Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II

CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management

Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

MODULE: PAVEMENT DESIGN

1. PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODOLOGIES

The goal of structural design is to determine the material composition, thickness and number of the
different layers within a pavement structure required to accommodate a given loading regime. This
includes the surface course as well as any underlying base or subbase layers. For HMA pavements,
structural design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate layer thickness and composition.
Calculations are chiefly concerned with traffic loading stresses; other environmentally related stresses
(such as temperature) are accounted for in mix design. The two principal methods of HMA pavement
structural design in use today, empirical and mechanistic‐empirical.

Many pavement design procedures use an empirical approach. This means that the relationship between
design inputs (e.g., loads, materials, layer configurations and environment) and pavement failure were
arrived at through experience, experimentation or a combination of both. Empirical design methods can
range from extremely simple to quite complex. The simplest approaches specify pavement structural
designs based on what has worked in the past. For example, local governments often specify city streets
to be designed using a given cross section (e.g., 100 mm (4 inches) of HMA over 150 mm (6 inches) of
crushed stone) because they have found that this cross section has produced adequate pavements in the
past. More complex approaches are usually based on empirical equations derived from experimentation.
Some of this experimentation can be quite elaborate. For example, the empirical equations used in the
1993 AASHTO Guide are largely a result of the original AASHO Road Test.

Mechanistic pavement design simply means that a model is used to calculate the reaction of the
pavement to traffic loads. Mechanistic models are used to mathematically model pavement physics.
There are a number of different types of models available today (e.g., dynamic, viscoelastic models) but
this section will present two, the layered elastic model and the finite elements model (FEM), as examples
of the types of models typically used. Both of these models can easily be run on personal computers and
only require data that can be realistically obtained. Mechanistic pavement design procedures are
applicable to rigid pavement designs with nominal 15‐ft panels and full‐depth HMA designs with HMA
surface and binder. The procedures use the actual stresses, strains, and deflections experienced by the
pavement to determine its expected fatigue life.

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

2. AASHTO Empirical Pavement Design

Empirical equations are used to relate observed or measurable phenomena (pavement characteristics)
with outcomes (pavement performance). This common design method for road pavements design is the
AASHTO Guide with a basic design equation for flexible pavements. The basic design equations used for
flexible pavement is

The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation requires a number of inputs related to loads, pavement structure and
subgrade support. These inputs are:

 The predicted loading. The predicted loading is simply the predicted number of 80 kN (18,000
lb.) ESALs that the pavement will experience over its design lifetime.

 Reliability. The reliability of the pavement design‐performance process is the probability that a
pavement section designed using the process will perform satisfactorily over the traffic and
environmental conditions for the design period (AASHTO, 1993[1]). In other words, there must be
some assurance that a pavement will perform as intended given variability in such things as
construction, environment and materials. The ZR and So variables account for reliability.

 Pavement structure. The pavement structure is characterized by the Structural Number

(SN). The Structural Number is an abstract number expressing the structural strength of a
pavement required for given combinations of soil support (MR), total traffic expressed in ESALs,
terminal serviceability and environment. The Structural Number is converted to actual layer
thicknesses (e.g., 150 mm (6 inches) of HMA) using a layer coefficient (a) that represents the
relative strength of the construction materials in that layer. Additionally, all layers below the HMA
layer are assigned a drainage coefficient (m) that represents the relative loss of strength in a layer

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

due to its drainage characteristics and the total time it is exposed to near‐saturation moisture
conditions. Generally, quick‐draining layers that almost never become saturated can have
coefficients as high as 1.4 while slow‐draining layers that are often saturated can have drainage
coefficients as low as 0.40. Keep in mind that a drainage coefficient is basically a way of making
a specific layer thicker. If a fundamental drainage problem is suspected, thicker layers may only
be of marginal benefit – a better solution is to address the actual drainage problem by using very
dense layers (to minimize water infiltration) or designing a drainage system. Because of the peril
associated with its use, often times the drainage coefficient is neglected (i.e., set as m = 1.0).

 Serviceable life. The difference in present serviceability index (PSI) between construction and
end‐of‐life is the serviceability life. The equation compares this to default values of 4.2 for the
immediately‐after‐construction value and 1.5 for end‐of‐life (terminal serviceability). Typical
values used now are:

o Post‐construction: 4.0 – 5.0 depending upon construction quality, smoothness, etc.

o End‐of‐life (called “terminal serviceability”): 1.5 – 3.0 depending upon road use (e.g.,
interstate highway, urban arterial, residential)

 Subgrade support. Subgrade support is characterized by the subgrade’s resilient modulus

(MR). Intuitively, the amount of structural support offered by the subgrade should be a large
factor in determining the required pavement structure.

