IB HL Physics Assessment Statement Checklist

Topic A: Space, time and motion

Topic B: The particulate nature of matter

Topic C: Wave behaviour

Topic D: Fields

Topic E: Nuclear and quantum physics

HL content only (in blue)

Topic A: Space, time and motion

A1: Kinematics

the motion of bodies through space and time can be described and analysed in terms of position, velocity,
and acceleration
velocity is the rate of change of position, and acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
the change in position is the displacement
the difference between distance and displacement
the difference between instantaneous and average values of velocity, speed and acceleration, and how to
determine them
the equations of motion for solving problems with uniformly accelerated motion as given by
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠 = 2
𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡
2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠
motion with uniform and non-uniform acceleration
the behaviour of projectiles in the absence of fluid resistance, and the application of the equations of
motion resolved into vertical and horizontal components
the qualitative effect of fluid resistance on projectiles, including time of flight, trajectory, velocity,
acceleration, range and terminal speed.

A2: Forces and momentum

Newton’s three laws of motion

forces as interactions between bodies
that forces acting on a body can be represented in a free-body diagram
that free-body diagrams can be analysed to find the resultant force on a system
the nature and use of the following contact forces
normal force FN is the component of the contact force acting perpendicular to the surface that
counteracts the body
surface frictional force Ff acting in a direction parallel to the plane of contact between a body and
a surface, on a stationary body as given by Ff ≤ μsFN or a body in motion as given by Ff = μdFN
where μs and μd are the coefficients of static and dynamic friction respectively
tension
elastic restoring force FH following Hooke’s law as given by FH = –kx where k is the spring
constant
viscous drag force Fd acting on a small sphere opposing its motion through a fluid as given by Fd
= 6πηrv where η is the fluid viscosity, r is the radius of the sphere and v is the velocity of the
sphere through the fluid
buoyancy Fb acting on a body due to the displacement of the fluid as given by Fb = ρVg where V
is the volume of fluid displaced
the nature and use of the following field forces
gravitational force Fg is the weight of the body and calculated is given by Fg = mg

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 electric force Fe
magnetic force Fm
that linear momentum as given by p = mv remains constant unless the system is acted upon by a
resultant external force
that a resultant external force applied to a system constitutes an impulse J as given by J = FΔt where F is
the average resultant force and Δt is the time of contact
that the applied external impulse equals the change in momentum of the system
∆𝑝
that Newton’s second law in the form F = ma assumes mass is constant whereas 𝐹 = ∆𝑡
allows for
situations where mass is changing
the elastic and inelastic collisions of two bodies
explosions
energy considerations in elastic collisions, inelastic collisions, and explosions
that bodies moving along a circular trajectory at a constant speed experience an acceleration that is
directed radially towards the centre of the circle—known as a centripetal acceleration as given by
2 2
𝑣 2 4π 𝑟
𝑎 = 𝑟
=ω 𝑟 = 2
𝑇

that circular motion is caused by a centripetal force acting perpendicular to the velocity
that a centripetal force causes the body to change direction even if its magnitude of velocity may remain
constant
that the motion along a circular trajectory can be described in terms of the angular velocity ω which is
2π𝑟
related to the linear speed v by the equation as given by 𝑣 = 𝑇
= ω𝑟

A3: Work, energy and power

the principle of the conservation of energy

that work done by a force is equivalent to a transfer of energy
that energy transfers can be represented on a Sankey diagram
that work W done on a body by a constant force depends on the component of the force along the line of
displacement as given by W = Fs cos θ
that work done by the resultant force on a system is equal to the change in the energy of the system
that mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy
that in the absence of frictional, resistive forces, the total mechanical energy of a system is conserved
that if mechanical energy is conserved, work is the amount of energy transformed between different forms
of mechanical energy in a system, such as:
2
1 2 𝑝
the kinetic energy of translational motion as given by 𝐸𝑘 = 2
𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑚

the gravitational potential energy, when close to the surface of the Earth as given by ΔEp =
mgΔh
the elastic potential energy as given by EH = 1/2k(Δx)2
that power developed P is the rate of work done, or the rate of energy transfer, as given by P = ΔW/Δt =
Fv
efficiency η in terms of energy transfer or power as given by η = Eoutput/Einput= Poutput/Pinput
energy density of the fuel sources.

