Shear Strength of Soils

1
 Shear Strength
• The strength of a material is the greatest
stress it can sustain
• The safety of any geotechnical structure is
dependent on the strength of the soil
• If the soil fails, the structure founded on it can
collapse

– Bearing capacity
– Slope stability
– Lateral earth pressure on earth-retaining
structures
– Pavement 2
Shear Failure in Soils

3
Transcosna Grain Elevator
Canada (Oct. 18, 1913)

4
West side of foundation sank 24-ft (7.2 m)
 Shear failure
Soils generally fail in shear

embankment

strip footing

failure surface mobilised shear

resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

reaches the shear strength.
The soil grains slide over each other along the failure surface.5
 Shear Strength in Soils
• The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to
shearing stresses.
• It is a measure of the soil resistance to deformation
by continuous displacement of its individual soil
particles
• Shear strength in soils depends primarily on
interactions between particles
• Shear failure occurs when the stresses between the
particles are such that they slide or roll past each
other

6
Soil derives its shear strength from two sources:
–Cohesion between particles (stress
independent component) Cohesion (C), is a
measure of the forces that cement (or glue)
particles of soils
•Cementation between sand grains
•Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
–Frictional resistance between particles (stress
dependent component)
Internal Friction angle (φ), is the measure of the
shear strength of soils due to friction
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 Shear Strength of Soils;
Cohesion
 Cohesion (C), is a measure of the forces that
cement (glue) particles of soils

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 Shear Strength of Soils;
Internal Friction
 Internal Friction angle (f), is the measure of the
shear strength of soils due to friction

9
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
• This theory states that a material fails
because of a critical combination of normal
stress sf and shear stress tf, and not from
their either maximum normal or shear
stress alone.
• The relationship between normal stress
and shear is given as:

t  c  s tan f
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 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
cohesive component

Shear
Strength,
t  c  s tan f
t
frictional
f component

cohesion friction angle

Normal Stress, s
c and f are measures of shear strength.
Higher the values, higher the shear strength. 11
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL

s
sc
sc
sc sc+s
Initially, Mohr circle is a point
s

12
 Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…
Failure

GL

s
sc
sc
sc
.. and finally failure occurs
when Mohr circle touches the
envelope

When shear stress on a certain plane reaches a unique friction of the normal stress,
13
failure will occur. (At a critical combination of normal and shear stress)
Orientation of Failure Plane
Failure plane
oriented at 45 + f/2
to horizontal
45 + f/2

GL
45 + f/2
s
sc f
sc 90+f

sc sc+s

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 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
σ1 t Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope
f
σ3 σ3 tf

c
s3 sf s1 s
σ1 Mohr circle
Sand ~ Gravel Clay

f = 30 ~ 45 f = 0 ~ very low
15
C=0 C = high ~ very high (kN/m2)
 Determination of Shear Strength Parameters

Normal stress σn s1 s1

Shear stress σ3
Soil

s3

Triaxial Shear
Direct Shear Unconfined
16
compression
 Direct Shear Test
• The test equipment consists
of a metal box in which the
Normal stress σn
soil specimen is placed
• The box is split horizontally
into two halves Shear stress σ
3

• Vertical force (normal Soil

stress) is applied through a

metal platen
• Shear force is applied by
moving one half of the box
relative to the other to
cause failure in the soil 17
specimen
Direct Shear Test

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 Direct Shear Test Device

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 Direct Shear Test Data
t Shear stress

Peak Strength

Residual Strength

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Direct Shear Test Data Volume change

H

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 Figures
Peak Stress
s3
Shear stress, t

s2

s1 N3

N2

N1

Horizontal displacement, H

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 Figures
Shear Stress, t

(N2,s2)
(N3,s3)
f

(N1,s1)

C

Normal Stress s
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Peak vs. Ultimate Strength

24
Failure Envelopes for Clays

25
 Direct shear test

Advantages:
Inexpensive, fast, simple (especially for granular soil)

Disadvantages:
•Problem of controlling drainage
•Serious stress concentration at the sample boundaries,
•Non- uniform stress condition.
•Failure plane is forced to be horizontal which may not be
the weakest one.

