THE ENNEADS

The Summary of Neoplatonism in video format:

https://youtu.be/vZEUo_sHoBw?si=eBQKJz4niohQZSG1

THE SUMMARY OF THE ENTIRE ENNEADS.

What Is the Living Being and What Is the Human Being? (1.1)

§1. What is the subject of embodied states and activities?

The embodied states and activities pertain to the composite being: the union of the soul and
body. These activities arise from the interaction between the immaterial soul and the
material body, but they are primarily expressions of the soul as it animates the body.

§2. What is the soul? Is it itself a composite or is it form?

The soul is a non-composite, incorporeal essence. It is not a composite but a form that
emanates from the higher principle, Intellect (Nous), and ultimately from the One. It is
simple, eternal, and indivisible, though it manifests multiplicity through its activities.

§3. The various ways in which the soul has been conceived of as related to the body.
The soul is related to the body in several ways:

1.​ As an animating principle, it gives life to the body.

2.​ It is not localized but present throughout the body, imbuing it with vitality.
3.​ The relationship is hierarchical, with the soul governing the body.
4.​ The body is a vehicle or instrument for the soul's expression in the material realm.

§4. The soul imparts life to the body without being mixed with it.

The soul remains distinct from the body, imparting life as a causal and governing principle.
Like the light of the sun illuminating objects without merging with them, the soul vivifies
the body without undergoing mixture or degradation.

§5. How can the states of the body be transmitted to the soul?

The states of the body are transmitted to the soul indirectly, through impressions or images
formed within the intermediary principle (the "lower soul" or the sensory apparatus). The
higher soul itself remains unaffected but receives knowledge of these states via reflection or
resonance, akin to how a mirror reflects but is not altered by the image.

§6. In what sense is the soul actively involved with the body and in what sense is it
impassive?

The soul is actively involved with the body as its principle of life, governance, and
movement. It oversees bodily activities and sustains the harmony of the organism.
However, the higher aspect of the soul is impassive, remaining detached and unaltered by
bodily changes, much like a musician playing an instrument without being affected by the
instrument's imperfections.
§7. It is not the soul itself that endows the body with life, but its activity.

Life arises from the soul's activity, not its essence. The soul, through its emanations and
operations, animates the body, just as the sun illuminates the earth through its rays. The
soul's essence transcends the act of life-giving and remains pure.

§8. Relation of the embodied soul to Intellect.

The embodied soul remains connected to Intellect (Nous), which is its source and superior
principle. Even in embodiment, the soul retains an innate orientation toward Intellect,
drawing from it guidance, wisdom, and order. This relationship underscores the soul's dual
role: being in the body but not of the body.

§9. Vice is attributed to the living being, not to the soul itself.

Vice arises from the composite nature of the living being—the union of soul and body. It
reflects the soul's misalignment with Intellect due to its entanglement with the bodily
desires and passions. The higher soul itself remains pure and untainted by vice.

§10. The ambiguity of ‘we’ between embodied and disembodied self.

The term ‘we’ encapsulates a dual identity: the embodied self (a composite of soul and
body) and the true, disembodied self (the soul in its pure state). This ambiguity reflects the
tension between our higher, spiritual nature and our lower, corporeal existence.

§11. The psychical status of children and animals.

Children and animals possess souls that are active in life-giving and sensory functions but
are less actualized in their rational capacities. In animals, the soul's activities are confined
to lower faculties, while in children, the rational aspect of the soul is still in potential and
unfolds as they mature.
 ON VIRTUES (1.2)

§1. How can the practice of virtue bring about assimilation to the divine when the
gods themselves do not practice virtue?

In Neoplatonism, virtues are seen as a means of purifying the soul, aligning it with the
divine order. While the gods (or higher intelligences) are inherently perfect and beyond the
need for virtue, humans require virtues to ascend spiritually. Virtue brings the soul closer
to its true nature and to the divine by freeing it from the entanglements of the material
world. The gods embody the perfection that virtues aim to cultivate, making virtue a
preparatory step toward divine likeness.

§2. Virtues as purifications.

Virtues are not merely moral behaviors but transformative practices that cleanse the soul
of lower desires and attachments. They enable the soul to disentangle itself from the
passions, bodily influences, and material concerns. This purification allows the soul to focus
on higher, intellectual realities. In this sense, virtues are stages on the path toward
returning to the divine.

§3. The effects of purification on the soul.

Purification has profound effects on the soul:

1.​ Detachment from the Material: The soul becomes less dominated by the sensory and
physical world.
2.​ Clarity and Harmony: The purified soul achieves inner harmony, aligning its
faculties (reason, spirit, and desire) with the divine intellect.
 3.​ Ascension: Purification prepares the soul for contemplation of the higher realities,
leading it to Intellect (Nous) and ultimately to the One.

§4. Purification and assimilation.

The process of purification is directly tied to assimilation with the divine. By shedding the
impurities of the lower realm, the soul becomes more like the divine, which is pure, simple,
and perfect. Assimilation is not about imitating the gods' actions—since they are beyond
action—but about attaining a state of being that reflects divine perfection.

§5. Whether the higher and lower virtues imply each other.

Plotinus distinguishes between the practical (civic) and theoretical (higher) virtues:

1.​ Lower (Practical) Virtues: These include justice, courage, moderation, and practical
wisdom, which regulate life in the material realm and bring order to the soul's
interaction with the body and society.
2.​ Higher (Theoretical) Virtues: These are contemplative virtues, such as wisdom and
understanding, which elevate the soul toward the divine.

Although the higher virtues are superior, they presuppose the lower virtues. One cannot
attain the higher virtues without first practicing the lower ones, as the latter prepare the
soul by instilling discipline and harmony.

Neoplatonic Insight on Virtues:

The progression of virtues reflects a hierarchical ascent:

●​ Practical virtues align the soul with order in the material world.
●​ Purificatory virtues detach the soul from the material.
 ●​ Contemplative virtues lead the soul to union with the divine.

ON DIALECTIC (1.3)

§1. What is the nature of ascent to the Good?

The ascent to the Good is a process of purification and self-transcendence, moving from the
realm of the senses and lower virtues to the higher virtues and ultimate union with the One.

1.​ Two Stages of Ascent:

○​ Lower Stage: Involves moral purification and the cultivation of virtues to
align the soul with order and harmony.
○​ Higher Stage: Leads the soul beyond the material and intellectual realms to
direct contemplation and unity with the Good.
2.​ The Philosopher, Musician, and Lover:
○​ The Musician: Ascends through beauty and harmony, inspired by the order
in the world to seek higher truths.
○​ The Lover: Is drawn by love (Eros), moving from physical attraction to the
beauty of the soul, and ultimately to the intelligible beauty of the divine.
○​ The Philosopher: Seeks wisdom and uses dialectic to ascend through
understanding, moving systematically toward the Good.

§2. The Lover

The lover’s journey exemplifies the ascent from the lower, sensory attractions to the higher,
intelligible love:

●​ Sensory to Spiritual: Beginning with love of physical beauty, the lover progresses to
the love of beauty in souls, actions, and knowledge.
●​ Eros as a Motivator: Eros serves as the driving force, pulling the soul upward
toward the divine. The lover’s ultimate aim is to behold and unite with the Form of
Beauty, which is a reflection of the Good.

§3. The Philosopher

The philosopher achieves the highest form of ascent because they seek direct knowledge of
the intelligible realm:

●​ Dialectic as a Tool: The philosopher uses dialectic to discern and grasp the Forms,
peeling away illusions and errors in thought.
●​ Contemplation of the Good: The philosopher’s ultimate goal is to contemplate and
become assimilated to the Good, which is the source of all being and knowledge.
●​ Rational and Supra-Rational Knowledge: The philosopher transcends mere
rationality, reaching a state of direct intellectual intuition of the One.

§4. The Nature of Platonic Dialectic

Dialectic is the supreme intellectual activity in Neoplatonism, enabling the soul to ascend
through understanding:

●​ Definition: Dialectic is the method of reasoning that distinguishes and synthesizes,

leading the soul from multiplicity to unity and from the manifold appearances to the
singular truths of the intelligible realm.
 ●​ Discovery of Forms: Through dialectic, the philosopher identifies and understands
the Forms, which are the eternal, unchanging realities underlying the material
world.
●​ Unity and Distinction: Dialectic seeks to unify what is scattered and fragmented
while distinguishing between true knowledge and mere opinion or illusion.

§5. The Principles of Dialectic and Its Relation to Logic

Plotinus distinguishes Platonic dialectic from other forms of logic:

●​ Platonic Dialectic vs. Aristotelian Logic:

○​ Aristotelian logic focuses on categorization and syllogistic reasoning, dealing
with the relations between propositions.
○​ Platonic dialectic, however, is directed toward understanding the Forms and
the ultimate truths of reality.
●​ Platonic Dialectic vs. Stoic Logic:
○​ Stoic logic emphasizes propositional and linguistic analysis.
○​ Platonic dialectic transcends linguistic analysis to engage with the structure
of reality itself.
●​ Principles of Dialectic: Platonic dialectic is based on principles of unity,
intelligibility, and the hierarchical ascent from the many to the One.

§6. The Relation of Dialectic to Natural Philosophy and to Ethics

1.​ Relation to Natural Philosophy:

○​ Dialectic goes beyond natural philosophy (which studies the physical cosmos)
to engage with the intelligible realm that underpins the cosmos.
○​ Natural philosophy prepares the soul by revealing the order and rationality
of the material world, but dialectic leads the soul to the source of that order
in the Forms.
 2.​ Relation to Ethics:
○​ Dialectic complements ethics by providing the intellectual framework for
understanding the Good.
○​ Ethics concerns the purification and ordering of the soul, while dialectic
enables the soul to ascend to higher knowledge and assimilation with the
divine.

HOW TO USE THE DIALECTIC

. Understand the Goal of Dialectic

The ultimate purpose of the dialectic is to:

●​ Ascend to the Forms: Understand the eternal, unchanging realities that underpin
the material world.
●​ Unify Multiplicity into Unity: Move from fragmented appearances to the coherent
vision of the One.
●​ Purify the Soul: Detach from false opinions, sensory distractions, and lower passions
to align with the divine order.
●​ Contemplate the Good: Prepare the soul for union with the ineffable source of all
being.

2. Cultivate the Pre-Requisites

Before engaging in dialectic, prepare your mind and soul:

●​ Moral Purification: Practice ethical virtues (justice, moderation, courage, and

wisdom) to bring harmony to the soul.
●​ Detachment from the Material: Avoid overindulgence in sensory pleasures and focus
on the higher realities.
●​ Discipline of the Mind: Train your mind in logic and reasoning as a preliminary
step, but do not confuse it with the higher dialectic.

3. Stages of Using the Dialectic

Stage 1: Begin with Division and Distinction (Dioiresis)

●​ Purpose: Clarify and separate what is true from what is false.

●​ Practice:
○​ Identify an object or concept and analyze its parts. For instance, consider
"beauty"—is it physical, moral, or intelligible?
○​ Distinguish between the essence (what something is in itself) and its
accidental qualities (what it appears to be or how it manifests in different
contexts).
○​ Reject opinions and beliefs that are based on sensory impressions alone, as
they are often misleading.

Stage 2: Synthesis of Higher Truths (Synagogé)

●​ Purpose: Reunite what has been fragmented to perceive the whole.

●​ Practice:
○​ Ascend from the multiplicity of divided parts to their unity. For example,
after analyzing beauty in various forms, realize the shared essence of beauty
that points to its intelligible archetype (the Form of Beauty).
○​ Contemplate how individual Forms (e.g., Justice, Beauty, Goodness)
interrelate, ultimately pointing to the unity of all Forms in the One.

Stage 3: Contemplation of the Forms

●​ Purpose: Move beyond reasoning to direct intellectual vision.

●​ Practice:
○​ Focus on a single Form, such as Justice or Beauty, and meditate on its
intelligible nature. Let go of sensory distractions and try to intuit its essence.
○​ Allow your intellect (Nous) to become one with the Form, experiencing its
unity and perfection.
○​ Realize that all Forms reflect the Good and point toward it.

Stage 4: Ascend Beyond the Forms to the One

●​ Purpose: Transcend even the intelligible realm to experience unity with the ineffable
source.
●​ Practice:
○​ Move beyond conceptual thinking and allow your intellect to rest in stillness,
aiming for a direct encounter with the One.
○​ This stage is beyond words or reason. It involves surrendering all
distinctions, even the distinction between the knower and the known, to
experience pure unity.
4. Employ Key Techniques in Dialectic

A. Questioning (Elenchus)

●​ Challenge assumptions and surface contradictions. Ask, "What is truly real?" and
"Does this appearance reflect its essence?"
●​ Example: If contemplating justice, ask, “What is justice in itself?”—not as it is
applied or misapplied in society, but as a pure, eternal idea.

B. Reflective Mediation

●​ Engage in meditation on the principles of unity and multiplicity.

●​ Visualize moving from fragmented sensory objects (e.g., a tree) to their underlying
essence (life, growth) and, ultimately, to the universal principle (the Form of Life).

C. Dialogical Practice

●​ Engage in dialogue with like-minded seekers or within yourself to refine your

understanding.
●​ Seek to harmonize apparent contradictions, synthesizing them into higher truths.

D. Inner Purification

●​ Cultivate silence and detachment during the process, recognizing that the dialectic is
not about accumulating knowledge but purifying the soul for higher realities.

5. The Esoteric Mindset of the Dialectician

●​ Harmony with the Cosmos: Recognize that the dialectic mirrors the structure of the
cosmos, moving from chaos to order, from multiplicity to unity.
●​ Intellectual Love of the Good: Let the love for truth and beauty guide you upward,
beyond mere intellectual curiosity.
●​ Integration of Lower and Higher: Honor practical virtues as foundational but
always strive for the contemplative life.

6. Challenges and Pitfalls

●​ Overreliance on Logic: Do not mistake formal logical reasoning for true dialectic.
Dialectic transcends formal logic and engages directly with the structure of reality.
 ●​ Attachment to Sensory Impressions: Resist the pull of sensory distractions and focus
on intelligible truths.
●​ Impatience: The ascent is gradual and requires sustained effort and discipline.

7. The Fruit of Dialectic

When practiced correctly, dialectic leads to:

●​ Vision of the Forms: Direct knowledge of the eternal realities.

●​ Unity with the One: The highest goal, where the soul transcends all distinctions and
rests in the ineffable source of all being.
●​ Transformation of the Soul: A purified soul that reflects divine order and harmony,
fully aligned with the intelligible cosmos.
 On Happiness (1.4)

§x. If Aristotle is right that the best life is the achievement of something’s function,
then even non-rational animals and plants can be happy.

