Adama Science and Technology University

School of Applied Natural Science

General Chemistry
Chapter 1
Atom In Modern Chemistry
Course Instructor: Yilkal Matebie

The key concept in chemistry is that all matter is

1 composed of very small particles called atoms.
 Democritus John Dalton JJ Thomson
(460-370 B.C) (1766-1844) (1856-1940)

Honors in Chemistry

Erwin
Robert A. Millikan Earnest James Chadwick
Rutherford Schroedinger
(1868-1953) (1871-1974)
2
(1871-1937) (1887-1961)
 Modern Atomic Theory
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
 British chemist John Dalton (1766–1844) provided the
basic theory: all matter, whether element, compound, or
mixture is composed of small particles called atoms.
1. All matter are composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is
an extremely small particle of matter that retains its
identity during chemical reactions.
2. Elements are composed only one kind of atom.
 All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties.
 The atoms of one element are different from the
atoms of all other elements.

3
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms
of any two of the elements present is whole number ratio.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms.
 it does not result in their creation or destruction.

Compound of
Atoms of element Y elements X and Y
Atoms of element X
According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms of the same element are
identical, but atoms of one element are different from atoms of other
elements.
4 Compounds formed from atoms of elements X and Y. In this case, the ratio
of the atoms of element X to the atoms of element Y is 2:1.
 Three laws of chemical combinations.
A. A. law of definite proportions
 States that elements different samples of the same
compound always contain its constituent in the same
proportion by mass.
B. Law of multiple proportions
 According to this law, if two elements can combine to form more than
one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed
mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers.
 The ratio of masses of oxygen that combine with a given mass of
hydrogen in H2O and H2O2 is 1:2. Many similar examples, such as CO
and CO2 (1:2 ratio) and SO2 and SO3 (2:3ratio).

What is the ratio of the masses of oxygen that are combined with one
5 gram of nitrogen in the compounds N2O3 and NO?
 C. Law of Conservation of Mass
 Mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions ( the total mass of a system does not
change during a reaction).
 The mass of the reactants in the chemical
reaction is equal to the mass of the products.
H2 + F2  2 HF
2g + 38g = 2( 20g)
40g = 40g

40 g 40 g
Reactants Products
6
 Example, Using the Law of Conservation of Mass
 Assume that you heat 2.53 grams of metallic
mercury in air, which produces 2.73grams of a
red-orange residue.
 Mercury + oxygen red-orange residue
 What is the mass of oxygen that reacts?

 Solution: From the law of conservation of mass,

 Mass of mercury + mass of oxygen =mass of red-
orange residue
 2.53 grams + mass of oxygen = 2.73 grams
 Mass of oxygen = (2.73 - 2.53) grams = 0.20 grams
7
 Structure of Atoms
 On the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms are the
basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical
combination.
 Atoms themselves composed of subatomic particles, such
particles are electrons, protons, and neutrons.

The protons and neutrons of an

atom are packed in an
extremely small nucleus.

Electrons are shown as

“clouds” around the nucleus.

8
 J. J. Thomson:The Electron

 When the magnetic field is on and the electric field is off,

the cathode ray strikes point A.
 When only the electric field is on, the ray strikes point C.
 When both the magnetic and the electric fields are off or
when both on but balanced so that they cancel each
other’s, the ray strikes point B.
9
  Effect of magnet bar on the cathode ray

A cathode ray
produced in a
discharge tube
traveling from
the cathode (left)
to the anode
(right).

The cathode ray is bent downward When the polarity of the magnet is
10when a bar magnet is brought reversed, the ray bends in the
toward it opposite direction.
 Radioactivity
 Radioactivity describes the spontaneous emission of
particles and/or radiation.
 Element that spontaneously emits radiation is said to be
radioactive.
 Three types of rays are produced by the decay, or
breakdown, of radioactive substances
 Alpha (α) rays- consist of positively charged particles,
called α-particles
 deflected by the positively charged plate.
 Beta (β) rays, or β- particle are electrons and are deflected
by the negatively charged plate.
 Gamma (γ) rays rays have no charge and are not affected
by an external electric or magnetic field.