A4: Rigid body mechanics

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 the torque τ of a force about an axis as given by τ = Fr sin θ

that bodies in rotational equilibrium have a resultant torque of zero

that an unbalanced torque applied to an extended, rigid body will cause angular acceleration

that the rotation of a body can be described in terms of angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration

that equations of motion for uniform angular acceleration can be used to predict the body’s angular position θ, angular displacement Δθ,
angular speed ω and angular acceleration α, as given by
Δθ = (ωf + ωi)t/2
ωf = ωi + αt
Δθ = ωit +1/2αt2
ωf2 = ωi2 + 2αΔθ
that the moment of inertia I depends on the distribution of mass of an extended body about an axis of rotation

the moment of inertia for a system of point masses as given by I = Σmr2

Newton’s second law for rotation as given by τ = Iα where τ is the average torque

that an extended body rotating with an angular speed has an angular momentum L as given by L = Iω

that angular momentum remains constant unless the body is acted upon by a resultant torque

that the action of a resultant torque constitutes an angular impulse ΔL as given by ΔL = τΔt = Δ(Iω)

the kinetic energy of rotational motion as given by Ek = 1/2Iω2 = L2/2I

A5: Galilean and special relativity

reference frames

that Newton's laws of motion are the same in all inertial reference frames and this is known as Galilean relativity

that in Galilean relativity the position x′ and time t′ of an event are given by x′ = x–vt and t′ = t

that Galilean transformation equations lead to the velocity addition equation as given by u′ = u–v

the two postulates of special relativity

that the postulates of special relativity lead to the Lorentz transformation equations for the coordinates of an event in two inertial
reference frames as given by
x′ = γ(x–vt)
𝑣𝑥
𝑡' = γ(𝑡 − 2 )
𝑐
1
where γ = 2
𝑣
1− 2
𝑐

that Lorentz transformation equations lead to the relativistic velocity addition equation as given by
𝑢−𝑣
𝑢' = 𝑢𝑣
1− 2
𝑐

that the space–time interval Δs between two events is an invariant quantity as given by
(Δs)2 = (cΔt)2–(Δx)2
proper time interval and proper length

time dilation as given by Δt = γΔt0

length contraction as given by L = L0/γ

the relativity of simultaneity

space–time diagrams

that the angle between the world line of a moving particle and the time axis on a space–time diagram is related to the particle’s speed as
given by tan θ = v/c
that muon decay experiments provide experimental evidence for time dilation and length contraction.

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Topic B: The particulate nature of matter

B1: Thermal energy transfer

molecular theory in solids, liquids and gases

density ρ as given by ρ = m/V
that Kelvin and Celsius scales are used to express temperature
that the change in temperature of a system is the same when expressed with the Kelvin or Celsius scales
3
that Kelvin temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles as given by 𝐸𝑘 = 2
𝑘𝐵𝑇

that the internal energy of a system is the total intermolecular potential energy arising from the forces
between the molecules plus the total random kinetic energy of the molecules arising from their random
motion
that temperature difference determines the direction of the resultant thermal energy transfer between
bodies
that a phase change represents a change in particle behaviour arising from a change in energy at
constant temperature
quantitative analysis of thermal energy transfers Q with the use of specific heat capacity c and specific
latent heat of fusion and vaporization of substances L as given by Q = mcΔT and Q = mL
that conduction, convection and thermal radiation are the primary mechanisms for thermal energy transfer
conduction in terms of the difference in the kinetic energy of particles
quantitative analysis of rate of thermal energy transfer by conduction in terms of the type of material and
cross-sectional area of the material and the temperature gradient as given by ΔQ/Δt = kAΔT/Δx
qualitative description of thermal energy transferred by convection due to fluid density differences
quantitative analysis of energy transferred by radiation as a result of the emission of electromagnetic
waves from the surface of a body, which in the case of a black body can be modelled by the
Stefan-Boltzmann law as given by L = σAT4 where L is the luminosity, A is the surface area and T is the
absolute temperature of the body
the concept of apparent brightness b
luminosity L of a body as given by b = L/4πd2
the emission spectrum of a black body and the determination of the temperature of the body using Wien’s
displacement law as given by λmaxT = 2.9 x 10−3mK where λmax is the peak wavelength emitted.