In Neoplatonism, the function (ergon) of a being is tied to its place in the hierarchy of
existence. While plants and animals fulfill their natural functions and participate in the
divine order, true happiness (eudaimonia), as understood in Plotinus, is a uniquely
intellectual and spiritual pursuit.

●​ Animals and Plants: They can achieve a form of natural harmony by fulfilling their
roles, but their happiness is limited to the realm of nature and is not comparable to
the higher happiness of rational beings.
●​ Human Function: Humans, as rational and intellectual beings, have a higher
function: the ascent to the intelligible realm and participation in the Good. True
happiness arises only when a person fulfills this highest function.

§2. The unsustainability of the Epicurean position that identifies happiness with the
pleasant life. The Stoic position, that happiness is the rational life, is better, but not
if rationality is understood as following nature.

●​ Epicureanism: Plotinus critiques the Epicurean view that equates happiness with
pleasure, as pleasure is tied to the body and the material realm, which are transient
and subject to decay. True happiness must be eternal and unchanging, and thus
cannot arise from bodily sensations or material comforts.
●​ Stoicism: Plotinus finds Stoicism closer to truth because of its emphasis on
rationality and virtue as central to happiness. However, the Stoic ideal of "living in
accordance with nature" is insufficient if "nature" is understood materially.
○​ Rational Life in Neoplatonism: Rationality must transcend the material and
bodily realms, aiming for union with the divine Intellect. Happiness is found
 in aligning with the higher, intelligible order, not merely with the natural
world.

§3. The happy life can only be the life of the Intellect in relation to the Good.

For Plotinus, the Intellect (Nous) is the realm of true being, where the Forms reside, and
the Good is the ultimate source of all existence and value.

●​ Happiness as the Life of the Intellect: True happiness comes from living a life rooted
in the Intellect, contemplating the Forms, and being in alignment with the Good.
●​ Relation to the Good: The Good is beyond being and is the source of all intelligible
reality. Happiness is achieved when the soul transcends the material and aligns itself
with the Intellect, which contemplates and participates in the Good.
●​ Ascent to the Intelligible: The soul must rise above the sensory and lower rational
levels to unite with the Intellect, which provides eternal and unchanging fulfillment.

§4. The happy life is not only found in Intellect but requires the recognition of our
true identity with our intellects.

●​ True Identity: According to Plotinus, humans often mistakenly identify with their
lower aspects—body and emotions. However, the true self is the intellective soul,
which is a reflection of the divine Intellect.
●​ Self-Realization: Happiness arises when one realizes their identity as a rational and
intellectual being. This recognition shifts focus from external pursuits to the inner
ascent toward the Intellect and the Good.
●​ Unity with the Intellect: To be truly happy, one must not only engage with the
Intellect but fully identify with it, recognizing that one's higher self is already part of
the divine order.
§5. Peripatetic objections to the Platonic position based on the role of externals in
the happy life.

Peripatetics (followers of Aristotle) often argue that external goods—such as wealth,

health, and friendships—play a role in achieving happiness. Plotinus responds:

●​ Externals as Non-Essential: While externals may contribute to a pleasant or easier

life, they are not essential to true happiness. True happiness is found within the
soul’s relationship with the Intellect and the Good, which are independent of
external circumstances.
●​ The Self-Sufficiency of the Soul: The soul’s happiness does not rely on material
conditions but on its ascent to and unity with the divine. Even in adversity, a soul
aligned with the Intellect can be perfectly happy.
●​ Externals and Virtue: Plotinus acknowledges that a virtuous soul may use externals
as tools for good actions, but they are subordinate to the soul's inner alignment with
the Good.
 On whether happiness increases with time. (1.5)

Happiness is always in the present, not the past or future. This is so even if our activity is
always future-oriented. Increase in the time spent contemplating does not increase
happiness.

Increase in pleasure does not increase happiness. Comparisons of periods of happiness in

different lives are illicit.

Unhappiness may increase in time, but not happiness. Happiness transcends time.

Memory of previous happiness or of pleasure does not add to happiness.

Virtuous deeds are the result, not the cause of inner happiness.

On Beauty (1.6)

§1. What is the nature of beauty and what causes things to be beautiful? Criticism of
the Stoic view.

●​ Nature of Beauty: In Neoplatonism, beauty is not a superficial property but a

reflection of the intelligible order. It arises from participation in the divine Forms,
especially the Form of Beauty.
●​ Cause of Beauty: Things are beautiful because they manifest unity, proportion, and
harmony, which are characteristics of the intelligible realm. These qualities resonate
with the soul, drawing it upward toward the Good.
●​ Criticism of Stoic View: The Stoics often associate beauty with material
arrangements or utility. Plotinus rejects this, asserting that beauty comes not from
material composition but from the presence of form and its ability to direct the soul
toward higher realities.

§2. Something is beautiful owing to the presence of intelligible form.

●​ Role of Forms: Beauty is caused by the presence of an intelligible form in an object.

This form imposes order and harmony, which the soul intuitively recognizes as
beautiful.
 ●​ Participation in the Intelligibles: Objects in the material world are beautiful because
they participate, albeit imperfectly, in the intelligible Forms. The closer an object is
to the intelligible, the more beautiful it is.
●​ Hierarchy of Beauty: Material beauty is a reflection of the higher, intelligible
beauty. True beauty is found in the realm of Forms, and the physical is only a dim
echo.

§3. The beauty of shapes, colours, and sounds and the means to their recognition.

●​ Material Beauty: Shapes, colors, and sounds are considered beautiful when they
exhibit harmony, proportion, and unity. These qualities mirror the intelligible order.
●​ Recognition: The soul recognizes beauty through its innate connection to the Forms.
The sight of a harmonious form or the sound of a well-composed melody awakens a
memory of the intelligible beauty, stirring the soul to ascend.

§4. The beauty of virtue.

●​ Ethical Beauty: Virtue is the most profound form of beauty in the material realm
because it reflects the order and harmony of the soul itself. A virtuous soul is aligned
with the intelligible realm, embodying its unity and truth.
●​ Inner Beauty: Plotinus emphasizes that virtue beautifies the soul, making it a
mirror of the divine. This beauty surpasses physical attractiveness, as it pertains to
the eternal and unchanging aspects of existence.

§5. The relation between the beauty of virtue and the intelligibles.

●​ Virtue and the Intelligibles: The beauty of virtue arises from the soul’s alignment
with the intelligible Forms. A virtuous soul participates in the intelligible realm and
reflects its harmony.
●​ Unity with the Good: Virtue leads the soul closer to the Good, the ultimate source of
beauty. Ethical beauty is thus inseparable from intellectual and metaphysical
beauty.

§6. The process of purification leading to the recognition of intelligible beauty.

 ●​ Purification: To perceive intelligible beauty, the soul must undergo purification,
freeing itself from attachment to material and sensory distractions.
●​ Stages of Purification: This process involves detachment from bodily desires,
cultivation of virtue, and the practice of contemplation. Through purification, the
soul becomes attuned to the higher realities and capable of perceiving true beauty.

§7. The ascent to the Good.

●​ Beauty as a Ladder: Beauty in the material world serves as a stepping-stone for the
soul’s ascent to the Good. By contemplating progressively higher forms of beauty,
the soul rises toward the ultimate source of all beauty.
●​ Union with the Good: The final goal of the ascent is unity with the Good, which is
beyond all forms and is the origin of beauty itself. This union is the culmination of
the soul’s journey.

§8. The method of ascent.

●​ Contemplation and Virtue: The ascent begins with the recognition of material
beauty, leading to the contemplation of the Forms. The practice of virtue refines the
soul, enabling it to move beyond sensory beauty.
●​ Inner Vision: Plotinus emphasizes the development of inner sight, which allows the
soul to perceive the intelligible beauty beyond the material.

§9. The development of interior sight through the practice of virtue.

●​ Interior Sight: The soul must cultivate an inward focus to perceive intelligible
beauty. This requires turning away from the distractions of the material world.
●​ Role of Virtue: Virtue clears the soul of impurities, making it receptive to the light
of the intelligible realm. Through this purification, the soul’s inner sight becomes
sharp, enabling it to perceive the divine.
●​ Unity with Beauty: When the soul fully develops its interior sight, it not only sees
beauty but becomes one with it, achieving the ultimate goal of unity with the Good.
 On the Primary Good and on The Other Goods (1.7)

1. The Primacy of the Good

Plotinus underscores the supremacy of the Good, placing it above Aristotle’s Unmoved
Mover. For Aristotle, the Unmoved Mover is a purely intellectual entity, the object of all
desire and motion, yet detached from the world of becoming. Plotinus, however, insists that
the Good is not merely an intellectual principle but the absolute transcendent reality that
sustains all existence. It is beyond being (epekeina tes ousias), not confined by the
limitations of intellect or substance.

In Neoplatonic terms, the Good is ineffable and unknowable, yet it is the source of all
intelligibility and life. It does not act as a remote first cause but as the overflowing fountain
from which all emanates. Its priority is ontological and axiological: the Good is the origin
and measure of all other goods.

2. Participation in the Good

The process of emanation explains how all beings participate in the Good. According to
Plotinus, the Good diffuses itself without diminution, giving rise to the hypostases of
Intellect (Nous) and Soul (Psyche), which, in turn, produce the material world. This
participation is both metaphysical and ethical.

All things, by their very nature, aspire to the Good. The degree of their participation
determines their proximity to the divine. Higher beings, like the Intellect, reflect the Good
more perfectly, while material entities, being further removed, experience its light only
faintly. The ethical task of the soul, then, is to ascend from the realm of matter and
multiplicity to the unity of the Good, achieving self-perfection through contemplation and
purification.

3. The Problem of Evil

Plotinus addresses the perennial problem of evil by linking it to the structure of the cosmos.
In a system where all emanates from the Good, how does one account for the presence of
evil? Plotinus posits that evil is not a substantive reality but the privation or absence of the
Good. It arises in the lower levels of emanation, where matter and multiplicity introduce
disorder and limitation.

Living and dying, then, are to be understood in terms of the soul's alignment or
misalignment with the Good. True life is participation in the Good, characterized by unity
and order, while death is a descent into fragmentation and disarray. Ethical evil, similarly,
is the result of the soul's turning away from its divine source, entangling itself in the
transient and corporeal.

Conclusion: The Ethical and Metaphysical Unity of the Good

Plotinus’ On the Primary Good and on the Other Goods is a profound meditation on the
ultimate ground of reality and its implications for human life. The Good, as the
transcendent source of all being, offers both the metaphysical foundation and the ethical
telos of existence. Against Aristotle, Plotinus asserts that only an absolutely transcendent
principle can provide the unity and coherence necessary for a truly philosophical account
of happiness and morality.

For the Neoplatonist, to know the Good is to return to it, transcending the multiplicity of
the world and achieving a unity that mirrors the divine. This ascent is not merely an
intellectual act but a transformative journey, requiring the soul to shed all that is not
aligned with the eternal and unchanging Good. Thus, the metaphysical and ethical
dimensions of Neoplatonism converge, revealing a vision of life that is at once sublime and
profoundly demanding.

On What Evils Are and Where They Come From (1.8)

1. What Is Evil and How Is It Known?

Evil, in Neoplatonism, is not a substantive reality but a deficiency, the absence of Good.
Plotinus introduces the concept of evil as unqualified privation, a lack of form, intelligibility,
and measure. It is a negative state rather than an active principle. The soul apprehends evil
indirectly by recognizing the lack of the Good, much like darkness is known through the
absence of light.

Evil is not an equal counterpart to the Good but exists parasitically. It arises in the lower
realms of the emanative hierarchy, where the unity and perfection of the intelligible realm
dissipate into multiplicity and disorder.

2. Evil’s Absence in the Intelligible World

For Plotinus, the intelligible realm, comprising the One, the Intellect (Nous), and the Soul
(Psyche), is free from evil because it is fully illuminated by the Good. The intelligible world
is characterized by order, unity, and intelligibility. Evil cannot subsist here because it is
fundamentally antithetical to these attributes. Evil’s existence is confined to the material
realm, where form and intelligibility begin to wane.

3. Evil as Bereft of Intelligibility and Measure

Evil, being unqualified privation, is entirely devoid of intelligibility, structure, and

harmony. It is not an active force but a formless and chaotic absence. This privation is
evident in the material world, where the divine order becomes fragmented and obscured.

4. Bodies and Souls: Their Relationship to Evil

Material bodies are not inherently evil but possess evil insofar as they are characterized by
unintelligibility and disintegration. Souls, in turn, are not evil by nature but may become
associated with evil through their immersion in the material realm. This association occurs
when the soul, forgetting its divine origin, becomes overly attached to the corporeal and
transient, thus distancing itself from the Good.

The ethical task of the soul is to ascend from its entanglement with matter and recover its
alignment with the intelligible realm. This ascent involves purification and contemplation
of the Good.

5. Matter as Unqualified Privation

Plotinus identifies matter as the ultimate locus of evil because it is pure potentiality and
completely devoid of form or actuality. In rejecting Aristotle’s distinction between potency
and privation, Plotinus conflates these concepts, arguing that matter’s lack of qualification
disqualifies it from being a principle in its own right. Instead, matter represents the
inevitable shadow cast by the emanation of the Good.

6. Commentary on Plato’s Dialogues

Plotinus engages with Plato’s Theaetetus and Timaeus to elucidate the nature of evil. In
Theaetetus 176A, he interprets the notion of evil as being tied to disorder and
unintelligibility, while Timaeus 47E-48A provides insight into how material necessity
operates as a receptacle of form but never fully embodies it. These passages reinforce
Plotinus’ argument that evil is inherent to the nature of matter as an imperfect participant
in the Good.

7. Evils in the Soul and Vice

Plotinus distinguishes between evil as privation and vice as a psychical condition. Vice
arises when the soul, through its association with matter, succumbs to passions and
disorders. This moral and spiritual ailment is akin to illness, disrupting the soul’s natural
harmony and obscuring its connection to the intelligible.

Vice, while serious, is not equivalent to ontological evil. It represents a failure of the soul to
actualize its potential and orient itself toward the Good. The soul’s redemption lies in
disentangling itself from vice through philosophical contemplation and the practice of
virtue.

8. The Paradox of Knowing Evil

If evil is utterly unintelligible, how can it be known or conceptualized? Plotinus resolves

this by framing evil as an absence rather than a presence. It is known indirectly, through
the recognition of the deficiency of Good. Thus, evil becomes intelligible only in contrast to
the intelligibility and perfection of the Good.