11
 α- rays are positively
β- rays consist of charged and are drawn to
negatively charge the negatively charged plate
particles(electrons)
and attracted by
the positively
charged plate.

γ- rays have no charges, their path is

unaffected by an external electric field.
12
 Two features of atoms had become clear: They contain
electrons, and they are electrically neutral.
 To maintain electrical neutrality, an atom must contain
an equal number of positive and negative charges.

Thomson proposed that an atom

could be thought of as a uniform,
positive sphere of matter in
which electrons are embedded.

Plum pudding” model

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 Proton and Nucleus
 Rutherford’s α – particles experiment

Rutherford’s Conclusion
1. Most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil
undeflected, most of the space in an atom is empty.
2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by small angles.
This indicated the presence of a heavy positive centre in
the atom, which Rutherford named the nucleus.
3. Only a few particles were either deflected by a very
large angle or deflected back. This confirmed that the
14 presence of positive charge(proton).
 James Chadwick: The Neutron
 Chadwick bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium with
α-particles, a very high energy radiation emitted by
the metal.
 The rays actually consist of electrically neutral
particles having a mass slightly greater than that of
protons.
 Chadwick named these particles neutrons.
α + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)

n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g
15
  Mass and Charge of Subatomic Particles

mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

16
 Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes

 All atoms can be identified by the number of

protons and neutrons they contain.
 Atomic number (Z)- is the number of protons in
the nucleus of each atom.
 The number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons in neutral atom.
 Mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons
and protons present in the nucleus of an atom of
an element.
 isotopes -Atoms that have the same atomic
number but different mass numbers.
17
 Atomic notation (nuclide symbol)

Mass number (p + n)
A
Z X Atomic symbol
( Element)

Atomic number (p)

Example

18
12
6
C 16
8 O 35Cl
17
 14 ?
6C
 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in
Proton= electron= 6, and neutron= 8,
12
 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in
6 C?
 Proton= electron=neutron = 6
 How many protons and electrons are in
27 Al+3
13
13 protons, 10 (13–3) electrons

78 Se-2
 How many protons and electrons are in 34

34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

Determine the number of protons and electrons in Cr3+.

19
  Isotopes -Atoms that have the same atomic number
but different mass numbers.
 The nuclei have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.

 Three isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers of 1,2 and 3,

respectively

 Two common isotopes of uranium with mass numbers of 235 and

238, respectively.
235 238
92 U 92 U
 The first isotope is used in nuclear reactors and atomic
bombs, whereas the second isotope lacks the properties
20 necessary for these applications
  Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in each of the following species.
 Are the members within each pair isotopes?

A) 35 37
17 Cl 17 Cl B) 63
29 Cu 65
29 Cu

21
 Atomic Weight
 Many elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes.
 Atomic weight is the average mass of all the atoms of an
element, based on the abundance of isotopes.
 Example-1
 Three isotopes of magnesium occur in nature. Their
abundances and masses, determined by mass spectrometry,
are listed in the following table.

Isotope % of Abundance Mass(amu)

Mg-24 78.99 23.98504
Mg-25 10.00 24.98584
Mg-26 11.01 25.98259
 Use this information to calculate the atomic weight of
magnesium.
22
 Solution
 Atomic weight= 0.7899(23.98504) + 0.100(24.98584 ) + 1.1101(25.98259)

 = 18.946 amu + 2.4986 amu + 2.8607 amu

 = 24.30 ( four significant figures)
 Example-2
 The atomic weight of gallium is 69.72 amu. The mass of natural occurring
isotopes are 68.9257 amu for Ga-69 and 70.9249 amu for Ga-71.
calculate the percent of abundance of each isotope.

23
 Class Work
 Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 35Cl
(mass
34.96885 amu) and 37Cl (mass 36.96590 amu), with an
average mass of 35.453 amu.
 What is the percent composition of Cl in terms of these two
isotopes?