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 Example: Direct Shear Test
Given:
A direct shear test conducted on a soil sample
yielded the following results:
Normal Stress, s Max. Shear
(psi) Stress, t (psi)
10.0 6.5
25.0 11.0
40.0 17.5

Required:
Determine shear strength parameters of the soil 27
 Example

20
Max. Shear Stress (psi)

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Normal Stress (psi)
c  2.5 psi
f   20 28
 Example
• A sample of dry sand is tested in direct
shear. A normal load equivalent to 96 kPa
is imposed for the test. The shearing force
applied to fail the sample is increased until
shearing does occur. The shear stress at
failure is 65 kPa. What is the angle of
friction Ф for the sand?

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 Solution
• tan Ф = 65 kPa/96 kPa = 0.677
Ф = 34o ±
τ - Shearing Stress

τ - Shearing Stress
65 65

N=96 kPa
Ф
Shearing Displacement 96
Normal Stress σ, kPa
Test Results on stress-displacement Test information plotted on Mohr’s
coordinates Circle coordinates
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 Triaxial Shear Test
• Developed by Casagrande in an attempt
to overcome some of the serious
disadvantages of the direct shear test.
• Advantages over direct shear test:
– More practical
– Drainage can be well controlled
– There is no rotation of the principal stresses
like the direct shear test
– Also the failure plane can occur anywhere
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 Principles of the Triaxial
Compression Test
• The triaxial compression test is used to
measure the shear strength of a soil under
controlled drainage conditions
• A cylindrical specimen of soil is subjected
encased in a to a confining fluid/air
pressure and then loaded axially to failure.
• The test is called "triaxial" because the
three principal stresses are assumed to be
known and are controlled.
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 Principles of triaxial compression test
s1 = s + s3
• During shear, the major principal
stress, s1 is equal to the applied s

axial stress (s = P/A) plus the

chamber (confining) pressure, s3 s3
• The applied axial stress, s1 - s3
is termed the "principal stress
s3
difference" or sometimes the
"deviator stress“ s s

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 Triaxial Test Apparatus
failure plane
Deviator load s

Confining
soil sample at failure
cylinder

Cell water Rubber

membrane
O-ring
seals Soil
Porous filter
disc
Cell
pressure Pore pressure
and volume 34
change
Triaxial Test Apparatus

35
Triaxial Compression Test

36
Triaxial Test Results

37
 Triaxial testing
s1

t Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope
s3 s3 f

c
s1 s3 s1 s
Mohr circle
s1
X
X s3
soil element at failure
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Mohr’s Circle and Failure Envelope
f'
Inclination of Failure Plane   45 
2

(sf ,tf)

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 Types of Triaxial Tests
deviator stress (s)

Under all-around Shearing (loading)

cell pressure sc

Is soil consolidated? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained (D) Undrained (U)

(C) loading loading
(U) 40
(u=0) (u≠0)
 Types of Triaxial Tests
Depending on whether drainage is allowed
or not during
 initial isotropic cell pressure application, and
 shearing,
there are three special types of triaxial tests
that have practical significances. They are:

Consolidated Drained (CD) test

Consolidated Undrained (CU) test
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) test

Unconsolidated Drained (UD) test (Never Done! Why?) 41

Drained Condition (u=0)

Before loading After loading 42

Long-term Stability
(Drained)

Slope Surface

Potential Failure
Surface

(u=0) 43
Undrained Condition (u≠0)

Before loading After loading 44

Short-term Stability
(Undrained)

Slope Surface

Potential Failure
Surface

(u≠0)
45
Mohr circles in terms of s & s’
sv sv ’ u

sh s h’ u
X
= X
+ X

effective stresses
total stresses

s h’ s v’ sh sv
u 46
CD, CU and UU Triaxial Tests
Consolidated Drained (CD) Test
 no excess pore pressure throughout the test (u=0)
Drainage valve open
 very slow shearing to avoid build-up of pore
pressure
Can be days!
 not desirable

 gives c’ and f’

Use c’ and f’ for analysing fully drained

situations (e.g., long term stability,
very slow loading)

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•CD (consolidated drained) test
The purpose of CD test is to determine the drained shear strength parameters, and to
analyze long-term loading of a soil mass. The test is performed in two stages. First
the soil is consolidated to a desired effective stress level by pressurizing the water in
the cell and allowing the soil sample to drain until excess pore water pressure
dissipated. In the second stage, the pressure in the cell is kept constant and
additional axial loads are added until the soil sample fails.

