(CH2O)n is the general empirical structure of carbohydrates.

Monosaccharides are
simple sugars that serve as fuel molecules and fundamental constituents of living
organisms and these are the simplest carbohydrates required as the energy
sources. Glucose and fructose are the most commonly known carbohydrates.
Structure of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates has historically been characterized as compounds with the
empirical formula Cn(H2O)m. Glucose, fructose, and sucrose are popular sugars
that suit this formula, however, nowadays, a carbohydrate is defined as a
polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone with the classical formula, a molecule
closely similar to it, or oligomers or polymers of such molecules. Because they are
water-soluble and difficult to crystallize, they require a different set of abilities to
manage than traditional "natural products" like terpenes, steroids, and alkaloids.

A "monosaccharide" is a carbohydrate derivative having a single carbon chain;

"disaccharide" and "trisaccharide" are the compounds, which are made up of either
two or three monosaccharide units linked either by acetal or ketal linkages. Larger
aggregates with "a few" and "many" monosaccharide units are referred to as
"oligosaccharide" and "polysaccharide," respectively. The divide between "few"
and "many" appears to be established at around 10 units in current usage.

By the middle of the nineteenth century, chemists in Europe, particularly in

Germany, had discovered a variety of relatively pure carbohydrates such as
sucrose, cotton cellulose, starch, glucose, fructose, mannose, and lactose. Emil
Fischer synthesized phenylhydrazine for his University of Munich thesis in 1878.
In 1884, he discovered that when two phenyl hydrazines reacted with the aldehyde
group and the carbon next to it, carbohydrates formed crystalline phenylosazone.
Types of Carbohydrates
The saccharides or carbohydrates are simply defined as ketones or polyhydroxy
aldehydes or the compounds that produce units of such type on hydrolysis.
Few common types of carbohydrates are milk, bread, popcorn, potatoes, maze,
etc.
The carbohydrates are largely distributed in both plant and animal tissues.
Carbohydrates occur mainly in the form of glycogen and glucose in animal cells
and as cellulose and starch in the plant cells.
Classification of carbohydrates
Generally, carbohydrates are classified into three major groups. They are as
follows:
1. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple sugars. They cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler
form. The simplest carbohydrates are the three-carbon dihydroxyacetone and
trioses glyceraldehyde. They are further classified into glucose, fructose,
galactose, and mannose.
Glucose
Glucose can be seen generally in the fruit juices and formed in the body by
hydrolysis of cane sugar, starch, lactose, and maltose. Glucose is said to be the
sugar of the body. Glucose structure can be depicted in the form of a ring or chain.
It is found in blood, fruits, honey and under abnormal conditions, in urine.

Fructose
Fructose can be seen naturally in honey, tomatoes, and apples. Hydrolysis of cane
sugar in the body can also give up fructose. C 6H12O6 is the molecular formula for
fructose. Generally, fructose is the sweetest monosaccharide and is prepared by
sucrose hydrolysis.
Galactose
An element of glycoproteins and glycolipids is galactose. It is produced in the
mammary glands and hydrolyzed to make the lactose of milk.

Mannose
On the hydrolysis of plant gums and mannosans, mannose is obtained. A
constituent of the prosthetic polysaccharide of albumins, mucoproteins, and
globulins is a mannose. Hexoses and pentoses exist in both ring and open chain
forms.
According to the number of carbon atoms they possess, simple sugars might be
further divided into tetroses, trioses, hexoses or heptoses, pentoses and as
ketoses or aldoses based on whether the ketone or aldehyde groups are present.
For example, let us look at the below table:
Aldoses Ketoses

(C3H6O3) Trioses Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

(C4H8O4) Tetroses Erythrose Erythrulose

(C5H10O5) Pentoses Ribose Ribulose

(C6H12O6) Hexoses Glucose Fructose
a. Trioses
Trioses are formed throughout the metabolic breakdown of the hexoses in
the body. Example: dihydroxyacetone and glyceraldehydes.

Pentoses
Pentoses are vital constituents of many coenzymes and nucleic acids. They
are also formed as transitional throughout certain metabolic processes.
 Example: nucleic acids and coenzymes NAD, Ribose that is a structural
element of ATP and flavor proteins: Arabinose, ribulose, and xylose.
2. Disaccharides
Disaccharides are comprised of two monosaccharides connected by a glycosidic
linkage (C-O-C). Cn (H2O)n-1is the general formula for disaccharides. The most
common disaccharides forms are lactose, sucrose, and maltose.
Maltose
Maltose is formed as a transitional product of the action of amylases on starch and
it contains two glucose residues in 1, 4 linkages. It can be seen in a detectable
amount in many germinating tissues and seeds where starch is being broken
down.
Lactose
Lactose can be found in milk. On hydrolysis, it produces D-galactose and D-
glucose.it is a reducing disaccharide, as it has a free anomeric carbon on the
glucose residue.
Sucrose
Cane sugar or sucrose is a disaccharide of fructose and glucose. The hydrolysis
of sucrose to D-glucose and D-fructose is often known as inversion as it is
accompanied by a net change in optical rotation from dextro to levo as the
equimolar mixture of fructose and glucose is formed and this mixture is known as
invert sugar. Certain enzymes like invertases catalyze this reaction. Sucrose is
tremendously abundant in plants and is commonly known as table sugar.
Trehalose
Trehalose possesses two D-glucose residues and it is a non-reducing disaccharide
like that of sucrose. It is the main sugar that can be seen in many of the insects'
hemolymph.
3. Trisaccharides
Plenty of trisaccharides occur free in nature. Raffinose can be seen abundantly in
many higher plants and sugar beets. Melezitose can be seen in the sap of a few
coniferous trees.
4. Polysaccharides
Majority of the carbohydrates that can be found in nature take place as
polysaccharides of high molecular weight. Polysaccharides are complex
carbohydrates that are formed by the method of polymerization of a huge number
of monosaccharide monomers. The other name for polysaccharides is also known
as glycans.

They are lengthy which might be unbranched or branched. After the completion of
hydrolysis with specific enzymes and acid, the polysaccharides give up simple
monosaccharide derivatives and/ or monosaccharides. Depending upon the
composition, polysaccharides can be classified into two types:
Homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.
a. Homoglycans or homopolysaccharides are the complex carbohydrates that
are formed by the method of polymerization of only one type of monosaccharide
monomer. Example: glycogen, starch, and cellulose are composed of a single type
of monosaccharide known as glucose.

On the basis of monosaccharide unit, the polysaccharide is known as glucan

which is made of glucose, xylan which is having xylose, fructan that is made
of fructose, galactan that is formed of galactose, Araban that is made of
arabinose, etc.
b. Heteroglycans or heteropolysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that
are made by the process of condensation of either one type of
monosaccharide monomer or monosaccharide derivatives.
Example: agar, chitin, arabinogalactans, peptidoglycan, arabinoxylans, etc.
Examples of Carbohydrates
A few examples of Carbohydrates across different product types are given below.
• Fruits - Whole fruit, fruit juice
• Legumus - Beans, plant-based proteins
• Dairy Products - Ice cream, yogurt, milk
• Starchy Vegetables - Potatoes, corn
• Grain - Wheat, cereal, rice