24
 Modern Periodic Table
 Periodic table is a chart in which elements having similar
chemical and physical properties are grouped together.
 In modern periodic table elements are arranged by atomic
number in horizontal rows called periods.
 In vertical columns known as groups or families, according
to similarities in their chemical properties.
Element Can be divided into three

Metals Non-metals Metalloid

Good conductor of a poor conductor of intermediate
heat and electricity heat and electricity between metals
and nonmetals
25
 A metal is a substance or mixture that has a characteristic
luster, or shine, and is generally a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
 Except for mercury, the metallic elements are solids at room
temperature (about 20C).
 A nonmetal is an element that does not exhibit the
characteristics of a metal. Most of the nonmetals are gases
(for example, chlorine and oxygen) or solids (for example,
phosphorus and sulfur).
 The solid nonmetals are usually hard, brittle substances.
Bromine is the only liquid nonmetal.
 A metalloid, or semimetal, is an element having both
metallic and nonmetallic properties.
 EXAMPLE silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), are usually good
semiconductors, elements that, are poor conductors of
electricity at room temperature but become moderately good
26 conductors at higher temperatures
Main-Group Elements Modern Periodic Table Main-Group Elements
Alkali Earth Metal

Transition Metals
Alkali Metal

Noble Gas
Group

Halogen
Period

27
Inner Transition Metals
 Molecules and Ions
 A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement
held together by chemical forces (chemical bonds).

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

 Diatomic molecule - Molecules containing only two atoms
Example - H2, N2,Cl2 , Br2 O2, HCl and CO.

 Polyatomic molecule-Molecules containing three or more atoms

Example O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
28
 Ionic Substances
 An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net
positive or negative charge.
 The loss of one or more electrons from a neutral atom
results in a cation, an ion with a net positive charge.

 An anion is an ion whose net charge is negative due to an

increase in the number of electrons.

29
 Example Sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Monatomic ions- ions they containing only one atom.
example Mg2+, Na+1, Fe3+, S2-, N3- Cl-
 Polyatomic ions- are ions containing more than one atom.
for example
OH- (hydroxide ion)
CN- (cyanide ion)
NH4+ (ammonium ion)
Ionic compound –is a compound composed of cations
and anions
Sodium chloride consists of equal numbers of sodium
ions, Na+, and chloride ions, Cl-.
The strong attraction between positive and negative
30
charges holds the ions together
 Naming of Compounds

Ionic Compounds Reading

Molecular Compounds Assignment
Acids and Bases
Balancing Chemical Equations

31
 Chemical formulas
Chemical formula is short hand representation of
molecules/ chemical compounds.
is use to express the composition of molecules and
ionic compounds in terms of chemical symbols.
Molecular formula Empirical formula
shows the relative number of atoms of
each element in the compound.
shows the exact number of tells us which elements are present and
atoms of each element the simplest whole-number ratio of their
atoms, but not necessarily the actual
number of atoms in a given molecule

 Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

H2O2 HO
C6H12O6 CH2O
32
N2H4 NH2
structural formula, which shows how atoms are bonded to
one another in a molecule.
33
 Percent Composition of Compounds
 Percent composition is the percent by mass of each
element in a compound.
 Percent composition is obtained by dividing the mass of
each element in 1 mole of the compound by the molar
mass of the compound and multiplying by 100 percent.

Example 1: find the percent composition of H2O2

34
 Example 2: Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless, syrupy
liquid used in detergents, fertilizers, toothpastes, and in
carbonated beverages for a “tangy” flavor. Calculate the
percent composition by mass of H, P, and O in this
compound

35
  Example 3: Analysis of a 12.04-g sample of a liquid compound
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen showed it to contain
7.34 g C, 1.85 g H, and 2.85 g N. What is the percent composition of
each element in compound?

The analysis results indicate that

the compound is 61.0% C, 15.4%
H, and 23.7% N by mass

 Exercise: A 24.81-g sample of a gaseous compound containing only

carbon, oxygen, and chlorine is determined to contain 3.01 g C, 4.00
g O, and 17.81 g Cl. What is this compound’s percent composition?

