ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

Power system protection devices are employed to mitigate the severe consequences of faults in
the system. Inaccurate design of these devices can lead to major disruptions and even blackouts
in the power system. Therefore, it is necessary to design the protective relays and circuit
breakers accurately with appropriate settings.

Perform the following tasks on etap®.

a) Run a load flow analysis of the selected system and assess it during normal balanced full-load
operation.
b) Evaluate a short-circuit analysis of the system with balanced (bolted-fault) short circuits on
all buses.
c) Perform a short-circuit analysis of the system with an unbalanced line-to-neutral shortcircuit
fault occurring at the motor input. In this case evaluate the maximum shortcircuit current
through the circuit breaker.
d) Select fuse, circuit breaker.
e) Perform Fuse-CB and CB-CB coordination and assess them on all lines of the system.
f) Replace CB with OCR (or EFR)-CB and perform the protection coordination on all buses of
the system. Evaluate the effect of different time characteristic curves on coordination.
g) Design at least one protection scheme for generator (Phase-phase faults, overloading, reverse
power fault etc.) with appropriate settings.
h) Create a parallel feeder, and develop parallel feeder protection using Directional OCR.
i) Design differential protection scheme for transformer with appropriate CT connections and
ratios. Test the working of differential relay during any through fault.
j) Design a suitable protection scheme for induction motor. How can the relay become
intelligent enough to discriminate the starting current with the overload and fault current?

The solution of this problem requires the gathering of component data, the conversion of the
data to one per-unit base, entry of the per-unit data into equivalent circuit diagrams, solution of
the circuit diagrams, and conversion of the solution per-unit data back to actual values.
 ABSTRACT
This project explores essential protection and analysis techniques in an electrical power system
using ETAP simulations. The study includes load flow analysis under full-load conditions and
short-circuit analysis for both balanced and unbalanced faults. Protection devices, such as
fuses, circuit breakers, OCRs, and EFRs, are selected and coordinated to optimize fault
isolation. A generator protection scheme, parallel feeder protection, and transformer differential
protection are developed, along with an intelligent relay-based scheme for induction motors to
differentiate starting current from fault conditions. This project provides a comprehensive
analysis of fault management and protection coordination for improved system reliability.
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. What is Electrical Power System? .......................................................................................... 1
1.2. What is Load Flow Analysis? ................................................................................................. 1
1.3. What is Fault Analysis? .......................................................................................................... 1
1.4. What is Power System Protection and its coordination? ........................................................ 1
2. BASIC SYSTEM DESIGN ............................................................................................................ 1
3. LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 2
3.1. Load Flow Analysis: ............................................................................................................... 2
3.2. Load Flow Analysis Through ETAP: ..................................................................................... 2
3.3. System’s Load Flow Analysis: ............................................................................................... 4
4. FAULT ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................... 6
4.1. Fault Analysis: ........................................................................................................................ 6
4.2. Significance of Fault Analysis: ............................................................................................... 6
4.3. System’s Fault Analysis: ......................................................................................................... 7
4.4. LG: .......................................................................................................................................... 8
4.5. LLG: ........................................................................................................................................ 8
5. PROTECTIVE DEVICES SETTINGS .......................................................................................... 9
5.1. What are Protective Devices? ................................................................................................. 9
5.2. Switch Gear: ............................................................................................................................ 9
5.3. Current Transformer: .............................................................................................................. 9
5.4. Potential Transformer: ............................................................................................................ 9
5.5. Fuses: ...................................................................................................................................... 9
5.6. Circuit Breaker: ....................................................................................................................... 9
5.7. Protective Devices Settings: .................................................................................................... 9
5.8. Significance of Protective Devices Settings: ........................................................................ 10
5.9. Important Parameters of Protective Devices Settings: .......................................................... 10
5.10. Over Current Relay Settings in ETAP: ............................................................................. 11
6. PROTECTION COORDINATION .............................................................................................. 12
6.1. Protection Coordination: ....................................................................................................... 12
6.2. Significance of Protection Coordination: .............................................................................. 12
6.3. Protection Coordination Through ETAP: ............................................................................. 12
7. REVERSE POWER PROTECTION FOR GENERATORS ........................................................ 15
8. PARALLEL FEEDER PROTECTION ........................................................................................ 16
9. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMER ............................................................ 17
 9.1. How Differential Protection Works: ..................................................................................... 17
9.2. Transformer T1 and T3: ........................................................................................................ 18
9.3. Transformer T2: .................................................................................................................... 18
10. INTELLIGENT MOTOR PROTECTION ............................................................................... 18
10.1. Creating fault at Motor: ..................................................................................................... 18
10.2. Key Configurations: .......................................................................................................... 18
11. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 19
10. REFRENCES .................................................................................................................................. 19
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. What is Electrical Power System?