Conclusion: Evil and the Good

Plotinus’ treatment of evil in Ennead 1.8 is a profound reflection on the nature of

imperfection in a cosmos emanating from the Good. Evil, far from being a coequal
principle, is the necessary consequence of the metaphysical structure of emanation. As the
emanative process descends from the unity of the Good to the multiplicity of matter,
privation and disorder inevitably arise.

The ethical and spiritual implications are clear: while evil is an unavoidable aspect of the
material world, the soul is called to transcend it by aligning itself with the Good. Vice and
moral evil are not insurmountable but represent challenges on the path of ascent. Through
philosophical inquiry, self-discipline, and contemplation, the soul can overcome its
association with matter and return to the source of all Good.
 On Exiting from The Body (1.9)

The Soul’s Relation to the Body: Neoplatonic Foundations

In Neoplatonic metaphysics, the soul occupies a unique position between the material and
the intelligible realms. It emanates from the Intellect (Nous), retaining a trace of divine
unity, but becomes partially immersed in the physical world through its association with
the body. This dual existence imbues human life with both its challenge and its potential:
the soul must navigate the pull of material passions while striving to return to the Good, its
ultimate source.

Plotinus rejects the dualistic notion that the soul is trapped in the body in a wholly negative
sense. While the body represents a lower level of reality marked by multiplicity and
imperfection, it serves as a necessary vessel for the soul’s experiences and moral
development. The soul's task is not to despise the body but to use it as a means of
cultivating virtue and ascending toward the intelligible realm.

The Prohibition of Suicide

1. Violent Withdrawal and Its Consequences

Plotinus firmly opposes the violent severance of the soul from the body, arguing that such
an act is metaphysically and ethically unjustifiable. The soul, burdened with bodily
passions at the moment of death, cannot achieve the purity necessary for its return to the
divine. Instead, this act disrupts the natural order of the soul’s journey, leaving it
encumbered by the remnants of its earthly attachments.

For Plotinus, the process of death is not merely a biological event but a metaphysical
transition. It requires a gradual loosening of the soul’s ties to the body, achieved through
philosophical contemplation and virtuous living. A premature or violent exit short-circuits
this process, leaving the soul unprepared for its next stage of existence.

2. The Loss of Moral Progress

Suicide, according to Plotinus, deprives the individual of the opportunity for moral and
spiritual growth. Life in the body, despite its challenges, is the arena in which the soul
develops virtues such as courage, temperance, and wisdom. These virtues are not only
ethical achievements but also metaphysical refinements, aligning the soul more closely with
the intelligible realm.

By cutting short its embodied existence, the soul forfeits the chance to perfect itself.
Plotinus echoes Plato’s assertion in the Phaedo that life is a preparation for death; the
philosopher must not seek to hasten this process but approach it with patience and
discipline.

Responses to Peripatetic and Stoic Views

1. Peripatetic Doctrine

Aristotelian philosophy emphasizes the natural teleology of human existence. For the
Peripatetics, life is a good insofar as it is the fulfillment of the soul’s potential within the
body. Suicide, as a rejection of this natural purpose, violates the harmonious integration of
soul and body. Plotinus aligns with this view to the extent that it affirms the value of
embodied life as a context for the soul’s development.

2. Stoic Doctrine

The Stoics, while generally valuing life, permit suicide under certain circumstances, such as
when life becomes incompatible with virtue or reason. Plotinus, however, diverges from this
stance. For him, the mere presence of bodily suffering or external misfortune does not
justify suicide. The soul’s duty is to transcend such conditions through inner detachment
and alignment with the intelligible realm, not to escape them prematurely.
Life as a Preparation for Death

Plotinus’ perspective on life and death is deeply rooted in his metaphysical and ethical
framework. Life is not an end in itself but a phase in the soul’s eternal journey. The body,
though imperfect, is a necessary vehicle for the soul’s growth. The philosopher’s task is to
use life wisely, cultivating virtues and contemplating the Good, thereby preparing the soul
for its eventual departure.

Death, when it comes naturally, represents the culmination of this process. It is the soul’s
release from the constraints of the body, enabling it to ascend to the intelligible realm.
However, this release must occur in accordance with the natural order. Prematurely forcing
the soul out of the body through suicide disrupts the harmony of this process, leaving the
soul ill-prepared for its next stage.

On The Cosmos (2.1)

The Everlastingness of the Universe

Plotinus begins by addressing the problem of how the universe, being a composite entity
with a bodily nature, can be eternal. Within the Neoplatonic framework, the cosmos
emanates from the intelligible realm through the dynamic procession of the One, the
Intellect (Nous), and the Soul (Psyche). The universe is an expression of the Soul, and its
everlastingness follows from the eternal nature of its source. However, Plotinus
acknowledges the challenge posed by the apparent instability of bodies, which are typically
subject to change, decay, and dissolution.

1. Rejection of Simplistic Explanations

Plotinus dismisses two inadequate explanations for the universe's everlastingness:

 ●​ The Will of God: While the divine will undoubtedly governs the universe,
attributing its eternal nature solely to divine volition fails to account for its intrinsic
structural and metaphysical principles.
●​ The Lack of an External Opponent: The argument that the universe endures
because there is nothing outside it to destroy it is similarly insufficient.
Everlastingness must be explained by the universe’s internal causes, not by the
absence of external threats.

The Role of the Soul and the Body

2. The Soul as the Cause of Everlastingness

The Soul is the primary cause of the universe’s perpetuity. As an emanation of the Intellect,
it imparts life, order, and unity to the cosmos, ensuring its coherence and stability. The
Soul’s eternal nature guarantees that the universe as a whole participates in its perpetuity.
This aligns with the principle of procession: just as the Soul emanates from the Intellect
without diminishing its source, the universe emanates from the Soul without depleting it.

3. The Cooperation of the Body

While the Soul provides the essential cause of the universe’s everlastingness, the bodily
nature of the cosmos must also cooperate to sustain this state. Plotinus emphasizes that the
body of the universe must be uniquely constituted to avoid the flux and decay typical of
sublunary entities. Celestial bodies, for instance, are composed of a special, immutable
form of matter that resists external flux.

The Celestial and Sublunary Realms

4. The Everlastingness of Celestial Living Things

Plotinus distinguishes between celestial living things (e.g., stars and planets) and sublunary
beings (e.g., humans and animals):

●​ Celestial beings are parts of the universe that are perfectly aligned with the
intelligible order. Their elemental constitution and lack of external flux enable them
to remain everlasting.
●​ Sublunary beings, in contrast, are subject to decay and impermanence due to their
composition of mutable elements and their interaction with the material flux of the
lower world.

The celestial beings embody the archetype of the living universe, participating directly in
the eternal nature of the Soul. In contrast, sublunary beings, while also participants in the
Soul, experience fragmentation and instability due to their immersion in the material
realm.

The Elemental Constitution of the Heavens

5. A Unique Elemental Nature

To explain the everlastingness of the heavens and celestial bodies, Plotinus posits that their
elemental constitution is fundamentally different from that of sublunary entities. They are
composed of an incorruptible and immutable substance that resists the processes of
external flux and decay.

This aligns with the Neoplatonic principle that higher entities, being closer to the
intelligible realm, are more unified and stable. The heavens, as a direct expression of the
Soul’s intelligible order, reflect this stability in their very substance.

6. No External Flux or Nourishment

Plotinus asserts that there is no external material flux in the heavens. Unlike sublunary
beings, which require nourishment to sustain their existence, the heavens do not depend on
external inputs. Their self-sufficiency is a reflection of their participation in the eternal
nature of the Soul.

This absence of flux reinforces their diachronic identity, allowing them to remain perpetual
and unchanging. The heavens thus serve as a model for the universe’s everlastingness,
embodying the harmony and order imparted by the Soul.

Philosophical Implications

7. Eternal Stability Versus Temporal Flux

Plotinus’ distinction between the heavens and the sublunary realm highlights the
hierarchical nature of the cosmos. Entities closer to the intelligible realm possess greater
stability and unity, while those immersed in the material realm experience fragmentation
and change. This hierarchy underscores the importance of aligning oneself with the
intelligible order through contemplation and virtue, transcending the instability of the
material world.

8. The Universe as a Living Whole

The universe, in Plotinus’ view, is a living organism, with the Soul as its animating
principle and the celestial bodies as its enduring components. Its everlastingness is not
merely a static condition but a dynamic expression of the Soul’s eternal vitality. The
universe’s order and coherence testify to the intelligible principles from which it emanates.
 On the Motion of Heaven (2.2)

Circular Motion: A Reflection of Divine Intellection

1. Straight Motion Versus Circular Motion

At the outset, Plotinus acknowledges a fundamental question: why do the heavens move in
a circular rather than a straight path, given the apparent natural inclination of bodies to
move in straight lines? He resolves this by linking celestial motion to the metaphysical
dynamics of the Soul and its desire for the Intellect.

●​ The Desire for Soul: The heavens, as animate and ensouled entities, move in a
manner that reflects their spiritual nature. Their circular motion expresses their
desire to remain connected to and participate in the unity of the Soul, which
permeates the cosmos.
●​ The Finite Universe: The spatial limitations of the universe also play a role. Circular
motion allows the heavens to maintain their wholeness and harmony within a finite
space, unlike straight motion, which would lead to disintegration or an unbounded
trajectory.

The circularity of celestial motion thus reflects both the metaphysical aspiration of the
heavens and the physical structure of the cosmos.

2. The Soul’s Non-Spatial Motion

Plotinus emphasizes that the Soul’s motion, which animates the heavens, is not spatial but
intelligible. The Soul moves "around" the Intellect in a manner that imitates the Intellect's
eternal activity. This spiritual motion embodies contemplation and unity, transcending the
limitations of physical space.
 ●​ Imitation of Intellect: The Soul, as a derivative of the Intellect, seeks to emulate its
source. The Intellect engages in perpetual self-contemplation, revolving around the
One. Similarly, the Soul’s motion is an act of self-reflection and alignment with the
intelligible order.
●​ From Spiritual to Spatial Motion: The celestial bodies, being guided by their souls,
translate the non-spatial motion of the Soul into spatial circular motion. This
physical motion is not arbitrary but an outward manifestation of the Soul's inner
activity.

The Hierarchical Dynamics of the Cosmic Soul

3. The Higher and Lower Parts of the Soul

Plotinus analyzes the cosmic motion in terms of the hierarchical structure of the Soul:

●​ Higher Part: The higher aspect of the Soul is aligned with the Intellect, perpetually
engaged in contemplation. It moves in a manner that reflects the eternal and
unchanging nature of the intelligible realm.
●​ Lower Part: The lower aspect of the Soul interacts with the material world,
animating the cosmos and guiding the motion of celestial bodies.

The interplay between these aspects of the Soul ensures that the cosmos remains a unified
and coherent whole. The higher part provides the intelligible blueprint, while the lower
part translates this into the spatial dynamics of the universe.

4. The Cosmos as a Living Being

For Plotinus, the cosmos is a living organism, animated by the World Soul. Its motion is not
mechanistic but imbued with purpose and intelligibility. The heavens’ circular motion
reflects the Soul’s life and activity, serving as a bridge between the intelligible and the
physical realms.
Philosophical Implications

5. The Symbolism of Circular Motion

Circular motion holds profound symbolic significance in Neoplatonic thought:

●​ Unity and Eternity: Circular motion has no beginning or end, symbolizing the
eternal nature of the Intellect and the Soul’s alignment with it.
●​ Perfection: Unlike straight motion, which implies a destination and thus
incompleteness, circular motion embodies perfection and self-sufficiency. It reflects
the heavens’ participation in the divine order.

6. The Harmony of the Universe

The circular motion of the heavens exemplifies the harmony of the cosmos, which arises
from the Soul’s activity. This motion is not merely a physical phenomenon but a reflection
of the intelligible principles that govern the universe. It underscores the unity of the
intelligible and physical realms, revealing the cosmos as a manifestation of divine order.

The Motion of the Higher Soul

The motion of the Higher Soul (Psyche) is indeed not spatial, as spatiality pertains only to
the physical, material world. Instead, the motion of the Soul is entirely intelligible,
described by Plotinus as a form of dynamic activity that reflects its participation in the
Intellect (Nous).

1.​ Motion as Contemplation​

The Higher Soul’s motion is primarily a movement of contemplation (theoria). It
"moves" by turning inward toward the Intellect, striving to align itself with the
eternal truths and unity of the intelligible realm. This motion is not a literal
displacement but rather a dynamic intellectual activity, characterized by:
○​ Self-reflection: The Soul contemplates itself as an emanation of the Intellect.
○​ Participation in the Intellect: Its "motion" arises from its continuous effort
to maintain unity with the Nous, which it both reflects and seeks to emulate.
 2.​ Motion as Life​
For Plotinus, the very act of being alive in the intelligible sense is a kind of motion.
The Higher Soul, as a living reality, is perpetually active because it emanates from
the Intellect, which itself is eternally active. This "motion" is akin to a vibration or
resonance, an unceasing pulse of life and thought that mirrors the perpetual creative
activity of the Nous.
3.​ Circularity in Intelligible Motion​
The Higher Soul's motion is often described as circular in a metaphorical sense:
○​ It begins and ends in the same place because it always orients itself toward
the Intellect.
○​ This circular motion symbolizes unity, eternity, and self-sufficiency, qualities
that reflect the intelligible nature of the Soul.

The Revolution of the Intellect (Nous) Around the One

The Intellect’s relationship with the One is even more profound and foundational. Like the
Soul, the Intellect does not "move" in a spatial sense; rather, its "revolution" is an
expression of its existential and ontological activity.

1.​ Self-Contemplation and Derivation​

The Nous is the first emanation from the One. Its motion is the act of contemplating
its source:
○​ The Intellect "revolves" around the One by continuously contemplating and
longing for the perfection and unity of the One.
○​ This revolution is not a literal movement but a state of eternal orientation
and dependency. The Intellect's very existence is defined by its ceaseless
turning toward the One, from which it draws its being and intelligibility.
2.​ The Double Activity of the Nous​
Plotinus often describes the Nous as engaging in two simultaneous activities:
 ○​ Looking toward the One: The Intellect perpetually contemplates the unity
and simplicity of the One, which it cannot fully grasp because the One is
beyond all differentiation.
○​ Self-contemplation: In contemplating the One, the Intellect generates itself as
a reflective multiplicity. It is both a unity (as it emanates from the One) and a
plurality (as it contains within itself the Forms, or intelligible archetypes).
3.​ Circularity as Metaphor for Intelligibility​
The "revolution" of the Nous around the One is often described in circular terms,
not because of any spatial motion but because:
○​ Circularity symbolizes completeness and self-sufficiency.
○​ The act of perpetual contemplation is akin to a "return" to its source, a
motion that never ends or strays from its origin.
4.​ The Paradox of Intelligible Motion​
The Nous does not move away from the One, as spatial beings might move away
from their sources. Instead, its "motion" is the eternal act of participating in and
reflecting the ineffable unity of the One. In this sense, the revolution of the Intellect
is the very process by which it emanates from the One while remaining entirely
dependent on it.