36
 Exercise
1. Calculate the percent composition by mass of each of
the elements in sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
2. Calculate the percent composition by mass of HNO3.
3. Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, which is prepared from
nitric acid, is used as a nitrogen fertilizer. Calculate
the mass percentages of the elements in ammonium
nitrate (to three significant figures).
4. How many grams of nitrogen, N, are there in a
fertilizer containing 48.5 g of ammonium nitrate and
no other nitrogen-containing compound

37
 Determination of Empirical Formula
1. Example 1: An oxide of aluminum is formed by the reaction of
4.151 g of aluminum with 3.692 g of oxygen. Find the empirical
formula.
Given 4.151 g Al and 3.692 g O
Solution
I. Find the number of mole of each element.
Mole of Al= mass of Al = 4.151 = 0.1539 mol of Al
Molar mass of mass 27

Mole of O= mass of O = 3.692 = 0.2308 mol O

Molar mass of O 16

II. Find ratio by dividing each element by smallest amount

of moles.
0.1539 mol of Al =1 mol of Al 0.2308 mol of O =1.5 mol of O

38 0.1539 0.1539
 III. Multiply by common factor to get whole number. (cannot
have fractions of atoms in compounds)
O = 1.500 x 2 = 3
Al = 1.000 x 2 = 2
Use the whole numbers obtained as subscript for the
corresponding element in simplest whole number
Therefore, Al2O3

39
 Example 2: When a 2.00 g sample of iron metal is reacts with
oxygen to achieve a final mass of 2.573 g. Determine the
empirical formula.
Solution: given Fe = 2.000 g mass of O = 2.573 g–2.000 g = 0.5730 g

Mole of Fe = 2 g = 0.03581 mol of Fe

56 g/mol
Mole of O = 0.5730 g = 0.03581 mol of O
16 g/mol
1 : 1 then empirical formula is FeO
 A sample of the black mineral hematite, an oxide of iron found in many
iron ores, contains 34.97 g of iron and 15.03 g of oxygen. What is the
empirical formula of hematite?
 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O by
mass. What is the empirical formula of ascorbic acid?
 A sample of compound determined to contain 5.31 g Cl and 8.40 g O.
What is the empirical formula of the compound?

40
  Example 3. A sample of a compound contains 1.52 g of
nitrogen (N) and 3.47 g of oxygen (O). The molar mass of
this compound is 92 g/mol. Determine the molecular
formula.

E.F is NO2

41 Molecular formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4.

 Example 4: Nicotine, an alkaloid compound mainly responsible for the
addictive nature of cigarettes, contains 74.02% C, 8.710% H, and
17.27% N. If 40.57 g of nicotine contains 0.2500 mol nicotine, what is
the molecular formula?
 Solution

Empirical formula is C5H7N

 Calculate the molar mass for nicotine from the given mass and molar
amount of compound:

42
  Each element (except oxygen) in the compound
combines with oxygen to produce the appropriate oxide.

 Example 5. When 1.125 g of a liquid hydrocarbon, CxHy, was

burned 3.447 g of CO2 and 1.647 g of H2O were produced. The
molar mass of the compound was found to be 86.2 g/mol in a
separate experiment. Determine the empirical and molecular
formulas for the unknown hydrocarbon, CxHy.

43
 Solution
 The first step is to calculate the moles of CO2 and H2O isolated
from the combustion:

44
 The original 1.125-g sample of compound therefore
contained 0.07832 mol of C and 0.1828 mol of H. To
determine the empirical formula of CxHy we find the ratio
of moles of H to moles of C.

The empirical formula of the hydrocarbon is therefore

C3H7.

 find that the molecular formula is twice the empirical

formula. That is, the molecular formula is (C3H7)2, or C6H14.

45
 Example 6. Suppose you isolate an acid from clover leaves
and know that it contains only the elements C, H, and O.
Heating 0.513 g of the acid in oxygen produces 0.501 g of
CO2 and 0.103 g of H2O. The molar mass of the acid was
found to be 90.02 g/mol. What is the empirical and
molecular formula of the acid CxHyOz?