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 CD Test Results (u=0)

Sand and Normally Consolidated Clay (c=0)

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 CD Test Results
Overconsolidated Clay (c≠0) (u=0)

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CD, CU and UU Triaxial Tests
Consolidated Undrained (CU) Test
 pore pressure develops during shear (u≠0) Drainage valve closed
Measure  s’

 gives c’ and f’

 faster than CD (preferred way to find c’ and f’)

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 Consolidated-undrained Test
• Apply s3 and wait until the soil consolidates
• Drainage valves open during consolidation phase but
closed during the shearing phase
(Drainage and consolidation is allowed to take place during the application of
the confining pressure s3)
• Loading does not start until the sample is consolidate.
• This test can simulates long term as well as short term
shear strength for cohesive soils if pore water pressure
is measured during the shearing phase
• For this Test, c ≠ c’ and f < f’
• From this test we obtain;
– c’, f’ and u (Effective stress)
– c, f (Total stress)
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 CU Test Results (u≠0)

Normally Consolidated Clay (c=0)

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 CU Triaxial Test (u≠0)

Overconsolidated Clay (c≠0)

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 CD, CU and UU Triaxial Tests
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test
 pore pressure develops during shear (u≠0) Drainage valve closed

Not measured = 0; i.e., failure envelope is

s’ unknown horizontal

 analysis in terms of s  gives cu and fu

 very quick test

Use cu and fu for analysing undrained

situations (e.g., short term stability,
quick loading)

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 Unconsolidated-undrained Test
s3 and s are applied fast so the soil does not
have time to settle or consolidate.
• The test is performed with the drain valve
closed for all phases of the test. (u≠0)
(Water is not allowed to drain)
• UU test simulates short term shear strength
for cohesive soils.
• For this test, f  f’  0
• s = cu = Su = (s1-s3)/2 = (s’1-s’3)/2
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 Effective and total stress Mohr circles
t

s
s 3 s 1 s3 s1

u
u

For any point in the soil a total and an effective stress Mohr
circle can be drawn. These are the same size with
s 1  s 3  s 1  s 3

The two circles are displaced horizontally by the pore

pressure, u. 57
 Relation between effective and total stress criteria
Because each sample is at failure, the fundamental effective
stress failure condition must also be satisfied. As all the circles
have the same size there must be only one effective stress Mohr
circle
t  c'  sn tan f'
t

s
s 3 s 1 s3 s1

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UU Test Results
(u≠0)

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 For unconsolidated
undrained test, in
terms of total
stresses, fu = 0

Granular soils have For normally consolidated

no cohesion. clays, c’ = 0 & c = 0.
c = 0 & c’= 0

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 Example
• A dry cohesionless soil is tested in a triaxial test to
determine the angle of internal friction Ф. A confining
pressure equal to 1000 psf is used. The sample fails
when the axial load causes a stress of 3200 psf.
What is the value of Ф

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 Solution
Tangent
σ1 = 3200 psf Shear
Stress
τ R=
σ3 = 1000 psf Ф σ3 1100 σ1
Normal
σ3 = 1000 Stress
σ1 = 3200
2100

Radius of circle = (3200-1000)/2 = 1100 psf

Center of circle = 1000 + 1100 = 2100 psf
From Mohr’s circle plot:
sin Ф = 1100/2100 = 0.525
Ф = sin-1 (0.525) = 31.5o ±
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 Example
• The chamber confining pressure for a
normally consolidated clay is 16 lb/in.2 and
the deviator stress is 25 lb/in.2 Find:
– The angle of friction Ф
– The inclination of failure plan

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 σ1
Solution σ3
θ
σ3

• For a normally
consolidated soil, c= σ1

zero.
– σ3 = 16 lb/in.2 T

– σ1= σ3 + the deviator =

16+25=41 lb/in.2 Ф
2θ

σ3=16
Ф= 26o O C σ1=41

• θ= 45+ (Ф/2)=58o Deviator stress= 25

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 Example
• In a triaxial test for sandy clay soil, two
samples were tested:
– Sample 1: σ1= 34.7 psi, σ3= 10
– Sample 2: σ1= 48.5 psi, σ3= 15
Calculate the shear parameters Ф and c for the
sandy clay soil?