B2: Greenhouse effect

the conservation of energy

emissivity as the ratio of the power radiated per unit area by a surface compared to that of an ideal black
surface at the same temperature as given by emissivity = power radiated per unit area/σT4
albedo as a measure of the average energy reflected off a macroscopic system as given by albedo = total
scattered power/total incident power
that Earth’s albedo varies daily and is dependent on cloud formations and latitude
the solar constant S
that the incoming radiative power is dependent on the projected surface of a planet along the direction of
the path of the rays, resulting in a mean value of the incoming intensity being S/4
that methane CH4, water vapour H2O, carbon dioxide CO2, and nitrous oxide N2O, are the main
greenhouse gases and each of these has origins that are both natural and created by human activity

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 the absorption of infrared radiation by the main greenhouse gases in terms of the molecular energy
levels and the subsequent emission of radiation in all directions
that the greenhouse effect can be explained in terms of both a resonance model and molecular energy
levels
that the augmentation of the greenhouse effect due to human activities is known as the enhanced
greenhouse effect.

B3: Gas laws

pressure as given by P = F/A where F is the force exerted perpendicular to the surface
the amount of substance n as given by n = N/NA where N is the number of molecules and NA is the
Avogadro constant
that ideal gases are described in terms of the kinetic theory and constitute a modelled system used to
approximate the behaviour of real gases
that the ideal gas law equation can be derived from the empirical gas laws for constant pressure, constant
volume and constant temperature as given by PV/T = constant
the equations governing the behaviour of ideal gases as given by PV = NkBT and PV = nRT
that the change in momentum of particles due to collisions with a given surface gives rise to pressure in
gases and, from that analysis, pressure is related to the average translational speed of molecules as
given by P = 1/3ρv2
the relationship between the internal energy U of an ideal monatomic gas and the number of molecules or
amount of substance as given by U = 3/2NkBT or U = 3/2RnT
the temperature, pressure and density conditions under which an ideal gas is a good approximation of a
real gas.

B4: Thermodynamics

that the first law of thermodynamics as given by Q = ΔU + W results from the application of conservation
of energy to a closed system and relates the internal energy of a system to the transfer of energy as heat
and as work
that the work done by or on a closed system as given by W = PΔV when its boundaries are changed can
be described in terms of pressure and changes of volume of the system
3 3
that the change in internal energy as given by ∆𝑈 = 2
𝑁𝑘𝐵∆𝑇 = 2
𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 of a system is related to the
change of its temperature
that entropy S is a thermodynamic quantity that relates to the degree of disorder of the particles in a
system
that entropy can be determined in terms of macroscopic quantities such as thermal energy and
temperature as given by ΔS = ΔQ/T and also in terms of the properties of individual particles of the
system as given by S = kB ln Ω where kB is the Boltzmann constant and Ω is the number of possible
microstates of the system
that the second law of thermodynamics refers to the change in entropy of an isolated system and sets
constraints on possible physical processes and on the overall evolution of the system
that processes in real isolated systems are almost always irreversible and consequently the entropy of a
real isolated system always increases
that the entropy of a non-isolated system can decrease locally, but this is compensated by an equal or
greater increase of the entropy of the surroundings
that isovolumetric, isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic processes are obtained by keeping one variable

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 fixed
that adiabatic processes in monatomic ideal gases can be modelled by the equation as given by
5