An Electrical Power System (EPS) encompasses the generation, transmission, and distribution
of electrical power. It is one of the largest and most complex engineered systems, spanning
continents, supplying power to millions of consumers, and with over a century of evolution and
refinement.

1.2. What is Load Flow Analysis?

Load Flow Analysis is a study that examines the behavior of a power system under both normal and
fault conditions. To conduct this analysis, a mathematical model of the power system is first created
using specific equations and formulas in a step called "Power System Modeling." This is followed by
the "Analysis" phase, where unknown parameters are determined.

1.3. What is Fault Analysis?

The Fault Analysis module provides tools to study short-circuit issues and other fault conditions in a
power system. Understanding the magnitude of potential short-circuit currents at various points in the
system is essential for ensuring reliability. High fault currents can cause equipment damage and pose
serious risks to personnel.

1.4. What is Power System Protection and its coordination?

Power system protection is designed to activate a protective device, like a fuse or circuit
breaker, in the event of a short circuit, cutting off the power to the affected area. To reduce
service interruptions, these systems are structured to allow the protective device nearest to the
fault to activate first, isolating the issue and maintaining power to other areas.

2. BASIC SYSTEM DESIGN

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The given power system consists of:

• 2 Generators Rated at 11 kV and 56 MW.

• Supplies power to the system.

• 2 Trnasformers Δ-Y connected transformer.

• Rated at 70 MVA, 11/132 kV.

• Bus1: 11 kV side of T1.

• Bus7: 11 kV side of T3.
• Bus2: 132 kV side of T1 and T3 and the starting point of two transmission lines (Line1 and Line4).
• Bus3: Load connection for Lump1 (22.223 MVA).
• Bus4: Load connection for Lump2 (17.624 MVA).
• Bus5: Connected to the secondary of T2 (11 kV) and the motor (Mtr1).

• Line1: 40 km, WOLF conductor, connects Bus2 to Bus3.

• Line4: 45 km, WOLF conductor, connects Bus2 to Bus4.

• Another Δ-Y connected transformer.

• Rated at 20 MVA, 132/11 kV.

• Lump1: 22.223 MVA, connected at 132 kV (Bus3).

• Lump2: 17.624 MVA, connected at 132 kV (Bus4).

• Rated at 15,000 kW, connected at 11 kV (Bus5).

3. LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

3.1. Load Flow Analysis:

The load flow model of a power system is developed using data on the network, load, and
generation. This model provides outputs such as the voltages at various buses, the flows
through network lines, and the total system losses.

3.2. Load Flow Analysis Through ETAP:

ETAP is a unified engineering and real time platform used to
model, design, visualize, analyze, predict, control and provide
insight on management and performance of electrical power
systems. ETAP goes beyond an integrated engineering analysis tool
to provide an active blueprint of the electrical system that offers
automated rule-based design, model-driven predictive analysis, co-
simulation platform, operator training simulation hub, combined
with real-time analytics, asset performance monitoring, intelligent
controls and more.

In ETAP, Load Flow analysis can be performed using three different methods: Adaptive

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Newton-Raphson, Newton-Raphson, and Fast-Decoupled. The Adaptive Newton-Raphson method
dynamically adjusts the convergence criteria for faster computation in large networks. Newton-Raphson is a
robust iterative method known for its accuracy, suitable for systems with high R/X ratios. The Fast-Decoupled
method simplifies the Newton-Raphson approach by decoupling real and reactive power equations, making it
computationally efficient, especially for large power systems where speed is a priority.

Load flow Analysis can be done using ETAP by following the steps given below:

1) Model a system using different tools available on ETAP.

2) After modelling of the system perform the analysis by ensuring whether the system is working
properly or not.
3) If the system is not working satisfactorily then apply techniques through which your system
starts to behave normally.

