
Cultural and Physical Effects of Globalization
 Positive Effects
 Development (factories and tourism).
 Increased employment opportunities.
 Negative Effects
 Cultural Displacement
(Example: Boracay and Baguio natives
displaced.)
 Environmental Hazards
(Boracay rehabilitation due to
unplanned tourism.)
 Globalization and Its Moral Repercussions

Pros of Globalization
 Free Trade
: Reduced barriers like tariffs and taxes.
 Competition: Lowers prices and creates jobs.
 Foreign : Promotes human rights
 Investment
Cultural Exchange: Learning and intermingling.
 Technological Sharing : Drives progress.
 Improved communication : Internet and faster travel.
 Labor : Skills can move globally.
 Mobility
Ecological Cooperation : Shared responsibility for the environment.
 Globalization and Its Moral Repercussions

Cons of Globalization
Economic Inequality: Rich get richer; poor get poorer
Labor Exploitation:Cheap labor and child labor.
Multinationals avoid taxes.
Corporate Power: Threats of large corporations ruling
the world.
Health Risks: Spread of diseases like HIV/AIDS.
Widening Social Gaps: Greater disparity between the
rich and poor.
Relation Between Ethics and Religion

Religion: Origin and Role

 Charismatic
Experience:
 A mysterious, transformative event shared among
individuals.
 Formation of Religion
 Leads to gatherings (Eklesia) and institutionalized
groups (e.g., church).
 Expansion
Sects form, grow, and become part of society.
Relation Between Ethics and Religion

Impact of Religion on Human Experience

 Transformation
Changes attitudes toward self, others, and life’s
meaning.
 Perspective on Pain and Suffering
 Provides purpose and meaning to sacrifices
 Motivation for Morality
 Inspires individuals to strive for goodness and moral
behavior
 Relation Between Ethics and
Religion

Ethics Within
Religion  Durkheim's
View
Religion participates in society by teaching spirituality and
morality.
 Relationship
 Religion Precedes Ethics: Religious teachings guide ethical
behavior.
• Religion Succeeds Ethics:
• Ethical habits lead to deeper religiosity.
Relation Between Ethics and Religion

Shared Goals of Religion and Ethics

Values and Axiology: Both focus on values related
to action
Spirituality
and Lifestyle
Example: Following Christ’s teachings and carrying
one’s cross
Guidance: Religious doctrines help in making ethical
decisions

Ethics and the Environment

 Humans as Stewards of the Earth
When God created the Earth, in it were bountiful gifts
such as water, plants, trees, oil, air, minerals, and many
more.
During the early times, as told by our great ancestors,
resources were limitless or unlimited.
It was only during these present generations that people
all over the globe. experience shortages of water, oil and
other indispensable materials we need to survive, thus,
the urgency to value and safeguard nature’s gifts.

Ethics and the Environment

 Humans as Stewards of the Earth
When God created the Earth, in it were bountiful gifts such as
water, plants, trees, oil, air, minerals, and many more.
During the early times, as told by our great ancestors,
resources were limitless or unlimited.
It was only during these present generations that people all
over the globe. experience shortages of water, oil and other
indispensable materials we need to survive, thus, the
urgency to value and safeguard nature’s gifts.
Innovative practices are needed to prevent further destruction.
Ethics and the Environment
 The Seven (7) R’s of Environmental Management
1. Refuse: Avoid non-essential products.
2. Reduce: Minimize waste (e.g., use electronic files).
3. Reuse: Repurpose materials (e.g., furniture, packaging).
4. Recycle: Transform waste into reusable items.
5. Recover: Extract resources from waste.
6. Regift: Donate usable items (books, clothes, equipment).
7. Rethink: Implement waste management practices (e.g.,
composting, segregation).
 Ethics and the Environment
 How Industrialization and Globalization Harm the
Environment and Morality?
Industrialization and advancement of technology may be
advantageous, but let us not forget that everything we do to
nature has an effect that can either damage or improve, yet
there is a corresponding price that we need to pay.
In a way, nature will bring back to us what we truly deserve;
that is, if we take good care of it, nature will give us gifts, but if
we abuse and bring damage to it, nature has its own way of
retaliating what we have done.