Motion in the Intelligible Realm: A Summary

In Neoplatonic thought, "motion" in the intelligible realm is fundamentally different from

physical motion. It is not a change in place but a dynamic state of contemplation, activity,
and emanation:

●​ The Higher Soul moves by contemplating the Intellect, participating in its eternal
truths and aligning with its unity.
●​ The Intellect "revolves" around the One by perpetually contemplating and deriving
its existence from the absolute unity and simplicity of the One.

1. The One as the Source of All

The One is the ultimate principle of reality in Neoplatonism, characterized by:

●​ Absolute Unity: The One is utterly simple, undivided, and beyond all multiplicity.
●​ Transcendence: It is beyond being, thought, or any qualities. It is not a thing or even
an idea; it is beyond all categories of existence.
●​ Infinite Productivity: Despite its simplicity, the One is the source of all that exists. It
is so perfect and complete that it overflows or radiates being, much as the sun
radiates light.

The One does not act intentionally or consciously to create the Nous. Its emanation is not a
willed action but a metaphysical necessity, arising from the very nature of its perfection.

2. The Process of Emanation

The emanation of the Nous is described in terms of overflow, reflection, and contemplation.
These terms are metaphors, as the process itself is beyond direct comprehension.

(a) Overflow

The One, being infinite and beyond limitation, is characterized by an inherent abundance.
This infinite perfection is so "full" that it necessarily overflows, giving rise to the next
principle, the Nous. This overflow is not a depletion of the One but an eternal process of
self-expression:

●​ The One remains undiminished and unchanged.

●​ The Nous arises as the first "other" from the One, yet it is entirely dependent on the
One for its existence.

(b) Reflection

As the emanation occurs, the Nous turns back toward its source, the One. This act of
reflection is the Nous’s recognition of the One as its origin and ultimate reality:

●​ The Nous contemplates the One and, in doing so, generates its own nature.
 ●​ This act of contemplation is the very essence of the Nous. It is both an effect of the
One and the foundation of all intelligibility.

(c) Contemplation

The Nous does not merely exist passively. It actively contemplates the One, and through
this contemplation, it generates the intelligible realm:

●​ In contemplating the One, the Nous becomes aware of itself as a distinct entity.
●​ It generates within itself the multiplicity of the intelligible Forms, which are the
archetypes of all things.

Thus, the Nous is both a unity (insofar as it is a single principle emanating from the One)
and a multiplicity (as it contains all the Forms).

3. The Relationship Between the One and the Nous

The relationship between the One and the Nous is unique and profound:

●​ Dependence: The Nous is entirely dependent on the One for its existence. Without
the One, the Nous would not be.
●​ Transcendence: The One is beyond even the Nous. The Nous can never fully grasp
or encompass the One, as the One transcends all thought and being.
●​ Connection: The Nous is the closest emanation to the One, retaining a deep unity
with its source. It is through the Nous that the rest of reality remains connected to
the One.

4. The Metaphysical Necessity of Emanation

The emanation of the Nous is not a temporal event but an eternal and necessary aspect of
reality. The One does not "decide" to emanate; its perfection necessitates the existence of
the Nous. This process can be understood through the following analogies:

●​ Light from the Sun: Just as the sun radiates light naturally and without
diminishment, the One emanates the Nous as a natural expression of its perfection.
●​ Overflowing Fountain: The One is like an inexhaustible fountain, overflowing with
being and intelligibility, giving rise to the Nous as its first outflow.

5. The Nature of the Nous

The Nous is a profound entity in Neoplatonism, characterized by:

●​ Intellect and Thought: The Nous is pure intellect, engaging in eternal

self-contemplation and contemplation of the One.
●​ Unity and Multiplicity: While the Nous is unified as the first emanation, it also
contains within itself the multiplicity of the Forms, the intelligible archetypes of all
existence.
●​ Source of Order: The Nous is the immediate cause of the intelligible and sensible
cosmos. Through the Soul, which emanates from the Nous, the material world comes
into being.

6. The Mystery of Emanation

While Plotinus provides a metaphysical framework for the emanation of the Nous, the
process ultimately remains mysterious and ineffable:

●​ The One is beyond thought and language, so any description of its emanative
activity is necessarily metaphorical.
 ●​ The emanation of the Nous reflects the tension between the One’s utter
transcendence and its immanent connection to all reality.

The problems of the Soul:

1. The Soul’s Descent into Matter

The Soul’s most significant problem is its association with the material world, which
introduces fragmentation and distraction from its higher, intelligible purpose.

Separation from the Intelligible Realm:

In descending into the material world, the Soul moves away from its source, the Nous. This
descent leads to a loss of unity and a forgetting of its divine origin.

Entrapment in Materiality:

By entering the realm of matter, the Soul becomes entangled with the physical body and the
passions, which obscure its higher nature. Matter, being the principle of privation and
unintelligibility, corrupts the Soul’s purity and introduces disorder.

Duality of Experience:

The Soul is torn between its intelligible aspirations (seeking to ascend toward the Nous and
ultimately the One) and its immersion in the material world, which subjects it to change,
decay, and distraction.

2. The Problem of Division and Multiplicity

The Soul's descent results in division and a loss of unity, which are contrary to the
principles of the higher intelligible order.

Fragmentation of the Soul:

In its descent, the Soul is divided into a higher part (which remains connected to the
intelligible realm) and a lower part (which governs bodily life). This division can lead to
inner conflict, as the lower part is drawn toward material desires.

Multiplicity vs. Unity:

The Soul's immersion in the multiplicity of the material world detracts from its
fundamental unity. This creates a tension, as the Soul inherently seeks unity and harmony,
which are reflections of the intelligible order.

3. The Problem of Ignorance and Forgetting

The Soul’s descent into matter often results in a forgetting of its true nature and origin.

Loss of Contemplation:

When the Soul becomes absorbed in the material world, it loses sight of its divine source
and ceases to engage in the contemplative activity that aligns it with the Nous.

Ignorance of the One:

The Soul forgets that its ultimate goal is to ascend back to the One, the source of all
existence. This ignorance traps it in the lower levels of reality, preventing spiritual ascent.

4. The Problem of Evil and Vice

The Soul’s association with matter exposes it to evil and moral corruption.

Moral Degradation:

By turning away from the intelligible realm, the Soul becomes susceptible to vice, which
Plotinus describes as a form of "psychical illness." These vices arise from identifying with
the passions and bodily appetites.

Evil as Privation:
For Plotinus, evil is not a substantial entity but a privation of good. The Soul becomes evil
insofar as it aligns itself with matter, which is the principle of privation and
unintelligibility.

5. The Problem of Freedom and Necessity

The Soul faces the challenge of exercising its free will to ascend toward the intelligible
realm while being constrained by its association with the body and material world.

Freedom to Choose:

The Soul has the freedom to turn toward the higher realities of the Nous and the One.
However, this requires effort, discipline, and a rejection of material distractions.

Constraints of Material Existence:

The Soul's immersion in the body introduces limitations, such as physical needs and the
influence of passions, which can hinder its ascent.

6. The Problem of Time and Eternity

The Soul, in its descent, becomes subject to time, which contrasts with the eternal nature of
the intelligible realm.

Temporal Existence:

By descending into the realm of generation and corruption, the Soul becomes enmeshed in
the flux of time, which disrupts its natural orientation toward eternity.

Desire for Eternity:

Despite its temporal existence, the Soul inherently desires eternity and seeks to transcend
time through contemplation and alignment with the intelligible realm.

7. The Problem of Return

The Soul's ultimate challenge is to return to the One, overcoming the obstacles of material
entanglement, ignorance, and vice.

Ascent Toward the Intelligible Realm:

The Soul must turn inward and upward, engaging in philosophical contemplation and
purification to realign itself with the Nous and ultimately the One.

Purification and Detachment:

The Soul must detach itself from material desires and passions, which weigh it down and
prevent its ascent.

Reunification with the Source:

The Soul’s return to the One is its ultimate fulfillment, achieving unity and transcending
the fragmentation and corruption of material existence.

The Higher Aspect of the Soul: The Flawless Dimension

Eternal Connection to the Intelligible Realm

The higher part of the Soul never descends fully into the material realm. It remains in a
state of contemplation of the Nous and, through the Nous, the One.

This aspect is the seat of unity, purity, and intelligibility. It is unaffected by the
imperfections of the material world.

Immutable and Perfect

Being in perpetual alignment with the intelligible, the higher Soul is untouched by the flux,
decay, and corruption inherent in the material world.

It does not experience the fragmentation or ignorance that troubles the lower Soul.

Source of Guidance and Ascent

The higher Soul acts as a guiding principle for the lower Soul, continually calling it back
toward the intelligible and the divine.

Through contemplation, purification, and philosophical reflection, the lower Soul can
realign itself with the higher Soul.

The Lower Aspect of the Soul: The Problematic Dimension

Immersion in the Material World

The lower Soul is responsible for governing bodily life, including sensory perception,
appetites, and emotions. This immersion often leads to entanglement with the material.

Its association with matter, the principle of privation, introduces disorder and
unintelligibility into the Soul's experience.

Ignorance and Forgetfulness

By descending into the realm of generation and corruption, the lower Soul forgets its divine
origin and becomes distracted by the multiplicity of the material world.

This ignorance leads to a misidentification with the body and its passions.

Susceptibility to Vice

The lower Soul is prone to moral failings, which Plotinus describes as "psychical illnesses."
These vices arise when the Soul becomes overly attached to bodily desires or pursues
pleasures that alienate it from its higher purpose.

Virtue, in this framework, involves the purification of the lower Soul to restore harmony
with the higher Soul.

Fragmentation and Division

The lower Soul experiences the tension of being drawn in two directions: toward the
intelligible realm (via the higher Soul) and toward the material realm (via its bodily
associations).

This division creates inner conflict and diminishes the Soul's unity.

Temporal Existence

The lower Soul, by entering the realm of time, becomes subject to change and
impermanence, which are alien to the eternal nature of the intelligible realm.

This temporal existence contrasts sharply with the timeless and unchanging nature of the
higher Soul.

The Relationship Between the Two Aspects

The two aspects of the Soul are not entirely separate but are interrelated:

The Higher Soul as a Beacon: The higher aspect serves as a constant reminder of the Soul's
divine origin and ultimate goal. It remains the source of the Soul's capacity for ascent and
contemplation.

The Lower Soul as the Battleground: The lower aspect is where the struggle takes place. Its
immersion in the material world makes it susceptible to distractions, but it also holds the
potential for redemption through philosophical and ethical discipline.

The Process of Unification: The Soul's journey involves the lower aspect turning inward
and upward, overcoming its problems to reintegrate with the higher aspect and, through it,
with the Nous and the One.
Origins of Free Will and Afterlife:​
The Origin of Free Will in the Lower Soul

1.​ Free Will as Derived from the Soul's Nature​

Free will in the lower soul originates from its participation in the higher aspects of
the Soul and, ultimately, in the Nous (Intellect). The Soul, as a divine emanation,
possesses autonomy and self-movement, reflecting the creative freedom of the Nous.
This autonomy extends even to the lower soul, which inherits a spark of this divine
capacity for self-determination.
2.​ Freedom as a Byproduct of Intermediate Position
○​ The Soul’s intermediate position between the intelligible and material worlds
provides the grounds for free will.
○​ The lower soul, influenced by both the higher (intelligible) and lower
(material) realms, must choose its orientation: either to align itself with the
higher principles of truth and unity or to descend further into multiplicity
and matter. This tension is the essence of its free will.
3.​ Free Will and Responsibility
○​ The lower soul is endowed with free will as a necessary condition for moral
responsibility.
○​ Through its choices, it determines the degree to which it ascends toward the
Nous or descends into materiality. This is not an arbitrary freedom but one
grounded in the soul’s divine origin and purpose.
4.​ Freedom and Ignorance
○​ The lower soul’s free will operates in a state of partial ignorance due to its
immersion in the material world.
○​ This ignorance creates the possibility of error and vice, but also the potential
for redemption through philosophical reflection and alignment with the
higher soul.
The Fate of the Lower Soul Upon Death

The fate of the lower soul after death depends on its orientation and level of purification
during its earthly life. Plotinus provides a nuanced vision that avoids simplistic dissolution
or eternal damnation, emphasizing the soul’s capacity for ascent or continued
entanglement.

1.​ If the Lower Soul Ascends Toward the One

○​ A soul that has oriented itself toward the intelligible during life—through
contemplation, virtue, and philosophical purification—naturally ascends
toward the Nous and the One after death.
○​ Such a soul achieves unity with its higher aspect, transcending the material
world and participating in the eternal and divine.
2.​ If the Lower Soul Fails to Ascend
○​ A soul that remains entangled with matter and dominated by passions during
life does not immediately ascend. Instead, it remains attached to the material
world or enters a state of purgation.
○​ This attachment might manifest as a lingering influence in the material
realm or as a continued cycle of reincarnation, where the soul is given further
opportunities to purify itself and align with its higher nature.
3.​ Does the Lower Soul Dissolve into the Higher Soul?
○​ The lower soul does not dissolve into the higher soul in the sense of
annihilation. Instead, the lower soul, as an individuated expression of the
higher soul, remains distinct but always retains the potential for
reintegration.
○​ If the lower soul achieves purification and ascent, its individuality is
transformed, becoming harmonized with the higher aspect and participating
in the unity of the intelligible realm.
4.​ The Ultimate Goal: Unity Without Loss of Being
○​ The Neoplatonic ascent does not involve the obliteration of individuality but
rather its transcendence.
 ○​ The lower soul, through its return to the higher soul and the Nous, realizes its
true self within the unity of the One, shedding the false self formed by
material entanglements.
5.​ For Souls That Persist in Ignorance
○​ Souls that persist in ignorance and vice remain in a fragmented state, cut off
from the fullness of intelligibility. These souls may experience further cycles
of embodiment as part of the cosmic process of correction and learning.
○​ The Neoplatonic framework allows for the possibility of eventual
redemption, as the divine spark within every soul is never extinguished.