 The first step is to convert the masses of CO2 and H2O to

moles.

46
  The moles of CO2 and H2O can now be converted to the
masses of C and H that were in the original compound.

 0.513-g sample contains 0.137 g of C and 0.0115 g of

H; the remaining mass, 0.365 g, must be oxygen.
0.513-g sample - 0.137 g C + 0.0115 g H = 0.365 gO
 To find the empirical formula of the unknown acid, you
need only find the number of moles of each element in
the sample.

47
48
 Then, to find the mole ratio of elements, divide the
number of moles of each element by the smallest
number of moles.

 The empirical formula of the acid is therefore CHO2

and the molar mass of the empirical formula unit is
45.02 g/mol.

 The molecular formula of the acid is twice the empirical

formula, that is, C2H2O4.

49
 Exercise
1. What is the molecular formula of a compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen if combustion of 1.05 g of the compound produces 3.30 g CO2 and
1.35 g H2O and its molar mass is about 70 g

2. A compound with an empirical formula of C2OH4 and a molar mass of 88

grams per mole. What is the molecular formula of this compound?

3. Nitrogen and oxygen form an extensive series of oxides with the general
formula NxOy. One of them is a blue solid that comes a part, reversibly, in the
gas phase. It contains 36.84% N. What is the empirical formula of this oxide?

4. An unknown compound was found to have a percent composition as follows:

47.0 % potassium, 14.5 % carbon, and 38.5 % oxygen. What is its empirical
formula? If the true molar mass of the compound is 166.22 g/mol, what is its
molecular formula?

5. What are the empirical and molecular formulas of caffeine that contains by
mass composition of 49.5% C, 5.15% H, 28.9% N and 16.5 %O and the
molecular mass is about 195g/mol?
6. What is the molecular formula of a compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen if combustion of 1.05 g of the compound produces 3.30 g CO2 and
1.35 g H2O and its molar mass is about 70 g?
50
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Reactants: Zn + I2 Product: ZnI2

Reactants: Zn + I2 Product: ZnI2

Chemical reaction is a process in which a substance(s) is
changed into one or more new substances.
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show
51
what happens during a chemical reaction.
 Writing Chemical Equations
 For example, the burning of sodium in chlorine to produce
sodium chloride is written
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
Product
Coefficients
Reactants
 Reactants are the starting materials in a chemical reaction
 Product which is the substance formed as a result of a
chemical reaction,
 Additional information, indicate the physical states of the
reactants and products by using the letters g, l, and s to
denote gas, liquid, and solid, respectively. For example,

52
 Balancing Chemical Equations
 Reading Assignment

53
 Amounts of Reactants and Products
• How much product will be formed
from specific amounts of starting
materials (reactants) or
• How much reactants will be
required to form specific amount of
product

Stoichiometry
 The study of the quantitative
aspects of reactants and
products in chemical
reactions.
54
 General Plan For Stoichiometry Calculations
Mass
Mass
reactant
product

Moles Stoichiometric
reactant factor Moles
product
Use mole ratio of
reactant and
product from
balanced equation
1. Example, Industrially ammonia is synthesized from
H2 and N2 as follows: N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
Suppose 16.0 g of H2 react completely with N2 to form
55
NH3. How many grams of NH3 will be formed?
 Solution
First, calculate number of moles of H2

Next, calculate the number of moles of NH3

produced:

56
 2. The food we eat is degraded, or broken down, in our
bodies to provide energy for growth and function. A
general overall equation for this very complex process
represents the degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
 If 968 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a person over a
certain period, what is the mass of CO2 produced?

57
 Solution

58
 3. All alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen
gas and the corresponding alkali metal hydroxide. A
typical reaction is that between lithium and water:
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
How many grams of Li are needed to produce 7.79 g of H2?

59
 Practice Exercise
1. Methanol (CH3OH) burns in air according to the equation:

 If 209 g of methanol are used up in a combustion process, what is the mass of

H2O produced?
2. The reaction between nitric oxide (NO) and oxygen to form nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) is a key step in photochemical smog formation.