𝑃𝑉 3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
that cyclic gas processes are used to run heat engines
that a heat engine can respond to different cycles and is characterized by its efficiency as given by η =
useful work/input energy
that the Carnot cycle sets a limit for the efficiency of a heat engine at the temperatures of its heat
reservoirs as given by ηCarnot = 1–Tc/Th

B5: Current and circuits

that cells provide a source of emf

chemical cells and solar cells as the energy source in circuits
that circuit diagrams represent the arrangement of components in a circuit
direct current (dc) I as a flow of charge carriers as given by I = Δq/Δt
that the electric potential difference V is the work done per unit charge on moving a positive charge
between two points along the path of the current as given by V = W/q
the properties of electrical conductors and insulators in terms of mobility of charge carriers
electric resistance and its origin
electrical resistance R as given by R = V/I
resistivity as given by ρ = RA/L
Ohm’s law
the ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour of electrical conductors, including the heating effect of resistors
electrical power P dissipated by a resistor as given by P = IV = I2R = V2R
the combinations of resistors in series and parallel circuits

that electric cells are characterized by their emf ε and internal resistance r as given by ε = I(R + r)
that resistors can have variable resistance.

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Topic C: Wave behaviour

C1: Simple harmonic motion

conditions that lead to simple harmonic motion

the defining equation of simple harmonic motion as given by a = –ω2x
a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion can be described using time period T, frequency ƒ, angular
frequency ω, amplitude, equilibrium position, and displacement
the time period in terms of frequency of oscillation and angular frequency as given by T = 1/ƒ = 2π/ω
𝑚
the time period of a mass–spring system as given by 𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
𝑙
the time period of a simple pendulum as given by 𝑇 = 2π 𝑔

a qualitative approach to energy changes during one cycle of an oscillation.

that a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion can be described using phase angle
that problems can be solved using the equations for simple harmonic motion as given by
x = x0 sin (ωt + ϕ)
v = ωx0 cos (ωt + ϕ)
2 2
𝑣 =± ω 𝑥0 − 𝑥
1 2 2
𝐸𝑇 = 2
𝑚ω 𝑥0
1 2 2
𝐸𝑃 = 2
𝑚ω 𝑥

C2: Wave model

transverse and longitudinal travelling waves

wavelength λ, frequency ƒ, time period T, and wave speed v applied to wave motion as given by v = ƒλ =
λ/T
the nature of sound waves
the nature of electromagnetic waves
the differences between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.

C3: Wave phenomena

that waves travelling in two and three dimensions can be described through the concepts of wavefronts
and rays
wave behaviour at boundaries in terms of reflection, refraction and transmission
wave diffraction around a body and through an aperture
wavefront-ray diagrams showing refraction and diffraction
Snell’s law, critical angle and total internal reflection
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ2 𝑣2
Snell’s law as given by 𝑛2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1
= 𝑣1
where n is the refractive index and θ is the angle between the
normal and the ray
superposition of waves and wave pulses
that double-source interference requires coherent sources
the condition for constructive interference as given by path difference = nλ

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 the condition for destructive interference as given by path difference = (n +1/2)λ
Young’s double-slit interference as given by s = λD/d where s is the separation of fringes, d is the
separation of the slits, and D is the distance from the slits to the screen.
single-slit diffraction including intensity patterns as given by θ = λ/b where b is the slit width
that the single-slit pattern modulates the double slit interference pattern
interference patterns from multiple slits and diffraction gratings as given by nλ = d sin θ.

C4: Standing waves and resonance

the nature and formation of standing waves in terms of superposition of two identical waves travelling in
opposite directions
nodes and antinodes, relative amplitude and phase difference of points along a standing wave
standing waves patterns in strings and pipes
the nature of resonance including natural frequency and amplitude of oscillation based on driving
frequency
the effect of damping on the maximum amplitude and resonant frequency of oscillation
the effects of light, critical and heavy damping on the system.