• Solution:
Ф = 28o and c= 2.1 psi
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66
67
 Unconfined Compression Test
• For saturated clays
• Special type of triaxial test t Max. shear
plane
• Cylindrical Test specimen
• No confining stress UU test
(i.e. s3 = 0) Horiz.
plane
• Axial stress, s = s1 s
• ASTM D-2166 s1
s
1

s3 = 0
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Unconfined Compression Test
Equipment

69
Unconfined compression test:

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 Unconfined Compression Test Data
t
Su

s
qu

qu  Unconfined Compression Strength

qu
Su  Undrained Shear Strength  71
2
 Mohr’s Circles
s1

s3=0

Uniaxial
Compression 72
Unconfined Compression Test

73
 Example
• In an unconfined compressive strength of clay
sample, the final force applied was 100 lb. The
diameter of the sample was 2.5 inches. Ignoring
diameter correction calculate the:
– unconfined compressive strength qu, and
– the resulting strength parameter of cohesion c
• Solution:
– qu = P/A = 100/[3.14 x 1.252] = 20.37 psi x 144= 2933
psf
– qu = 2933/2000 = 1.47 tn/ft2
– c = 1.47 tn/ft2 /2 = 0.735 tn/ft2
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 Example: UCS test
2”

4”

Sample fails under a force of 200 lb

• Determine:
– the normal stress on the sample at failure
– the unconfined compressive strength
– the undrained cohesion of the sample 75
 Example: UCS test

• Normal stress, s = Force/area

= 200/(p x 2.02/4)
= 63.67 psi
• Unconfined compressive strength, qu is
equal to the normal stress at failure,
63.67 psi
• undrained cohesion, cu = qu/2
= 63.67/2
76
= 31.8 psi
 Example (HW)
• A) a sample taken from a uniform deposit of
granular soil are found to have a unit weight of
19.6 kN/m3 and an angle of internal friction of
35o. What is the shearing strength of the soil on
a horizontal plane at a point 4 m below the
ground surface?
• Solution
– The soil overburden pressure at a depth of 4 m, is:
19.6 kN/m3 x 4m = 78.4 kN/m2 = σ on horizontal
plane
– The shearing resistance that can be developed is: 77
τ = σ tan Ф = 78.4 kN/m2 x tan 35o
 Example (HW)
• B) a proposed structure will cause the vertical stress to
increase by 60 kN/m2 at the 4m depth. Assume that the
weight of the structure also causes the shearing stress to
increase to 52kN/m2 on a horizontal plane at this depth.
Does this shearing stress exceed the shearing strength
of the soil?
• Solution:
– The total vertical pressure due to the structure and soil
overburden is:
60kN/m2 + 78.4 kN/m2 = 138.4 kN/m2
– The shearing strength that can be developed by the soil at this
depth is:
τ= 138.4 kN/m2 x tan 35o = 96.9 kN/m2
– This indicate that the shear strength of the soil is greater than the
imposed shear stress; therefore, a shear failure does not occur 78
(96.9 kN/m2 > 52 kN/m2
 Example (HW)
• C) if the water table rose to the ground surface, compute
the effective soil overburden pressure
• Solution:
– The pressure would be reduced about:
½ x 19.6 kN/m3 x 4m = 39.2 kN/m2
– This value represents the effective vertical stress, i.e., σ` = σT – u
= (γdry- γw ) h; or: 4(19.6-9.8) = 39.2 kN/m2
– The total vertical stress would be:
τ= 39.2 kN/m2 + 60 kN/m2 = 99.2 kN/m2
– The shear strength available is:
τ= 99.2 kN/m2 x tan 35o = 69.46 kN/m2
– This value is still greater than the shear stress resulting from the
loading conditions; that is, 69.46 > 52 kN/m2.

79
Example: Given results of a CD test on a soil at failure. Find c and f
Test s 3' Deviator
No. (kPa) stress (kPa)
1 100 250
2 180 362
3 300 564

Example: A CU test was conducted on a saturated normally consolidated clay soil

using a cell pressure of 150 kPa and then incrementally applying loads on the plunger
while keeping the cell pressure constant. Failure was observed when the stress
exerted by the plunger was 160 kPa and the pore water pressure recorded was 54kPa.
Determine shear strength parameters (total and effective) and draw Mohr circle for
total and effective stress.
s 1'
Example: A CD triaxial test is conducted on a granular soil. At failure,  4.0
s 3'
The effective minor principal stress at failure was 100 kPa. Compute and plot
Mohr circle and Mohr failure envelope.
s 1'
Example: A CU triaxial test on sand with s  150kPa and '  3.7
'
the induced
s3
3

pore water pressure at failure was 70 kPa

Find s 1' f , f in term of total stress, and the angle of the failure plane. 80