 How many grams of O2 are needed to produce 2.21 g of NO2?

3. Which of the following statements is correct for the
equation shown here?
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
A. One mole of NO is produced per mole of NH3 reacted.
B. 6 g of H2O are produced for every 4 g of NH3 reacted.
C. 2 moles of NO are produced for every 3 moles of O2 reacted.

60
 Limiting Reagents
 What happens in a chemical reaction, if there is an
insufficient amount of one reactant?
 limiting reagent the reagent that is completely used
up in a chemical reaction.
 Maximum amount of product depends on how much of the
reactant was originally present.
 When the reactant is used up, no more product can be
formed.
 Excess reagents are the reactants present in quantities
greater than necessary to react with the quantity of the
limiting reagent.

61
 Example 1
 Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with
carbon dioxide:
2NH3(g) + CO2(g) (NH2)2CO(aq) + H2O(l)
 In one process, 849.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1223 g of
CO2.
A. Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent?
B. Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.
C. How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of
the reaction?

62
 

63
 B

64
 C

65
 Example 2
 In a process for producing acetic acid, oxygen gas is
bubbled into acetaldehyde, CH3CHO, containing
manganese(II) acetate (catalyst) under pressure at 60C.
2CH3CHO(l) + O2(g) 2CH3COOH(l)
 In a laboratory test of this reaction, 20.0 g CH3CHO and
10.0 g O2 were put into a reaction vessel.
A. How many grams of acetic acid produced.
B. How many grams of the excess reactant remain after
the reaction is complete?

66
67
68
 Practice Exercise
1. The reaction between aluminum and iron(III) oxide can
generate temperatures approaching 3000°C and is used
in welding metals:
2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe
In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of
Fe2O3.
Calculate the mass (in grams) of Al2O3 formed.
A.
B. How much of the excess reagent is left at the end
of the reaction?
2. In an experiment, 7.36 g of zinc was heated with
6.45 g of sulfur . Assume that these substances react
according to the equation
8Zn + S8 8ZnS

What amount of zinc sulfide was produced?

69
 Reaction Yield
 The amount of limiting reagent present at the start
of a reaction determines the theoretical yield of the
reaction.
 Theoretical yield is the amount of product that
would result if all the limiting reagent reacted.
 The actual yield, or the amount of product actually
obtained from a reaction.


70
 Example-1
 Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant
metal that is used in aircraft bodies, jet engines, bicycle
frames, and artifcial joints. It is prepared by the reaction
of titantium(IV) chloride with molten magnesium
between 950°C and 1150°C:

TiCl4(g) + 2Mg(l) Ti(s) +2MgCl2(l)

 In a certain industrial operation, 2.84X107 g of TiCl4

are reacted with 1.09 X107 g of Mg.
A. Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams.
B. Calculate the percent yield if 5.97 X106 g of Ti are
actually obtained.
71
72
73
 Example-2
 A 15.6-gram sample of C6H6 is mixed with excess HNO3.
We isolate 18.0 grams of C6H5NO2. What is the percent
yield of C6H5NO2 in this reaction?

74
 Exercise
1. Nitrobenzene (C6H5NO2), is an important raw material for dye
industry, is prepared from 22.4 g of benzene (C6H6) and 20.0 gram
of nitric acid (HNO3) according to the following reaction
C6H6 + HNO3 C6H5NO2
A. Which of the two reagent is limiting reagent
B. How many grams of nitrobenzene(C6H5NO2) formed
C. How much grams of excess reagent is left at the end of the
reaction
D. What is the percentage of yield, if 31.6 g of nitrobenzene
(C6H5NO2) is formed?
1. Industrially, vanadium metal, which is used in steel alloys, can be
obtained by reacting vanadium(V) oxide with calcium at high
temperatures:
5Ca + V2O5 5CaO + 2V
In one process, 1.54 X 103 g of V2O5 react with 1.96 X 103 g of Ca.
A. Calculate the theoretical yield of V.
75 B. Calculate the percent yield if 803 g of V are obtained.