C5: Doppler effect

the nature of the Doppler effect for sound waves and electromagnetic waves
the representation of the Doppler effect in terms of wavefront diagrams when either the source or the
observer is moving
the relative change in frequency or wavelength observed for a light wave due to the Doppler effect where
the speed of light is much larger than the relative speed between the source and the observer as given by
∆𝑓 ∆λ 𝑣
𝑓
= λ
≈ 𝑐

that shifts in spectral lines provide information about the motion of bodies like stars and galaxies in space.
the observed frequency for sound waves and mechanical waves due to the Doppler effect as given by:
𝑣
moving source 𝑓' = 𝑓( 𝑣±𝑢 ) where us is the velocity of the source
𝑠
𝑣±𝑢𝑜
moving observer 𝑓' = 𝑓( 𝑣
) where uo is the velocity of the observer.

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Topic D: Fields

D1: Gravitational fields

Kepler’s three laws of orbital motion

𝑚1𝑚2
Newton's universal law of gravitation as given by 𝐹 = 𝐺 2 for bodies treated as point masses
𝑟

conditions under which extended bodies can be treated as point masses

that gravitational field strength g at a point is the force per unit mass experienced by a small point
𝐹 𝑀
mass at that point as given by 𝑔 = 𝑚
=𝐺 2
𝑟

gravitational field lines.

that the gravitational potential energy Ep of a system is the work done to assemble the system from
infinite separation of the components of the system
𝑚1𝑚2
the gravitational potential energy for a two-body system as given by 𝐸𝑝 =− 𝐺 𝑟
where r is the
separation between the centre of mass of the two bodies
that the gravitational potential Vg at a point is the work done per unit mass in bringing a mass from infinity
to that point as given by Vg = –GM/r
the gravitational field strength g as the gravitational potential gradient as given by g = –ΔVg/Δr
the work done in moving a mass m in a gravitational field as given by W = mΔVg
equipotential surfaces for gravitational fields
the relationship between equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines
2𝐺𝑀
the escape speed vesc at any point in a gravitational field as given by 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = 𝑟

𝐺𝑀
the orbital speed vorbital of a body orbiting a large mass as given by 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑟

the qualitative effect of a small viscous drag force due to the atmosphere on the height and speed of an
orbiting body.

D2: Electric and magnetic fields

the direction of forces between the two types of electric charge

𝑞1𝑞2
Coulomb’s law as given by 𝐹 = 𝑘 2 for charged bodies treated as point charges where k = 1/4πε0
𝑟

the conservation of electric charge

Millikan’s experiment as evidence for quantization of electric charge
that the electric charge can be transferred between bodies using friction, electrostatic induction and by
contact, including the role of grounding (earthing)
the electric field strength as given by E = F/q
electric field lines
the relationship between field line density and field strength
the uniform electric field strength between parallel plates as given by E = V/d
magnetic field lines.
the electric potential energy Ep in terms of work done to assemble the system from infinite separation
𝑞1𝑞2
the electric potential energy for a system of two charged bodies as given by 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘 𝑟

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 that the electric potential is a scalar quantity with zero defined at infinity
that the electric potential Ve at a point is the work done per unit charge to bring a test charge from infinity
to that point as given by Ve = kQ/r
the electric field strength E as the electric potential gradient as given by E = –ΔVe/Δr
the work done in moving a charge q in an electric field as given by W = qΔVe
equipotential surfaces for electric fields
the relationship between equipotential surfaces and electric field lines.

D3: Motion in electromagnetic fields

the motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field

the motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field
the motion of a charged particle in perpendicularly orientated uniform electric and magnetic fields
the magnitude and direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field as given by F = qvB sin θ
the magnitude and direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field as given by F
= BΙL sin θ
𝐹 𝐼1𝐼2
the force per unit length between parallel wires as given by 𝐿
= µ0 2π𝑟
where r is the separation between
the two wires.

D4: Induction

magnetic flux Φ as given by Φ = BA cos θ

that a time-changing magnetic flux induces an emf ε as given by Faraday’s law of induction ε = − NΔΦ/Δt
that a uniform magnetic field induces an emf in a straight conductor moving perpendicularly to it as given
by ε = BvL
that the direction of induced emf is determined by Lenz’s law and is a consequence of energy
conservation
that a uniform magnetic field induces a sinusoidal varying emf in a coil rotating within it
the effect on induced emf caused by changing the frequency of rotation.