Conclusion

●​ Free Will: The lower soul’s free will is a gift of its divine origin, reflecting its
intermediate nature. It arises from the soul’s capacity for self-movement and its
ability to choose between alignment with the intelligible realm or descent into
materiality.
●​ Fate After Death: Upon death, the lower soul’s fate depends on its orientation
during life. If aligned with the higher soul and the intelligible, it ascends and
achieves unity. If it remains entangled with matter, it may experience further cycles
of existence or purification. However, the lower soul does not simply dissolve into
the higher soul but retains its potential for eventual reintegration and unity with the
divine.
On the Origin and non-existence of Evil, Suffering, Nihilism/absurdity, etc.

1. Pain and Suffering as Privations: The Metaphysical Foundation

●​ Negative Ontology of Pain​

In Neoplatonism, pain and suffering are not existential entities but rather signify a
lack or diminishment of something good, such as harmony, health, or unity.
○​ Pain in the body reflects a lack of physical well-being or balance.
○​ Suffering in the soul reflects a disconnection from its higher aspect and the
intelligible realm.
●​ Relation to Matter and Privation​
Pain and suffering arise in the material world, which is intrinsically marked by
imperfection and privation. Matter, as the ultimate principle of lack (steresis), is
unintelligible and distant from the Good. Thus, suffering is a byproduct of the soul's
association with material existence.

2. Why Do We Compartmentalize Pain and Suffering So Profoundly?

Despite pain’s status as a privation, our experiences of it are deeply vivid and real, leading
us to compartmentalize it in profound ways. This paradox can be understood through
several aspects of Neoplatonic thought:

a. The Soul’s Immersion in the Material Realm

●​ The lower soul, through its entanglement with the body, experiences the privations
of the material world directly.
●​ The body, subject to time, flux, and decay, constantly encounters conditions of
deficiency. The lower soul, identifying with the body, feels these deficiencies as pain
or suffering.

b. Fragmentation of the Soul

 ●​ The lower soul’s immersion in the material world causes a fragmentation of its
unity. This fragmentation amplifies the perception of pain and suffering, as the soul
becomes divided and alienated from its higher aspect.
●​ Instead of perceiving pain as a transient shadow of a deeper intelligible truth, the
fragmented soul experiences it as overwhelmingly real and isolating.

c. The Illusion of Autonomy in the Material World

●​ In the material realm, the soul mistakenly views bodily existence as a separate and
autonomous state. This illusion of separation intensifies the compartmentalization of
suffering, as the soul perceives itself as an isolated being subject to harm, rather
than part of the larger intelligible unity.

d. Ignorance of the Intelligible Reality

●​ Pain and suffering are often rooted in ignorance—specifically, the soul’s

forgetfulness of its true nature and divine origin. This ignorance causes the soul to
over-identify with the transient, material conditions of life, deepening its experience
of suffering as something definitive and compartmentalized.

3. Neoplatonic Responses to the Problem of Suffering

While Neoplatonism acknowledges the vivid experience of suffering, it also provides a

framework for transcending it:

a. Reorienting Toward the Intelligible Realm

●​ Pain and suffering are reminders of the soul’s disconnection from the Good. By
turning inward and upward, the soul can reorient itself toward its higher aspect,
where unity and harmony prevail.
●​ In the intelligible realm, the privations of the material world are understood as
shadows of a fuller, eternal reality.
b. Contemplation and Understanding

●​ Through contemplation of the Nous and the One, the soul gains insight into the
nature of existence, recognizing that pain and suffering are transient and ultimately
unreal compared to the eternal truths of the intelligible realm.

c. Virtue as a Response to Suffering

●​ The cultivation of virtues—such as wisdom, courage, and temperance—enables the

soul to transcend its identification with the body and the material world.
●​ Virtue allows the soul to endure suffering with equanimity, understanding it as a
temporary condition tied to the lower realm.

d. Purification and Ascent

●​ Pain and suffering can serve as catalysts for purification, prompting the soul to shed
its attachment to materiality and ascend toward its divine source.

4. Reconciling Pain’s Vividness with Its Ontological Non-Existence

The intense reality of pain in human experience can be reconciled with its status as a
privation through the following insights:

●​ Privation as Experienced Lack​

While pain and suffering are not substances, they are felt as the absence of
something good—whether it be health, unity, or intelligibility. This felt absence has
a psychological and existential weight that makes it seem "real" to the lower soul.
●​ The Role of Perception​
Pain's vividness stems from the soul’s immersion in the material realm and its
over-identification with the body. The closer the soul aligns with the intelligible
realm, the more it perceives pain as a shadow rather than a definitive reality.
●​ Spiritual Growth Through Suffering​
In Neoplatonism, suffering has a pedagogical function. It reveals the soul’s
 attachments to the transient and motivates it to seek the eternal. This
transformation of suffering into a means of ascent underscores its non-substantial
nature.

Conclusion

In Neoplatonism, pain and suffering are compartmentalized and experienced vividly

because of the soul’s immersion in the material world, its fragmentation, and its ignorance
of its higher nature. Though they are ontologically negative—privations rather than
substances—they carry an existential weight due to the soul’s misidentification with the
body and the transient.

The ultimate resolution lies in the soul’s recognition of its true nature and its reorientation
toward the intelligible realm. Through virtue, contemplation, and ascent, the soul can
transcend its experience of pain and suffering, seeing them not as ultimate realities but as
shadows of the soul’s disconnection from the Good.
On the emanation of the Soul from the Nous:

1. The Principle of Emanation

Emanation in Neoplatonism is not a creation in the sense of an act of will, but rather an
inevitable, eternal, and necessary overflowing (perichoresis) of higher realities into lower
ones. The process is often described using metaphors like light emanating from the sun or a
spring overflowing with water.

●​ From The One to the Nous: The One, being absolutely simple and beyond all
distinction, overflows into the Nous. The Nous reflects upon The One, generating
within itself all intelligible Forms or archetypes.
●​ From the Nous to the Soul: The Soul emerges as a further emanation from the Nous.
It arises because the abundance of intelligibility within the Nous naturally seeks
expression in a dynamic and life-giving principle.

2. The Universal Soul

The Universal Soul (or World Soul) stands between the intelligible realm (of The One and
the Nous) and the sensible realm (the material world). It serves as a bridge, transmitting
the order and intelligibility of the Nous into the changing, temporal world.

●​ Role of the Soul: The Soul gives life, motion, and coherence to the material universe.
It is responsible for the existence of time, as time is the moving image of eternity,
according to Plotinus. The Soul organizes the cosmos, imbuing it with divine
harmony and purpose.

3. The Process of Emanation

The emanation of the Universal Soul can be understood in terms of three key moments:
a) Reflection on the Nous

The Universal Soul arises as the Nous reflects upon itself and contemplates the Forms. The
Soul, however, does not fully dwell in the intelligible realm—it turns partly outward,
toward potentiality and multiplicity.

●​ The Soul is less unified than the Nous. While the Nous is entirely intellectual and
contains the archetypes in their eternal perfection, the Soul begins the process of
differentiation and individuation.

b) Dual Orientation of the Soul

The Universal Soul has a dual orientation:

●​ Upward: It remains connected to the Nous, drawing from its intelligible perfection
and unity.
●​ Downward: It turns toward the material world, generating and organizing it.

This dual orientation introduces tension, as the Soul must mediate between the eternal and
the temporal, the unified and the manifold.

c) Eternal Emanation and Activity

The Universal Soul does not emanate "once" in a temporal sense; rather, its emanation is
eternal and ongoing. It is always actively imparting life and form to the material cosmos,
ensuring its perpetual order.

4. The Creative Power of the Soul

The Soul’s emanation produces the material universe by imparting motion, life, and form
to inert matter. The Soul generates the principles of life and intelligibility that animate the
cosmos, creating a dynamic, interconnected whole.
 ●​ Cosmic Harmony: The Universal Soul ensures that the cosmos reflects the order and
intelligibility of the Nous. Each aspect of the material world, from celestial spheres
to living beings, manifests this divine harmony.

5. Unity and Multiplicity in the Soul

The Universal Soul remains one and indivisible in itself, but it also manifests multiplicity
by generating individual souls and guiding particular forms of life. This differentiation
does not divide its essence but reflects its capacity to contain and organize multiplicity
within unity.

●​ Universal and Particular Souls: From the Universal Soul emanate individual souls,
which govern specific living beings. These individual souls remain connected to the
Universal Soul, much as the Universal Soul remains connected to the Nous.

6. The Role of Desire and Return

The Universal Soul, while emanating outward, also retains an inherent desire to return to
the Nous. This upward movement reflects the Neoplatonic theme of the "return"
(epistrophe)—the process by which all things strive to reunite with their divine source.

●​ Cycle of Emanation and Return: The Soul emanates to bring order to the cosmos,
but it also contemplates the Nous, ensuring that the material world remains
grounded in its divine origin.

7. Metaphysical Necessity of the Soul

The Universal Soul is a necessary principle in Neoplatonic metaphysics. Without it, the
intelligibility of the Nous could not be transmitted into the material world. The Soul serves
as the intermediary that ensures the cosmos remains infused with divine purpose and
vitality.

On Matter (2.4)

Overview of Plotinus' Distinction Between Two Kinds of Matter

Plotinus introduces a nuanced division of matter into two distinct categories:

1.​ Intelligible Matter: Associated with the realm of Forms or the intelligible world.
2.​ Sensible Matter: Associated with the material or perceptible world.

This distinction is foundational to Plotinus' metaphysical system, setting him apart from
predecessors such as Aristotle, who viewed matter more concretely, and the Presocratics,
who conceived of it in more elemental terms.

Key Features of Intelligible Matter

1.​ Substrate of Forms in the Intelligible Realm:​

Intelligible matter exists as the substrate that allows the multiplicity of Forms to
coexist harmoniously within the intelligible world. It facilitates unity and diversity
simultaneously.
2.​ Possession of All Forms:​
Unlike sensible matter, which is characterized by lack or privation, intelligible
matter is never devoid of determination. It embodies the entirety of forms, ensuring
its participation in the eternal and perfect nature of the intelligible realm.
3.​ Substantial Nature:​
Plotinus contends that intelligible matter has a form of substantiality because it is
"illuminated" by intellect and imbued with intellectual life. Its eternal yet generated
status underscores its ontological uniqueness.
Key Features of Sensible Matter

1.​ Incorporeality and Lack of Quality:​

Sensible matter is devoid of inherent qualities, quantity, or magnitude. It acquires
these attributes only through the imposition of form, highlighting its role as a
passive and receptive substrate.
2.​ Privation and Nonbeing:​
Sensible matter is defined by its privative nature—it lacks the fullness of being. This
aligns with Plotinus’ radical view of sensible matter as "poverty of goodness" and
even as "exceedingly evil." This identification underscores a metaphysical hierarchy
in which sensible matter occupies a lowly, almost antithetical position to the Good.
3.​ Epistemological Access:​
Although its indefiniteness makes it elusive, Plotinus claims we can apprehend
sensible matter through "dim thinking" or indirect reasoning. This subtle access
reflects its ambiguous and shadowy nature.
4.​ Critique of Presocratic Theories:​
Plotinus critiques earlier materialist notions that equated matter with elemental
substances (e.g., earth, water, air, fire). For him, such theories fail to grasp the
incorporeal and purely receptive nature of sensible matter.

Comparison of Intelligible and Sensible Matter

1.​ Unlimitedness:​
Both kinds of matter are characterized by a form of unlimitedness. However,
sensible matter is "more truly unlimited," reflecting its chaotic and privative
essence.
2.​ Ontological Status:
○​ Intelligible Matter: Linked to Being and participates in the Good.
 ○​ Sensible Matter: Associated with nonbeing and is exceedingly evil due to its
distance from the Good.
3.​ Role in the Cosmos:​
Intelligible matter serves as the ground for the unity and diversity of Forms in the
intelligible cosmos, whereas sensible matter underlies the generation and
destruction of corporeal entities in the physical world.

On Potentially And Actually (2.5)

Introduction to the Concepts

Plotinus addresses two key Greek terms:

●​ ἐνέργεια (energeia): Translated here as actuality, though often rendered as activity in

other contexts. It implies the fulfillment or realization of a potential state into a fully
actualized one.
●​ δύναμις (dynamis): Translated as potentiality, which also carries the meanings of
power or faculty. It denotes the capacity for something to become or be actualized.

The translator emphasizes preserving the linguistic connection between these terms to
reflect Plotinus’ focus on their intrinsic relationship.

Connection to 2.4 (12) On Matter

This treatise extends the themes discussed in On Matter by examining how matter relates to
potentiality and actuality. Matter, as discussed in 2.4, is intrinsically privative and
receptive, which makes it central to understanding how potentiality transitions into
actuality, particularly in the sensible world.
Summary and Analysis

§§1–2: Two Senses of Potentiality and Their Transformation

Plotinus begins by distinguishing two primary senses of potentiality:

1.​ Potentiality That Persists Through Transformation:

○​ This type of potentiality refers to things that undergo change while retaining
their essential substrate or nature. For example, clay has the potentiality to
become a pot, and while its form changes, its underlying substance persists.
2.​ Potentiality That Is Destroyed in Transformation:
○​ This refers to the potentiality of things that are completely annihilated in the
process of actualization. For instance, the potentiality of unshaped marble is
"destroyed" once it is sculpted into a statue because it can no longer exist in
its prior state.

In both cases, actuality represents the fulfillment of potentiality, but the relationship differs
depending on whether the substrate endures or perishes.

§3: Actuality in the Intelligible World

In the intelligible realm, Plotinus argues that all things exist as actuality.

1.​ Unity of Being and Actuality:​

In the world of Forms, potentiality has no independent existence. The intelligible
realm is characterized by eternal completeness, where things are always fully
realized and do not undergo processes of becoming.
2.​ The Immediacy of Actuality:​
Actuality in the intelligible realm is synonymous with being. Unlike in the sensible
world, there is no intermediary state or potential waiting to be actualized;
everything exists in its most perfected state.

§§4–5: Potentiality and Actuality in the Sensible World

Plotinus contrasts the intelligible realm with the sensible world, where potentiality and
actuality are in dynamic interplay:

1.​ Matter as Potentiality:​

In the sensible world, matter is the ultimate potentiality. It is entirely receptive and
devoid of actuality in itself. It only gains determination and form when actualized
by an external cause.
2.​ The Role of Forms:​
Forms, as emanations from the intelligible realm, actualize the potentiality inherent
in matter. The sensible world, therefore, is a realm of becoming, where potentiality
transitions into actuality through the imposition of form.
3.​ Destruction and Transformation:​
The interplay of potentiality and actuality in the sensible world involves the
continuous cycle of generation and destruction. For example, when wood is burned,
its potentiality as fuel is actualized, but its previous state is destroyed in the process.