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

Outputs

The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation can be solved for any one of the variables as long as all the others are
supplied. Typically, the output is either total ESALs or the required Structural Number (or the associated
pavement layer depths). To be most accurate, the flexible pavement equation described in this chapter
should be solved simultaneously with the flexible pavement ESAL equation. This solution method is an
iterative process that solves for ESALs in both equations by varying the Structural Number. It is iterative
because the Structural Number (SN) has two key influences:

1. The Structural Number determines the total number of ESALs that a particular pavement can
support. This is evident in the flexible pavement design equation presented in this section.

2. The Structural Number also determines what the 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESAL is for a given load.

Therefore, the Structural Number is required to determine the number of ESALs to design for before the
pavement is ever designed. The iterative design process usually proceeds as follows:

1. Determine and gather flexible pavement design inputs (ZR, So, ΔPSI and MR).

2. Determine and gather flexible pavement ESAL equation inputs (Lx, L2x, G).

3. Assume a Structural Number (SN).

4. Determine the equivalency factor for each load type by solving the ESAL equation using the
assumed SN for each load type.

5. Estimate the traffic count for each load type for the entire design life of the pavement and multiply
it by the calculated ESAL to obtain the total number of ESALs expected over the design life of the
pavement.

6. Insert the assumed SN into the design equation and calculate the total number of ESALs that the
pavement will support over its design life.

7. Compare the ESAL values in #5 and #6. If they are reasonably close (say within 5 percent) use the
assumed SN. If they are not reasonably close, assume a different SN, go to step #4 and repeat the
process.

In practice, the flexible pavement design equation is usually solved independently of the ESAL equation
by using an ESAL value that is assumed independent of structural number. Although this assumption is

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

not true, pavement structure depths calculated using it are reasonably accurate. This design process
usually proceeds as follows:

1. Assume a structural number (SN) for ESAL calculations. Although often not overtly stated, a
structural number must be assumed in order to calculate ESALs.

2. Determine the load equivalency factor (LEF) for each load type by solving the ESAL equation using
the assumed SN for each load type. Typically, a standard set of load types is used (e.g., single unit
trucks, tractor‐trailer trucks and buses).

3. Estimate the traffic count for each load type for the entire design life of the pavement and multiply
it by the calculated LEF to obtain the total number of ESALs expected over the design life of the
pavement.

4. Determine and gather flexible pavement design inputs (ZR, So, ΔPSI and MR).

5. Solve the design equation for SN.

6. Check to see that the computed SN value is reasonably close to that assumed for ESAL
calculations. Repeat step until Assumed and Design SN are the same.

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

3. LAYERED ELASTIC ANALYSIS

A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains and deflections at any point in a pavement structure
resulting from the application of a surface load. Layered elastic models assume that each pavement
structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. In other words, it is the same everywhere
and will rebound to its original form once the load is removed. The origin of layered elastic theory is
credited to V.J. Boussinesq who published his classic work in 1885. Today, Boussinesq influence charts
are still widely used in soil mechanics and foundation design. This section covers the basic assumptions,
inputs and outputs from a typical layered elastic model.

Assumptions

The layered elastic approach works with relatively simple mathematical models and thus, requires some
basic assumptions. These assumptions are:

 Pavement layers extend infinitely in the horizontal direction.

 The bottom layer (usually the subgrade) extends infinitely downward.

 Materials are not stressed beyond their elastic ranges.

Inputs

A layered elastic model requires a minimum number of inputs to adequately characterize a pavement
structure and its response to loading. These inputs are:

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

 Material properties of each layer

o Modulus of elasticity (E)

o Poisson’s ratio (μ)

 Pavement layer thicknesses (h)

 Loading conditions

o Magnitude. The total force (P) applied to the pavement surface

o Geometry. Usually specified as being a circle of a given radius (r or a), or the radius
computed knowing the contact pressure of the load (p) and the magnitude of the load
(P). Although most actual loads more closely represent an ellipse, the effect of the
differences in geometry become negligible at a very shallow depth in the pavement.

o Repetitions. Multiple loads on a pavement surface can be accommodated by summing

the effects of individual loads. This can be done because we are assuming that the
materials are not being stressed beyond their elastic ranges.