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Topic E: Nuclear and quantum physics

E1: Structure of the atom

the Geiger–Marsden–Rutherford experiment and the discovery of the nucleus

𝐴
nuclear notation 𝑍
𝑋 where A is the nucleon number Z is the proton number and X is the chemical symbol

that emission and absorption spectra provide evidence for discrete atomic energy levels
that photons are emitted and absorbed during atomic transitions
that the frequency of the photon released during an atomic transition depends on the difference in energy
level as given by E = hƒ
that emission and absorption spectra provide information on the chemical composition.
1

the relationship between the radius and the nucleon number for a nucleus as given by 𝑅 = 𝑅0𝐴 3 and
implications for nuclear densities
deviations from Rutherford scattering at high energies
the distance of closest approach in head-on scattering experiments
13.6
the discrete energy levels in the Bohr model for hydrogen as given by 𝐸 =− 2 𝑒𝑉
𝑛

that the existence of quantized energy and orbits arise from the quantization of angular momentum in the
Bohr model for hydrogen as given by mvr = nh/2π.

E2: Quantum physics

the photoelectric effect as evidence of the particle nature of light

that photons of a certain frequency, known as the threshold frequency, are required to release
photoelectrons from the metal
Einstein’s explanation using the work function and the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as
given by Emax = hƒ–Φ where Φ is the work function of the metal
diffraction of particles as evidence of the wave nature of matter
that matter exhibits wave–particle duality
the de Broglie wavelength for particles as given by λ = h/p
Compton scattering of light by electrons as additional evidence of the particle nature of light
that photons scatter off electrons with increased wavelength
ℎ
the shift in photon wavelength after scattering off an electron as given by λf–λi = Δλ = 𝑚𝑒𝑐
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ).

E3: Radioactive decay

isotopes
nuclear binding energy and mass defect
the variation of the binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number
the mass-energy equivalence as given by E = mc2 in nuclear reactions
the existence of the strong nuclear force, a short-range, attractive force between nucleons
the random and spontaneous nature of radioactive decay
the changes in the state of the nucleus following alpha, beta and gamma radioactive decay
the radioactive decay equations involving α, β−, β+, γ

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 the existence of neutrinos ν and antineutrinos 𝑣
the penetration and ionizing ability of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays
the activity, count rate and half-life in radioactive decay
the changes in activity and count rate during radioactive decay using integer values of half-life
the effect of background radiation on count rate.
the evidence for the strong nuclear force
the role of the ratio of neutrons to protons for the stability of nuclides
the approximate constancy of binding energy curve above a nucleon number of 60
that the spectrum of alpha and gamma radiations provides evidence for discrete nuclear energy levels
the continuous spectrum of beta decay as evidence for the neutrino
the decay constant λ and the radioactive decay law as given by N = N0e−λt
that the decay constant approximates the probability of decay in unit time only in the limit of sufficiently
small λt
the activity as the rate of decay as given by A = λN = λN0e−λt
𝑙𝑛2
the relationship between half-life and the decay constant as given by 𝑇 1 = λ
2

E4: Fission

that energy is released in spontaneous and neutron-induced fission

the role of chain reactions in nuclear fission reactions
the role of control rods, moderators, heat exchangers and shielding in a nuclear power plant
the properties of the products of nuclear fission and their management.

E5: Fusion and stars

that the stability of stars relies on an equilibrium between outward radiation pressure and inward
gravitational forces
that fusion is a source of energy in stars
the conditions leading to fusion in stars in terms of density and temperature
the effect of stellar mass on the evolution of a star
the main regions of the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram and how to describe the main properties of
stars in these regions
the use of stellar parallax as a method to determine the distance d to celestial bodies as given by
d(parsec) = 1/p(arc-second)
how to determine stellar radii.

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