Philosophical Implications

1.​ Hierarchical Ontology:​

Plotinus’ treatment of potentiality and actuality reflects the metaphysical hierarchy
central to his thought. The intelligible realm represents the highest order of
existence, where actuality and being are indistinguishable. The sensible world, by
contrast, is marked by imperfection and the constant tension between potentiality
and actuality.
2.​ Eternal vs. Temporal:​
In the intelligible realm, actuality is eternal and unchanging, while in the sensible
world, actuality is temporal and contingent upon processes of becoming.
3.​ Matter and Evil:​
The association of matter with pure potentiality reinforces its privative nature. As in
 2.4 On Matter, matter’s lack of inherent actuality aligns it with imperfection and, by
extension, with evil in the Neoplatonic schema.
4.​ Aristotelian Influence:​
Plotinus engages deeply with Aristotelian notions of potentiality (dynamis) and
actuality (energeia), but he transcends them by embedding these concepts within his
broader Neoplatonic metaphysics, particularly the distinction between the
intelligible and sensible worlds.

On Substance or on Quality (2,6)

1. Essential Qualities as Activities in the Intelligible Realm

In the intelligible world, all things are unified, and essential qualities manifest as dynamic
activities of their underlying principles. Consider the logos of a geometric form like a
circle:

●​ The essential quality of perfect roundness is not a static attribute but an active
realization of the principle (or logos) of circularity.
●​ In the intelligible realm, the circle’s roundness is fully actualized as an eternal,
unchanging activity that expresses its essence.
●​ The perfection of the intelligible circle is not merely an idea or attribute but the
constant "beingness" of its logos, which perpetually generates the essence of
circularity.

2. Essential Qualities as Activities in the Sensible Realm

In the sensible world, essential qualities are imperfect reflections of intelligible activities
but still arise from the same principles. Take the example of rationality in human beings:

●​ The essential quality of rationality in humans originates from the logos of human
nature.
 ●​ This quality is not merely an attribute "attached" to humans but an ongoing
activity—a process of thinking, reasoning, and understanding—that continuously
expresses the underlying principle of rationality.
●​ Even though humans in the sensible world can fail to fully actualize this quality
(e.g., irrational behavior), the logos remains the source of their capacity for reason.

3. Non-Essential Qualities as Activities in the Sensible Realm

Non-essential qualities are often seen as incidental or accidental, but Plotinus argues they
too are activities originating from principles. For example, consider the color of an apple:

●​ The apple's redness might seem like a superficial, accidental quality, but it reflects a
complex interplay of activities—light interacting with the apple's material
properties, which are themselves expressions of the logos governing the apple’s
being.
●​ The redness is a trace of the intelligible activity underlying the apple's form and
substance.
●​ Although it appears contingent and transient, the color’s existence relies on the
activity of principles working through material conditions.

4. Unity of Essential and Non-Essential Qualities as Activities

Both essential qualities (like rationality) and non-essential qualities (like redness) are
unified in their ontological basis as activities derived from logoi. The difference lies in their
degree of proximity to the intelligible realm:

●​ Essential qualities, like rationality, more directly express the intelligible principles.
●​ Non-essential qualities, like redness, are more fragmented and dependent on the
sensible world's conditions but are still rooted in intelligible activity.
 On Complete Blending (2.7)

1. Rejection of Materialist Conceptions

Plotinus critiques both the Stoic and Peripatetic views for their reliance on materialist
assumptions:

●​ Against the Stoics: While Plotinus acknowledges the Stoic idea of bodies
interpenetrating in a complete blend, he rejects the notion that such blending could
occur if bodies are purely material. True interpenetration is only possible at the level
of incorporeal principles.
●​ Against the Peripatetics: Plotinus rejects the claim that matter inherently resists
blending. If matter is incorporeal (as Peripatetics sometimes concede), it cannot
obstruct blending but is instead neutral and passive.

2. Matter as Passive and Indeterminate

For Plotinus, matter itself is not a substantial obstacle to blending because it is not a robust,
active entity. Instead, matter is:

●​ Indeterminate: It has no qualities of its own and therefore cannot resist or enable
blending.
●​ A Shadowy Substrate: Matter is merely the passive ground upon which qualities
and forms operate, making it irrelevant to the process of blending.

3. Blending as Interaction of Incorporeal Principles

True blending, in Plotinus’ view, occurs at the level of incorporeal principles (logoi), which
govern the qualities and interactions of things in the sensible world:
 ●​ Qualities like heat, cold, or color are activities of these principles and can coexist or
interpenetrate because they are not material entities.
●​ In this sense, blending is not about the physical merging of bodies but about the
harmonious activity of incorporeal forces that govern material phenomena.

4. Corporeality as Emergent, Not Fundamental

Plotinus explores the nature of corporeality and concludes that it is not a fundamental
property of reality but an emergent quality resulting from the interaction of incorporeal
principles with matter. Thus, what we perceive as "blending" in the physical world is a
secondary effect of intelligible activity.

5. Final Conclusion

Plotinus resolves the issue of complete blending by redefining it as a metaphysical, rather

than physical, process:

●​ Blending is rooted in intelligible activity: It is the harmonious interplay of

incorporeal logoi, not the interpenetration of material bodies.
●​ Matter plays no active role: As a passive and indeterminate substrate, matter
neither facilitates nor obstructs blending.
●​ Corporeality is derivative: What appears as blending in the sensible world is a dim
reflection of the interaction of intelligible principles in the Nous.

For Plotinus, the Stoics were right to assert the possibility of blending, but their materialist
framework was insufficient to explain it. The true explanation lies in the metaphysical
realm, where incorporeal principles govern and blend harmoniously, manifesting their
activity in the material world. This positions Plotinus’ conclusion as an elevation of the
debate to a higher ontological plane, where blending is understood as an intelligible and
incorporeal phenomenon rather than a physical one.
The Aftermath of the Intelligible Blend

In Plotinus' view, when intelligible entities blend—meaning the principles or ideas behind
things interact with each other—it’s not quite the same as how physical things mix. Here’s
what we need to understand:

1.​ No New Physical Composite: After intelligible principles (the "ideas") blend, they
don’t create a new physical entity the way two physical substances might. Instead,
they remain separate in their essence but function together in harmony. So, there
isn’t a new "composite" formed in the material sense. Rather, the blending is more
about how these intelligible ideas work in combination.
2.​ Just Juxtaposition of Intelligible Entities: The blending of intelligible entities
doesn’t necessarily create a new entity. Instead, the entities remain distinct but now
relate to one another in a more organized or harmonized way. So, while they are
“together,” they don’t fuse into one new thing. They juxtapose, meaning they stand
side by side and work together, but they keep their individual identities.

Example: The Blending of Heat and Light

To make this clearer, let’s use an example from Plotinus' framework of intelligible
blending.

●​ Imagine heat and light as two intelligible principles. Both are distinct qualities (or
forms) that have an intelligible existence in the world of the Nous (the realm of pure
intellect or intelligence).
●​ When we see fire, we experience both heat and light at the same time. But heat and
light are not fused into a new entity in the Nous. They remain separate principles:
heat is still heat, and light is still light. However, they juxtapose in the experience of
fire—each principle expresses itself through the same material phenomenon (the
fire).
●​ The blending of heat and light doesn’t create a third principle like "fieryness" in the
intelligible realm. Instead, we simply experience these two intelligible principles
 together, working in harmony within the same instance (the fire), but they don’t
form a completely new composite in the intelligible world.

What Happens in the Aftermath?

●​ In the intelligible realm, these principles (heat and light) continue to exist in their
pure forms, each with its own distinct nature. They are not merged into a single,
new principle.
●​ In the sensible world (the world we experience), we perceive these principles as
blending, but this is more about how we perceive their interaction in the material
world, not how they change or combine in the intelligible world.
●​ The aftermath is that these intelligible principles continue to exist independently,
but their presence in the sensible world creates a unified experience (like seeing both
heat and light when we encounter fire).

Recap in Simple Terms:

●​ When intelligible principles like heat and light blend, they don’t create a new thing.
Instead, they are still distinct but work together harmoniously.
●​ There’s no "new composite" in the intelligible world. The intelligible entities are still
separate, but they juxtapose to create the experience of unity in the physical world
(like fire being both hot and bright).
●​ The blending is an interaction of ideas or qualities, not a fusion into a new entity.

What is Intelligible Matter?

In Plotinus' philosophy, intelligible matter is a concept that contrasts with sensible

matter—the physical stuff we encounter in our everyday experiences. Let's break down
what intelligible matter is and how it fits into his metaphysical system.

1. The Difference Between Sensible and Intelligible Matter

●​ Sensible Matter: This is the matter we are familiar with in the physical world. It is
what makes up all material objects, like trees, rocks, and animals. Sensible matter is
 seen as indeterminate and lacking in form. It’s a kind of passive substance that
receives the form or structure of things.
●​ Intelligible Matter: On the other hand, intelligible matter exists in the intelligible
realm (the world of pure thought or forms). It is the potentiality for forms to exist in
the intelligible world. Plotinus’ concept of intelligible matter is quite abstract and
complex, but we can think of it as a “formless potential” that gives way to the
various forms that exist in the intellectual or divine realm.

2. Why Does Plotinus Talk About Intelligible Matter?

Plotinus uses the concept of intelligible matter to explain how the intelligible realm (the
realm of pure forms or ideas) can both have unity and multiplicity. In simpler terms, it's
his way of showing that the intelligible world can contain many distinct forms without
losing its oneness.

For Plotinus, the intelligible realm is a realm of pure thought. It is where forms (like the
idea of Beauty, Goodness, or a Tree) exist in their most perfect, unchanging state. However,
even in this perfect world of thought, there has to be something that allows these forms to
exist separately from one another while still being part of a unified whole. That
"something" is intelligible matter.

3. Intelligible Matter as a Source of Multiplicity

In the intelligible realm, intelligible matter is what allows multiple forms to exist without
conflict. It’s like the “space” or “container” that allows forms to be distinct but not
separated. Here’s an analogy to help:

●​ Imagine a blank canvas (intelligible matter) on which different paintings (forms)

can be drawn. The canvas itself doesn’t have a specific form—it’s just an empty
potential. The paintings are distinct from each other, but they all exist on the same
canvas.

In Plotinus’ view:
 ●​ Intelligible matter has the potential to receive various forms, and through this, the
intelligible world can have both unity and diversity.
●​ It is a passive potentiality that receives forms but doesn't itself have any specific
form until it is illuminated by the intelligible principles (like the One or Nous).

4. Intelligible Matter and the Structure of Reality

Plotinus places intelligible matter in the context of his hierarchical view of reality:

●​ At the highest level is the One, which is pure unity and beyond all distinction.
●​ Below the One, the Nous (Divine Mind) emanates, and in the Nous, all the forms of
reality (like beauty, truth, etc.) exist.
●​ Intelligible matter exists beneath these forms as the underlying substrate that makes
multiplicity possible without disrupting the unity of the intelligible world.

5. Intelligible Matter and the Soul’s Role

Plotinus also connects intelligible matter to the soul. The soul is the bridge between the
intelligible and sensible worlds, and it is involved in contemplating and bringing forth
forms. The soul's relationship with intelligible matter is one of imposing order on it, much
like a sculptor shaping clay.

6. Characteristics of Intelligible Matter

Here are the key features of intelligible matter in Plotinus’ view:

●​ Formless: It doesn’t have a specific form by itself.

●​ Passive: It doesn’t act on its own but receives and holds forms.
●​ Potential: It is the potentiality for forms to exist, a space or condition in which the
divine principles (like forms of Goodness or Beauty) can manifest.
●​ Underlying Unity: While forms exist in multiplicity, intelligible matter allows for
their coexistence without disrupting the unity of the intelligible realm.

7. Intelligible Matter vs. Sensible Matter

Intelligible matter is not like sensible matter in the physical world. Sensible matter is
material and can be touched, seen, and measured. It is corruptible, changeable, and can be
shaped by forms but has no form of its own. In contrast, intelligible matter is non-material
and exists only in the world of thought. It is the underlying condition for forms to exist in
the intellect, not something you can touch or see.

2.8

On Seeing, or On How It Is That Distant Things Appear Small’

Introduction: Plotinus' Engagement with Optics

Porphyry’s mention of Plotinus’ interest in optics underscores the philosopher’s

interdisciplinary approach, blending metaphysical inquiries with practical, empirical
subjects. Optics, a field central to ancient science, served as a bridge between sensory
experience and intellectual speculation. Plotinus’ engagement with this problem—why
distant objects appear smaller—demonstrates his attempt to reconcile empirical
phenomena with his philosophical understanding of the soul, perception, and reality.

§1. Analysis of the Four Solutions

Plotinus’ analysis of four solutions demonstrates his systematic approach, where he

considers and evaluates multiple perspectives. The central concern revolves around the
mechanics of visual perception and the apparent diminishment of size with distance.

1.​ First Three Solutions (Brief Treatment):

○​ These earlier attempts, though briefly mentioned, are likely drawn from
various predecessors, including Euclid, the Stoics, or other pre-Socratic
thinkers. They represent explanations that treat perception mechanistically
or geometrically, focusing on light rays, the role of the medium, or the nature
of the image formed in the eye.
 ○​ These explanations are dismissed or left undeveloped, possibly because they
do not align with Plotinus' broader metaphysical framework.
2.​ The Fourth Solution (Preference for Aristotelian Explanation):
○​ Plotinus aligns closely with Aristotle, asserting that size is perceived
accidentally alongside the proper object of sight: color.
○​ This view suggests that perception of size is not intrinsic to the act of seeing
but is a secondary quality inferred or derived from the primary object of
perception.
○​ Comparison with hearing reinforces this idea: just as sound conveys pitch
and tone primarily, and only secondarily may suggest the source’s size or
distance, sight functions primarily through color, with size as an ancillary
perception.

This Aristotelian solution resonates with Plotinus’ metaphysical emphasis on the soul’s
active role in perception. The soul does not merely receive sensory data passively but
interprets and organizes it according to higher principles.

§2. Refutation of the Fifth Solution

The fifth solution, based on the idea of restricted angles of view, is dismissed swiftly by
Plotinus.