Output

The outputs of a layered elastic model are the stresses, strains, and deflections in the pavement:

 Stress. (σ)

The intensity of internally distributed forces experienced within the pavement structure at various
points. Stress has units of force per unit area (N/m2, Pa or psi).

 Strain. (ε)
The unit displacement due to stress, usually expressed as a ratio of the change in dimension to
the original dimension (mm/mm or in/in). Since the strains in pavements are very small, they are
normally expressed in terms of microstrain (10‐6).
 Deflection. (δ)
The linear change in a dimension. Deflection is expressed in units of length (mm or µm or inches
or mils).

The use of a layered elastic analysis computer program will allow one to calculate the theoretical stresses,
strains, and deflections anywhere in a pavement structure. However, there are a few critical locations
that are often used in pavement analysis (Table 1 and Figure 2).

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Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

4. FE ANALYSIS

The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical analysis technique for obtaining approximate solutions
to a wide variety of engineering problems. Although originally developed to study stresses in complex
airframe structures, it has since been extended and applied to the broad field of continuum mechanics
(Huebner et al., 2001[1]). In a continuum problem (e.g., one that involves a continuous surface or volume)
the variables of interest generally possess infinitely many values because they are functions of each
generic point in the continuum. For example, the stress in a particular element of pavement cannot be
solved with one simple equation because the functions that describe its stresses are particular to its
specific location. However, the finite element method can be used to divide a continuum (e.g., the
pavement volume) into a number of small discrete volumes in order to obtain an approximate numerical
solution for each individual volume rather than an exact closed‐form solution for the whole pavement
volume. Fifty years ago the computations involved in doing this were incredibly tedious, but today
computers can perform them quite readily.

In the FEM analysis of a flexible pavement, the region of interest (the pavement and subgrade) is
discretized into a number of elements with the wheel loads are at the top of the region of interest (Figure
3). The finite elements extend horizontally and vertically from the wheel to include all areas of interest
within the influence of the wheel.

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

Assumptions
The FEM approach works with a more complex mathematical model than the layered elastic approach so
it makes fewer assumptions. Generally, FEM must assume some constraining values at the boundaries of
the region of interest. For instance, the computer program developed by Hongyu Wu and George
Turkiyyah at the University of Washington (Wu, 2001]), called EverFlex, uses a 6‐noded foundation
element to model the Winkler Foundation. This program also uses free boundaries on the four sides of
the flexible pavement model. Additionally, the choice of element geometry (size and shape) as well as
interpolation functions will influence overall model performance.

Inputs
The typical finite elements method approach involves the following seven steps (Huebner et al., 2001[1]):
1. Discretize the Continuum. The region of interest is divided into small discrete shapes.
2. Select Interpolation Functions. Nodes are assigned to each element and then a function is chosen
to interpolate the variation of the variable over the discrete element.
3. Find the Element Properties. Using the established finite element model (the elements and their
interpolation functions) to determine matrix equations that express the properties of the
individual elements.
4. Assemble the Element Properties to Obtain the System Equations. Combine the matrix
equations expressing the behavior of the elements and form the matrix equations expressing the
behavior of the entire system.
5. Impose the Boundary Conditions. Impose values for certain variables at key boundary positions
(e.g., the bottom and sides of the chosen region of analysis).
6. Solve the System Equations. The above process results in a set of simultaneous equations that
can then be solved.
7. Make Additional Computations If Desired. The unknowns are displacement components. From
these displacements element strains and stresses can be calculated.

Outputs
The outputs of a FEM analysis are the same as for a layered elastic model:

 Stress.
The intensity of internally distributed forces experienced within the pavement structure at
various points. Stress has units of force per unit area (N/m2, Pa or psi).

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 Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UWI 2021‐2022 ‐ Semester II
CVNG 3011 Pavement Design & Management
Module: Pavement Design Methodologies

 Strain.
The unit displacement due to stress, usually expressed as a ratio of the change in dimension to
the original dimension (mm/mm or in/in). Since the strains in pavements are very small, they are
normally expressed in terms of microstrain (10‐6).
 Deflection.
The linear change in a dimension. Deflection is expressed in units of length (mm or µm or inches
or mils).
 Fracture Properties.
These parameters describe the fracture resistance of asphalt mixtures. resistance. It also
represents the main parameter used in more complex analyses based on fictitious crack (cohesive
zone) model.

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