3.3. System’s Load Flow Analysis:

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The load flow analysis has been performed on the circuit below, showing the operating
conditions of each device. In the figure below, we can observe that after applying the load flow
analysis, we notice that Bus4, and Bus3 are operating under Marginal conditions and Bus5 is
operating under Critical conditions due to undervoltage.

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To resolve the under-voltage issue at Bus3 and Bus5, three 5 MVAR capacitor banks were
added at Bus5, and two 5 MVAR capacitor banks were added at Bus3. This reactive power
support significantly improved the voltage profiles of both buses, bringing them closer to their
rated levels. A load flow analysis was conducted to validate this adjustment, confirming that
the capacitor banks successfully mitigated the undervoltage conditions in the system.

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4. FAULT ANALYSIS
4.1. Fault Analysis:

The fault analysis of a power system is required in order to provide information for the selection
of switchgear, setting of relays and stability of system operation. A power system is not static
but changes during operation (switching on or off of generators and transmission lines) and
during planning (addition of generators and transmission lines).

4.2. Significance of Fault Analysis:

Fault analysis is an important consideration in power system planning, protection equipment

selection, and overall system reliability assessment. At the heart of today’s power generation
and distribution are high-voltage transmission and distribution networks. When a fault (e.g., a
short circuit) occurs at some point in the network, the normal operating conditions of the system
are upset.

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4.3. System’s Fault Analysis:
After performing load flow analysis, another analysis is performed named fault Analysis. In
this analysis, we have to Evaluate a short-circuit analysis of the system with balanced
(boltedfault) short circuits on all buses.

As shown in the above system, all the buses are in faulty condition as they are colored red and the
fault current flowing in each bus can also be seen.

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 BUS NUMBER FAULT CURRENT (K Amps.)
BUS-1 35.234
BUS-7 35.234
BUS-2 3.267
BUS-3 2.282
BUS-4 2.368
BUS-5 14.214

After balanced (bolted-fault) short circuits on all buses short-circuit analysis of the system with
an unbalanced line-to-neutral short-circuit fault occurring at the motor input is performed. In
this case the maximum short-circuit current through the circuit breaker is evaluated

4.4. LG: 4.5. LLG:

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5. PROTECTIVE DEVICES SETTINGS
5.1. What are Protective Devices?

Protective devices are the essential component for a power system as they protect electrical
power systems from faults through the disconnection of faulted parts from the rest of the
electrical network. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by
isolating only the components that are under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as
possible still in operation. Thus, protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and
pessimistic approach to clearing system faults. The devices that are used to protect the power
systems from faults are called protection devices. Following are the protective devices
commonly used in a protection scheme.

5.2. Switch Gear:

The apparatus used for controlling, regulating and switching the electrical circuit and
equipment in the electrical power system is known as switchgear. It contains: switches, fuses,
circuit breaker, isolator, relays, current and potential transformer, etc.

5.3. Current Transformer:

The device is used to step down the current so that the system cannot be damaged by flowing
high current. It is also connected before relay in order to lower the current according to relay.

5.4. Potential Transformer:

Potential transformer is a voltage step-down transformer which reduces the high voltage to a
lower voltage. These are connected across or parallel to the line which is to be monitored.

5.5. Fuses:

A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows through
it for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected.

5.6. Circuit Breaker:

A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under all conditions i.e. no
load, full load and fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by
remote control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions.

5.7. Protective Devices Settings:

The setting of protective devices can be done through pick up current and time setting
multiplier. The time of operation of the relay depends upon plug setting multiplier. It is clear
that the speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the level of fault current.

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5.8. Significance of Protective Devices Settings:

It is important to form the setting of protective devices such as relay in order to make a proper
coordination between each of the electrical equipment connected in the system. If the proper
setting will not create then the selectivity factor in the system will suffer.

5.9. Important Parameters of Protective Devices Settings:

Following Parameters are predominant for setting a protective devices settings.

5.9.1. Pick-Up Current:

It is the minimum amount of current at which relay start to operate.

I Pick-up = CS * Rated Sec Current

Or

I Pick-up = (FLC + (FLC * 25%) ) / CTR

Where,

CS = Current Setting

SCC = Short Circuit Current

FLC = Full Load Current CTR =

Current Transformer Ratio

5.9.2. Current Setting:

It is used to adjust the pickup current to any required value. It is usually done by tapping on
the relay coil.

5.9.3. Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM):

It is the ratio of the fault current in the relay coil to the pickup current. It shows the severity
of fault.