●​ Restricted Angle Theory: This explanation posits that the diminished angle through
which a distant object is viewed accounts for its apparent smaller size.
●​ Plotinus’ Refutation: He likely finds this explanation too reductive and mechanistic.
By focusing solely on the geometry of visual rays and angles, it fails to address the
experiential and interpretative aspects of perception that Plotinus deems essential.
For him, perception is not merely a physical process but involves the soul's activity,
which transcends spatial and material considerations.
 Broader Implications of the Treatise

1.​ Perception and Metaphysics: Plotinus’ treatment of optical phenomena ties sensory
perception to metaphysical realities. The apparent diminishment of size with
distance symbolizes the limitations of sensory experience in grasping true reality.
Physical sight, constrained by spatial conditions, contrasts with intellectual or
spiritual vision, which apprehends truth directly.
2.​ Accidental vs. Essential Perception: The distinction between what is perceived
essentially (color) and what is perceived accidentally (size) reflects a hierarchical
view of knowledge. For Plotinus, understanding the nature of things requires
transcending their accidental qualities, which are bound to the material and sensory
world.
3.​ Plotinus and Aristotle: The preference for Aristotle’s explanation highlights
Plotinus’ nuanced engagement with his philosophical predecessors. While heavily
influenced by Plato, Plotinus selectively incorporates Aristotelian concepts, adapting
them to his metaphysical system.

Questions and Elaborations

1.​ How does Plotinus reconcile empirical observations with his metaphysical
framework? Plotinus uses empirical phenomena as a starting point to illustrate the
soul’s interpretative activity. While acknowledging sensory data, he emphasizes that
true understanding arises from intellectual insight, which transcends the limitations
of physical perception.
2.​ Why does Plotinus favor the fourth solution over the fifth? The fourth solution
aligns with Plotinus’ view of perception as an active process mediated by the soul.
The fifth, by contrast, reduces perception to mechanical explanations, neglecting the
soul's interpretative role.
3.​ What does this treatise reveal about Plotinus’ epistemology? It highlights Plotinus’
belief in a hierarchy of knowledge. Sensory perception is a lower form of cognition,
 providing fragmented and limited insight. True knowledge arises from the soul’s
contemplation of the intelligible realm, where accidental qualities like size are
transcended.
4.​ Is there a broader symbolic significance to the problem of distant objects appearing
smaller? Yes. This phenomenon can be seen as an allegory for the limitations of
human perception in grasping ultimate reality. Just as distant objects appear
diminished, so too does the sensory world obscure the fullness of the intelligible
realm.

According to Plotinus, distant objects appear small because size is perceived accidentally,
not as a direct object of sight. The proper object of vision is color, which is perceived
directly by the eye. Size, on the other hand, is inferred or interpreted secondarily by the
soul, based on its relationship to the context in which the color appears.

This explanation aligns with his broader metaphysical principles:

1.​ Essential vs. Accidental Perception:

○​ Essential perception: Vision is primarily concerned with color as the essence
of what the eye perceives.
○​ Accidental perception: Size is not an inherent aspect of vision but is
perceived incidentally as a consequence of spatial relationships, like the
object's distance from the observer.
2.​ Distance and Interpretation:
○​ Plotinus suggests that as objects become farther away, their apparent size
diminishes because the soul interprets the sensory input differently,
associating the object’s color with the context of distance. This diminishment
is an interpretive phenomenon rather than a strictly physical one.

By emphasizing that size is perceived through an interpretative process rather than

directly, Plotinus moves away from purely mechanistic explanations (like restricted visual
angles) and focuses on the active role of the soul in constructing sensory experiences.
 Against the Gnostics (2.9)

§1–2: The Three Intelligible Principles

Plotinus begins by reaffirming the core structure of his metaphysical system:

1.​ The One (or the Good): The ultimate source of all existence, perfect, infinite, and
indivisible.
2.​ Intellect (Nous): The realm of Forms or Ideas, containing perfect archetypes of all
things.
3.​ Soul (Psyche): The mediator between the intelligible and the sensible worlds,
responsible for generating the cosmos.

The Gnostics, in contrast, often multiply the intelligible principles, introducing

intermediaries like Wisdom (Sophia) or demiurgic figures. Plotinus rejects these additions
as unnecessary, asserting that the cosmos emerges through a simple and ordered chain of
emanation from the One, through Intellect, to Soul. Multiplying principles introduces
confusion and strays from metaphysical unity.

§5–10: Critique of Gnostic Views

Plotinus critiques several specific Gnostic claims:

1.​ The Demiurge and the Cosmos:

○​ Gnostics depict the demiurge (the creator of the material world) as
malevolent and the cosmos as inherently evil. Plotinus rejects this, asserting
that the cosmos is the best possible imitation of the intelligible realm. While
imperfect (due to its materiality), it reflects order, beauty, and necessity.
○​ The cosmos is not a product of failure or error but a natural and inevitable
outcome of the Soul’s activity. Its existence is everlasting, as part of the chain
of emanation.
2.​ Human vs. Celestial Souls:
○​ Gnostics claim that human souls are superior to celestial souls (e.g., those of
stars and planets). Plotinus refutes this, emphasizing that celestial beings are
 closer to the intelligible realm and thus possess greater purity and divinity.
Humans, though capable of ascending through contemplation, occupy a
lower rank in the hierarchy.
3.​ A ‘New Earth’ and Gnostic Eschatology:
○​ The Gnostics envision a radical rejection of the current cosmos, including the
idea of a "new earth." Plotinus counters that the cosmos does not require
replacement or annihilation. Instead, it demands understanding and
appreciation for its role in the metaphysical order.
4.​ Misinterpretation of Plato:
○​ Gnostics borrow extensively from Platonic thought but misinterpret key
ideas. Plotinus defends Plato, arguing that the Gnostics twist his teachings to
support their worldview, which unfairly maligns the cosmos and
misunderstands the relationship between the sensible and intelligible realms.

Hierarchy of Being and the Cosmos as an Imitation

One of Plotinus’ central themes is the hierarchy of being, where each level is a reflection or
emanation of the one above it:

1.​ The One emanates Intellect.

2.​ Intellect emanates Soul.
3.​ Soul emanates the cosmos, including the sensible world.

While the sensible world is furthest removed from the One and thus subject to
imperfection, it is still necessary and valuable as an imitation of the intelligible. Plotinus
sees the cosmos as ordered, harmonious, and filled with beauty—a stark contrast to the
Gnostic disdain for it.

Moral and Ethical Critiques of Gnosticism

Plotinus objects to the moral implications of Gnostic doctrines, which he believes foster
egoism, hedonism, and a lack of responsibility. He criticizes:

1.​ Hedonistic Tendencies:

○​ By rejecting the material world, Gnostics fail to cultivate virtues like
temperance, justice, and courage, which require engagement with the
sensible realm.
2.​ Egoism:
○​ Gnostic teachings often promote a self-centered focus on the individual’s
salvation or escape from the material world, neglecting communal and
cosmic responsibilities.
3.​ Magic and Daemonology:
○​ Gnostic practices involving daemons and magical rites are dismissed as
superstitious and morally dubious. Plotinus insists that true spirituality
involves contemplation and alignment with the divine, not reliance on
intermediaries or rituals.

The Beauty and Order of the Cosmos

Plotinus concludes that appreciating the cosmos is essential to appreciating the intelligible
principles it reflects. While we should not become overly attached to the material world,
recognizing its beauty and order can lead us to contemplation of higher realities.

1.​ Likeness to the Universe:

○​ Humans should strive to imitate the cosmos and celestial beings, which
maintain harmony and order without being distracted by the material.
2.​ Contemplation as the Highest Goal:
○​ The ultimate aim is to transcend bodily distractions and engage in pure
contemplation, which aligns us with the divine order and brings us closer to
the One.
 On Fate (3.1)

§1–2: Causality and the Primacy of the First Principle

Plotinus begins by asserting a key metaphysical principle: all things have causes, except the
first cause. This foundational principle aligns with his broader metaphysical system:

1.​ The First Principle (The One):

○​ The ultimate source of all existence, which is uncaused and transcendent.
○​ From the One, all other levels of being (Intellect, Soul, and the cosmos)
emanate in a hierarchical chain.

This initial assertion establishes that everything in the cosmos operates within a network of
causation, but it allows room for distinctions between different types of causes (material,
efficient, and final).

§3–6: Rejection of Deterministic Theories

1.​ Epicureans: Corporeal Causes

○​ The Epicureans posit a mechanistic universe governed by material and
random causes (such as the "swerve" of atoms).
○​ Plotinus rejects this explanation, particularly as it pertains to human
cognition and behavior. Material causation cannot account for the higher,
immaterial functions of the soul, such as reasoning, will, and intellect.
2.​ Stoics: Fate as a Single Principle
○​ The Stoics conceive of fate as a universal, deterministic causal chain, often
identified with the rational order of the cosmos (the Logos).
○​ Plotinus criticizes this view for denying individual responsibility. If all
actions are predetermined by fate, human beings lose their capacity for
voluntary choice and moral accountability.
3.​ Astrologers: Influence of Heavenly Bodies
 ○​ Astrologers attribute human traits and actions to the positions and
movements of the stars and planets.
○​ Plotinus acknowledges that heavenly bodies may influence the general order
of the cosmos (e.g., tides or seasons), but he denies that they dictate
individual human characteristics or actions. To claim otherwise undermines
the soul's autonomy and human freedom.

§7–10: The Role of the Soul and Human Freedom

1.​ The Soul as Causal Agent:

○​ Plotinus, following Platonic doctrine, asserts that the soul is the primary
causal force in human actions.
○​ The soul acts freely when it operates according to reason and intellect, the
higher faculties that connect it to the intelligible realm.
○​ However, the soul can also yield to external factors (e.g., bodily impulses,
environmental influences, or fate). When it does so, it becomes passive and
constrained.
2.​ Active vs. Passive States of the Soul:
○​ Active: The soul acts voluntarily when it aligns itself with reason and the
higher principles of reality. This state reflects the soul’s autonomy and
freedom.
○​ Passive: The soul is constrained when it succumbs to external forces or
irrational desires. In this state, it acts under the influence of fate or the
material world, diminishing its freedom.
3.​ Interaction of Soul and Fate:
○​ Plotinus recognizes the interplay between internal and external causes. While
fate influences the external conditions of life, the soul retains its capacity for
reason and voluntary action within those constraints.
○​ Human freedom, therefore, is not absolute but exists in proportion to the
soul’s perfection and alignment with reason.
 Broader Implications

1. Reconciling Freedom and Necessity

Plotinus’ view allows for a nuanced reconciliation of freedom and determinism:

●​ Freedom: The soul’s ability to act according to reason ensures that human beings
are not mere puppets of fate.
●​ Necessity: The external world operates according to causal principles, including
fate, which shape the conditions of human life. However, these do not determine the
soul’s internal choices.

This dual framework preserves moral accountability and the possibility of virtue, which
would be impossible under a purely deterministic system.

2. Critique of Materialism

Plotinus’ rejection of Epicurean materialism underscores his belief in the soul’s immaterial
nature:

●​ Material causes (such as atomic swerves) cannot explain rational thought, moral
decision-making, or spiritual ascent.
●​ The soul, as a higher principle, transcends the limitations of the material cosmos
and participates in the intelligible realm.

3. Autonomy of the Soul vs. External Influences

While Plotinus acknowledges the influence of fate and external conditions, he emphasizes
the soul’s autonomy:
 ●​ The soul has the power to rise above external constraints through the exercise of
reason and contemplation.
●​ This ascent reflects the Platonic ideal of aligning the soul with higher realities,
ultimately achieving freedom from the material world’s constraints.

1. Fate as Part of the Chain of Emanation

Fate (heimarmenē in Greek) is a natural consequence of the metaphysical order established

by the emanation from the One:

●​ The One is the ultimate source of all existence, transcending causation and necessity.
●​ From the One emanates Intellect (Nous), which contains the Forms and the
intelligible structure of all things.
●​ From Intellect emanates Soul, which governs the cosmos and gives rise to the
sensible world.

Fate operates primarily within the sensible world, governing physical and temporal events.
It is not a transcendent principle but a derivative force that arises from the ordering of the
cosmos by Soul.

2. Fate as a Causal Framework in the Sensible World

Plotinus understands fate as a causal network that governs external phenomena and the
interactions of material entities:

●​ It includes the deterministic regularities of nature, such as the laws of physics,

biological processes, and the movements of heavenly bodies.
●​ Fate is a necessity that ensures the orderly operation of the universe, contributing to
its coherence and beauty.
However, fate operates at the level of external circumstances and events, not at the level of
the soul’s internal decision-making. It shapes the conditions in which the soul exists but
does not dictate the soul’s choices.

3. The Limits of Fate: Soul and Freedom

The soul, as an emanation from Intellect, has a higher origin than the material world and is
not fully subject to fate:

●​ The Rational Soul (Logos): The highest part of the soul remains connected to the
intelligible realm and is free from the constraints of fate.
●​ The Lower Soul: The aspect of the soul that engages with the body and the material
world can become entangled in fate. This happens when the soul succumbs to bodily
desires or external influences, making it passive rather than active.

When the soul acts according to reason and intellect, it transcends fate, exercising its
autonomy. When it yields to irrational impulses or external pressures, it becomes
constrained by fate.

4. The Role of Heavenly Bodies and Astrology

Plotinus acknowledges the influence of heavenly bodies (stars and planets) in maintaining
cosmic order:

●​ They regulate natural cycles, such as seasons and weather, which are essential for
the functioning of the cosmos.
●​ However, Plotinus denies that they determine individual human traits or actions, as
astrologers claim. Such deterministic views undermine the soul’s freedom and
responsibility.
Heavenly bodies are not personal agents of fate but symbols of the order and harmony of
the universe.

5. The Interplay of Fate and Providence

Plotinus distinguishes between fate and providence (pronoia):

●​ Providence: The higher, intelligible principle that governs the cosmos as a whole,
originating from Intellect and the One. It ensures that the universe fulfills its
purpose and reflects the intelligible realm.
●​ Fate: A subordinate mechanism that operates within the framework of providence,
dealing with the details of material and temporal existence.

Fate is thus part of a larger, benevolent cosmic order, but it does not compromise the soul’s
freedom to rise above material constraints.

6. Determinism vs. Human Freedom

In Plotinus’ view, fate is not an absolute, all-determining force. Instead, it is one layer of
causation in a complex system:

●​ External events and circumstances are shaped by fate and necessity.

●​ Internal decisions and actions, when guided by reason, are expressions of the soul’s
autonomy and freedom.

This dual structure allows Plotinus to affirm both the reality of fate and the possibility of
human freedom. Fate governs the external world, but the soul can transcend it through
contemplation and alignment with higher principles.

7. The Purpose of Fate in the Cosmos

Fate, in Plotinus’ system, serves an essential purpose:

●​ It ensures the orderly functioning of the cosmos, maintaining harmony and

coherence in the material world.
●​ It challenges the soul to rise above external influences, fostering spiritual growth
and ascent toward the intelligible realm.

Fate, therefore, is not an adversary but a necessary aspect of the cosmic order, providing
the conditions in which the soul can exercise and develop its freedom.