PSM = I fault Sec / I pickup

5.9.4. Time Setting Multiplier (TSM):

It is used to adjust the time of operation w.r.t TSM current.

TOP = Time from PSM curve x TSM

5.9.5. Fuse Setting:

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 Minimum amount of current at which fuse will disconnect the component.

I fuse > (1.5 * FLC )

5.10. Over Current Relay Settings in ETAP:

In ETAP, the Overcurrent Relay (OCR) settings require three primary configurations:

5.10.1. Selection of Curve Type:

The appropriate relay characteristic curve should be chosen based on the specific protection
requirements, which can be selected from a range of options available within ETAP.

5.10.2. Pickup Current (IP):

The pickup current is typically set using the full load current or, in some cases, the short-circuit
current. This setting determines the minimum current level at which the relay will operate.

5.10.3. Time Dial/Multiplier Setting:

The time dial value determines the time delay before the relay operates once the pickup current
has been exceeded. There are two ways to set this value:

1. Manual Calculation: The time dial can be manually calculated using the formula
associated with the selected curve type.
2. Using the Time-Current Characteristic (TCC) Graph: For simplicity and accuracy, the
time dial value can be directly selected using the TCC graph, which provides a visual
representation of time delay versus fault current for the chosen curve. Formulae for
Curves:
I. SI: TDS = (T * ((PSM^0.02) – 1)) / 0.14
II. VI: TDS = (T * (PSM - 1)) / 13.5
III. EI: TDS = (T * ((PSM^2) - 1)) / 80

We have selected the VI (Very Inverse) and SI (Standard Inverse) curves based on the required
protection. To determine the pickup current (Iₚ), we used the Short-Circuit Current (SCC)
formula: I Pick-up = Current Setting * Rated Sec Current

The Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) is calculated using the specified formula provided above.

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 Excel file can be provided if asked for

6. PROTECTION COORDINATION
6.1. Protection Coordination:

Protective device coordination is the process of determining the "best fit" timing of current
interruption when abnormal electrical conditions occur. The goal is to minimize an outage to
the greatest extent possible. Protection coordination is also handled through dividing the power
system into protective zones. If a fault were to occur in a given zone, necessary actions will be
executed to isolate that zone from the entire system.

6.2. Significance of Protection Coordination:

Once the expected short-circuit currents are known, a protection coordination study helps in
determining the optimum characteristics, ratings, and settings of the power system protective
devices. It is important to know this study so that selectivity of the area cannot be compromise.

6.3. Protection Coordination Through ETAP:

After forming the relay setting through time setting multiplier, the coordination between the
equipment has been formed. Below is the performance of the coordination on ETAP.

Now fault is applied at different busses and components to check wheather CBs and Fuse are
working properly

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Evaluation of the effect of different time characteristic curves (TCC) on coordination.

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7. REVERSE POWER PROTECTION FOR GENERATORS
Reverse power relay si also connected to the Generator as an additional protection measure to
prevent motoring conditions. The relay is configured to trip the generator breaker if reverse
power flow is detected, indicating that the generator is consuming power instead of producing
it. The CTs are installed with their polarities set correctly, ensuring that the relay measures
reverse power accurately, with the dot on the CT secondary oriented away from the generator.
This setup enhances the reliability of the protection system and safeguards the generators
during abnormal operating conditions.

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8. PARALLEL FEEDER PROTECTION
In our previous fault analysis, when a fault occurred at the bus immediately after one feeder,
the circuit breaker (CB) of the second feeder was also tripping, despite not being directly
affected by the fault. This unintended tripping was attributed to the fault current reentering
from the second feeder, as the overcurrent relays (OCR) were not direction-sensitive.

To address this issue, we implemented Directional Overcurrent Relays (DOCR). Unlike

standard OCR, DOCR can determine the direction of the fault current, ensuring that only the
circuit breaker associated with the fault zone trips. This prevents fault current from reentering
through other feeders and causing unnecessary disconnections.

This approach was applied not only to feeders but also to parallel-connected loads, enhancing
the system's selectivity and reliability. By isolating faults accurately, the new relay
configuration minimizes disruption and ensures the stability of the remaining system
components.

9. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMER

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9.1. How Differential Protection Works:

The principle of differential protection is based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), which
states that the sum of currents entering and leaving a node must be zero. Current transformers
(CTs) are installed on both the primary and secondary sides of the transformer, and their
secondary currents are fed to the differential relay. The relay compares the incoming current
to the outgoing current:

9.1.1. Normal Operation:

Under normal conditions or external faults, the current entering the transformer is equal to the
current leaving (considering CT ratios), resulting in minimal or no differential current.

9.1.2. Internal Fault:

If a fault occurs within the transformer (e.g., winding short circuits, turn-to-turn faults), the
difference between the primary and secondary currents increases significantly. The
differential relay detects this imbalance and sends a trip signal to the circuit breakers to
disconnect the transformer from the system.

To account for transformer inrush currents and minor CT mismatches, the relay includes a
restraint feature that prevents tripping during transient conditions or minor discrepancies.

By selecting the higher-current side (primary for T1 and secondary for T2) as the basis for
relay settings, the protection scheme ensures optimal sensitivity and reliability for internal
fault detection, minimizing the risk of transformer damage.

At both transformers T1 and T2, differential protection has been implemented to ensure
precise and reliable fault detection within the transformer zones. Differential protection is a
crucial protection scheme for transformers, as it monitors the difference between the current
entering and leaving the protected zone. If this difference exceeds a predefined threshold, the
relay identifies it as an internal fault and initiates the tripping of circuit breakers to isolate the
transformer, minimizing damage and ensuring system stability.

9.2. Transformer T1 and T3:

T1 and T3 are step-up transformers. For their differential relay settings, the primary side
(high-current side) was used as the reference for configuring the relay. Since the primary
winding of a step-up transformer typically handles higher current levels, it provides the
appropriate base for setting accurate thresholds and ensuring sensitive fault detection.

9.3. Transformer T2:

T2 is a step-down transformer. For its differential relay settings, the secondary side
(highcurrent side) was chosen for configuration. In step-down transformers, the secondary
winding typically carries a higher current, making it a logical reference point for relay setting
to detect abnormalities effectively.

10. INTELLIGENT MOTOR PROTECTION

10.1. Creating fault at Motor:
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To complete the task of designing a suitable protection scheme for the induction motor, We
configured an instantaneous overcurrent relay (OCR) with appropriate settings to differentiate
between the motor's starting inrush current, overloads, and fault conditions.

10.2. Key Configurations:

10.2.1. Pickup Setting:

The relay pickup was set to 39 A on the relay side, which corresponds to 9,360 A on the primary
side of the motor. This pickup value is approximately 8 times the full-load current (FLA),
allowing it to withstand the inrush current without tripping.

10.2.2. Delay Setting: Delay is set to 0.25 seconds, slightly above the motor’s normal acceleration

time of 0.2 seconds.

This ensures the relay doesn’t trip during the motor's normal startup period but will act quickly
in the event of a fault that exceeds the inrush current.

10.2.3. Expected Outcomes:

1. Startup Protection: The relay will allow the motor to start without interruption, as the
inrush current lasts only 0.2 seconds, which is less than the 0.25-second delay.
2. Fault Detection: If a fault occurs that exceeds the pickup current of 9,360 A, the relay
will trip immediately, protecting the motor from damage.
3. Overload and Normal Operation: The relay intelligently distinguishes between inrush
current and sustained overloads or faults, preventing nuisance trips and ensuring
reliable operation.

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11. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the project successfully analyzed and designed protection schemes for the power
system under various operational and fault conditions. Load flow and short-circuit analyses
ensured proper system operation and accurate fault current evaluations. Protection coordination
for fuses, circuit breakers, and relays optimized fault isolation while ensuring selectivity and
reliability. Directional OCR improved parallel feeder stability, and transformer differential
protection ensured precise fault detection. Generator and motor protection schemes enhanced
equipment safety, effectively addressing key fault scenarios. Overall, the implemented
solutions ensure system stability, reliability, and protection of critical components.

10. REFRENCES
[1] H. Saadat, Power System Analysis, 3rd ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

[2] ETAP, ETAP Power System Software User Guide. Irvine, CA, USA: ETAP, 2024. [Online].
Available: https://etap.com/resources/user-manuals

[3] Romero Engineering Company, "ETAP Software Tutorials," YouTube Playlist, 2024.
[Online]. Available:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vClmhfuVDOw&list=PLdN0Ah_F4WKWXNqU42hsy
Glu2PYNFD3r6&index=2

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