Conclusion

For Plotinus, fate is a deterministic force operating within the material world, part of the
chain of causation that emanates from the One. It governs external events and
circumstances but does not fully determine the soul’s actions. The soul retains its freedom
by acting in accordance with reason and intellect, transcending the constraints of fate. This
balanced view allows Plotinus to uphold the metaphysical necessity of fate while preserving
the possibility of moral responsibility and spiritual ascent.

On Providence (2.2)

Plotinus’ treatise on providence is a profound exploration of how the apparent

imperfections, conflicts, and evils of the physical world can be reconciled with the idea of a
universal divine plan (providence). Below is a detailed explication of the key ideas and their
implications:

1. The Earthly Cosmos vs. the Intelligible Cosmos

●​ The intelligible cosmos (realm of the Forms, governed by Intellect) is the perfect,
unified archetype of existence. It is beyond time and change and expresses the
highest order of reality.
●​ The earthly cosmos (the material world), though derived from the intelligible realm,
is imperfect due to its association with matter. Matter introduces multiplicity,
division, and change, making the material world an incomplete reflection of the
perfect intelligible order.
●​ Why is the material world imperfect? Its imperfection arises not from a fault in the
divine order but from the intrinsic limitations of matter, which cannot fully embody
the perfection of its source.

2. Beauty and Goodness of the Whole

●​ Despite the imperfections of its parts, the cosmos as a whole is beautiful and
ordered. The apparent conflicts and deficiencies contribute to the overall harmony
of the universe.
●​ Destruction and evil are not antithetical to cosmic order; instead, they are necessary
elements in maintaining balance and facilitating growth and renewal. For example:
○​ Death and decay allow for the continuation of life.
○​ Natural and moral evils often lead to the emergence of higher goods.

3. The Role of Evil in the Divine Plan

●​ Plotinus argues that natural and moral evil have a place within providence:
○​ Natural Evil: Includes phenomena like decay and destruction, which are
inherent in a mutable, material cosmos.
○​ Moral Evil: Results from the actions of souls when they deviate from reason
and the intelligible order.
 ○​ Evil serves as a contrast that highlights the good and provides opportunities
for souls to strive toward higher states of being.

4. Reconciling Injustice with Providence

●​ Apparent injustices (e.g., the good suffering misfortune or the wicked prospering)
can be understood as parts of a larger, incomprehensible divine plan:
○​ Misapprehension of Justice: Humans overestimate their centrality in the
cosmos, failing to see themselves as part of a larger, harmonious whole.
○​ Temporal Perspective: What seems unjust in the short term may be resolved
over a longer timeline. Events in the present might find their resolution in the
future.

5. The Hierarchy of Being and Human Status

●​ Human beings occupy a middle position in the cosmic hierarchy:

○​ Between gods (pure intelligible beings) and beasts (purely material entities).
○​ Humans possess both a higher self (aligned with Intellect) and a lower self
(bound to material desires). This dual nature allows for growth and moral
responsibility but also exposes humans to failure and evil.

6. Providence and Freedom

●​ Divine Providence operates universally, but it allows room for human freedom:
○​ The framework for human action is determined by providence, but
individual choices within that framework are not predestined.
○​ Fate (in the material realm) is the mechanism through which providence
manifests, but it governs external conditions rather than the soul’s internal
decisions.
 ○​ The soul is free when it acts according to reason and aligns itself with the
divine order.

7. The Role of Diversity, Inequality, and Evil

●​ Diversity and inequality are necessary for the cosmos to reflect the multiplicity and
richness of the intelligible realm:
○​ Just as different notes create harmony in music, the variety of beings and
their contrasting qualities contribute to the beauty of the whole.
○​ Evil arises from the conflict of opposites inherent in a world of diversity but
is absorbed and reconciled within the greater harmony of the divine plan.

8. The Expressed Principle (Logos)

●​ The Logos is the dynamic principle that bridges the intelligible and material realms.
It governs the "devolution" from Intellect to Soul and further into the material
world.
●​ The multiplicity and variation seen in the world stem from the Logos’ adaptation to
the limitations of matter. While Logos ensures order, the material world cannot
perfectly replicate its intelligible source.

9. Analogy of the Theatre

●​ Plotinus compares life to a play where:

○​ The plot and script are determined by the playwright (providence).
○​ The actors (souls) have some freedom in how they perform their roles.
○​ A poor performance (moral evil) reflects on the actor, not the play itself.
This analogy emphasizes that individuals are responsible for their actions, even though
their circumstances are shaped by providence.

10. The Relationship Between Fate and Providence

●​ In the material realm, fate governs the interplay of causes and effects. It ensures the
orderly progression of events.
●​ In the intelligible realm, providence encompasses the ultimate purpose and unity of
the cosmos.
●​ Fate is subordinate to providence, ensuring that even chance events and human
actions contribute to the divine plan.

11. Human Responsibility and Freedom

●​ Plotinus maintains that while humans are embedded in a framework shaped by

providence and fate, they are still responsible for their moral choices:
○​ The higher self (aligned with Intellect) acts freely when it follows reason and
the divine order.
○​ The lower self (tied to the body) becomes entangled in fate when it succumbs
to irrational desires.

Conclusion

Plotinus’ treatment of providence synthesizes the apparent contradictions between

freedom, evil, and divine order. The material cosmos, with all its imperfections, is a
necessary and beautiful reflection of the intelligible realm. Evil, diversity, and inequality
are not flaws but essential components of a dynamic and harmonious whole. Humans, as
participants in this order, have the freedom to align themselves with reason and the divine
plan, achieving their highest potential within the framework of providence.

1. The Nature of Evil as Privation

In Neoplatonism:

●​ Evil is not a substance: Plotinus insists that evil has no real, independent existence.
It is the absence or lack of good, just as darkness is the absence of light or ignorance
is the absence of knowledge.
●​ Evil is a failure to conform to the intelligible order: It arises when beings fail to
actualize their potential or move away from the divine source, the One.
●​ Evil is associated with matter, as matter represents the furthest point of emanation
from the One. It is devoid of form, unity, and intelligibility, making it the least real
and most "deficient" aspect of existence.

2. The Role of Evil in the Material Cosmos

While evil is a privation, it is perceived as active in the material cosmos because:

●​ The material world inherently involves division, conflict, and imperfection, which
are inevitable consequences of the multiplicity introduced by matter.
●​ In this realm, beings are subject to change, decay, and death, which can appear as
"natural evils."
●​ Moral evils result when rational beings fail to align themselves with the intelligible
order and act contrary to their higher nature. These choices lead to disharmony.

Thus, Plotinus’ task in this treatise is to reconcile the existence of apparent evils with the
notion of a cosmos governed by providence.

3. Evil as Necessary in the Cosmic Plan

Plotinus does not suggest that evil, as privation, is "good" in itself. Instead, he emphasizes
that:

●​ Evil serves a function in the material world by contributing to the overall harmony
of the cosmos. For example:
○​ Death makes room for new life.
○​ Opposition and struggle foster growth and strength.
○​ Moral failings highlight the value of virtue and provide opportunities for
souls to strive toward the good.
●​ The absence of absolute perfection in the material world does not diminish its
overall beauty and order. Instead, it reflects its status as a necessary, imperfect
imitation of the intelligible cosmos.

4. The Hierarchical Nature of the Cosmos

In Plotinus’ system:

●​ The One is the source of all existence and absolute goodness.

●​ Evil exists only in relation to the hierarchy of being:
○​ The further a thing is from the One, the less unified and perfect it is.
○​ Matter, being the furthest from the One, is the most deficient and thus the
"seat" of evil.
○​ Beings caught in the lower realms experience this deficiency as conflict,
suffering, and injustice.

Evil, then, is not created by the One or emanated from it. It is a byproduct of the necessary
hierarchy, where multiplicity and imperfection emerge as existence unfolds.

5. Apparent Evil and the Limits of Human Perception

Plotinus argues that much of what we perceive as evil is due to our limited perspective:

●​ Short-term view: Humans often misinterpret temporary suffering or injustice,

failing to see how these might lead to greater harmony or good in the long run.
●​ Ego-centered view: We overestimate our individual importance within the vast
cosmic order, seeing events as unjust because they harm us, without recognizing
their place in the whole.

6. Evil, Freedom, and Responsibility

While evil is a privation, it is also tied to the exercise of freedom in the material world:

●​ Rational beings (humans) have the freedom to align with their higher nature
(intellect and reason) or succumb to their lower nature (passions and material
desires).
●​ When they choose poorly, they create moral evil, but this too is absorbed into the
overall providential plan, as it highlights the contrast between good and evil and
allows for growth.

7. Evil in the Context of Providence

Providence does not "create" evil; instead:

●​ It accounts for and incorporates evil into the cosmic plan.

●​ Evil is subordinated to the good, contributing indirectly to the perfection of the
whole. For example:
○​ The suffering caused by natural disasters may inspire compassion and
innovation.
○​ The existence of moral failings provides opportunities for virtue, redemption,
and progress.
Summary

Evil in Plotinus’ philosophy is both:

1.​ A privation of good, lacking any independent reality.

2.​ A necessary condition of the material cosmos, reflecting its distance from the One
and the inherent limitations of matter.

Plotinus on Celestial Activities, Fate, and Free Will

Plotinus provides a nuanced understanding of the relationship between celestial

(astrological) activities, fate, and human free will. His views stem from his broader
metaphysical framework, where he balances the influence of cosmic order and the
individual's capacity for free, rational action.

1. Celestial Activities and Cosmic Order

Plotinus acknowledges that the movements of the heavenly bodies and celestial
configurations (astrology) play a role in maintaining the general order of the cosmos:

●​ The Celestial Realm as Perfect Order: The stars and planets are part of the
intelligible-to-material emanation process and are governed by the universal Soul.
They serve as symbols or vehicles of cosmic harmony, reflecting the intelligible
principles of the Nous.
●​ Cosmic Maintenance, Not Determination: The heavenly bodies influence the
macrocosmic order, ensuring stability and the regularity of natural phenomena. For
instance, their movements might symbolize or correspond to certain cycles and
patterns in nature or history.
2. Fate, Free Will, and Human Actions

While Plotinus accepts that the cosmos is pervaded by a rational order (often associated
with "fate"), he insists that human free will is not negated by this order:

●​ Two Levels of Fate: Fate operates differently in the intelligible and material realms:
○​ In the intelligible realm, it aligns with providence (the divine plan).
○​ In the material realm, it corresponds to natural necessity and the chain of
causation.
●​ Role of the Soul:
○​ Plotinus argues that the soul retains a degree of autonomy and freedom of
rational choice. This freedom stems from the soul’s connection to the
intelligible realm.
○​ The soul's higher aspect is capable of reasoning and aligning itself with the
divine order, transcending the limitations imposed by external events (fate).
●​ Yielding to the External: When the soul neglects its rational nature and becomes
passive or overly attached to the material realm, it is subject to external influences,
including the workings of fate.

In short, fate governs external circumstances but not the inner freedom of the rational soul.
Human beings are free when they act in accordance with their higher, intelligible nature.

3. The Role of Astrology and Individual Characteristics

Plotinus critiques the idea that astrology determines individual characteristics. He rejects
the deterministic view that celestial configurations directly dictate human behavior or
innate qualities:

A. Why Astrological Influences Do Not Define Individual Character

1.​ Celestial Influence is General, Not Specific:

 ○​ Plotinus holds that the celestial bodies influence the material world in
general ways, such as climate or large-scale events, but they do not reach into
the particularities of individual character or moral disposition.
○​ The soul's essence and individuality come from the intelligible realm (the
Nous), not from material factors like the stars.
2.​ The Soul’s Higher Nature is Beyond Material Influence:
○​ The soul, as an emanation of the intelligible realm, is fundamentally free and
rational. Its higher aspect cannot be constrained or fully determined by
material or celestial causes.

B. Justification of Astrological Influence on External Events

While rejecting the idea that astrology shapes individual character, Plotinus concedes that
celestial patterns might symbolize or correlate with external events. However:

●​ These events do not create or alter an individual’s essential character.

●​ The soul interprets and responds to external circumstances, thus exercising free will
regardless of the external influences.

C. Critique of Natal Charts and Determinism

Plotinus dismisses the deterministic implications of natal astrology because:

1.​ Misinterpretation of Correlation: He argues that astrological readings might

identify correlations between celestial phenomena and external events but
mistakenly attribute causality to the stars for individual traits.
2.​ The Priority of the Soul: Individual characteristics are rooted in the soul’s nature
and its choices, not in material or astrological forces.
3.​ Providence Over Fate: Any apparent influence of the stars falls under the broader
framework of providence, where human free will and soul's autonomy remain
paramount.
4. Reconciling Astrology and Free Will

●​ Astrological Catalysts as Framework, Not Determinants:

○​ Celestial influences may serve as a framework within which human actions
unfold, but they are not deterministic.
○​ The soul can rise above these influences by aligning itself with the higher
intelligible order.
●​ Freedom Through Rational Action:
○​ Plotinus emphasizes that true freedom lies in the soul's capacity to act
rationally and in alignment with the divine plan. While astrology might offer
insight into external conditions, it cannot override the rational soul’s free
will.

On the Allotted Daemon (3.4)

Soul and Its Levels of Activity (§1, §2)

●​ The soul is multi-leveled, participating both in the material and the intelligible
realms:
○​ Growth and Perception: The soul grants life to the body, enabling functions
like growth, sensation, and interaction with the physical world.
○​ Higher Levels: Beyond its engagement with the body, the soul possesses the
capacity to ascend to purely intelligible activities, such as contemplation of
the divine.
●​ The level at which a person primarily operates in life determines their spiritual state
and eventual reincarnation.
○​ For example, a soul absorbed in material concerns will reincarnate in forms
aligned with those concerns, while a soul focused on the intelligible ascends
toward the divine.

The Twofold Daemon (§3, §4)

 ●​ Plotinus integrates Plato’s concept of the daemon with his own metaphysical
framework, presenting a dual aspect:
○​ Present Level Daemon: The daemon represents the level of spiritual activity
an individual has currently attained. It reflects their dominant choices,
whether rooted in sense perception, reason, or the intelligible realm.
○​ Higher Level Daemon: Another daemon exists at the next level above the
individual's current state, pulling them upward toward greater spiritual
realization.
○​ This dynamic ensures that the soul is both grounded in its current state and
constantly oriented toward its higher potential.

The Soul’s Connection to the Intelligible Realm (§5)

●​ The Universal Soul’s Perfection:

○​ The soul of the universe is always at the highest level, fully engaged with the
intelligible realm and untainted by bodily perceptions.
○​ This universal soul serves as a model for individual souls, offering a vision of
what they can aspire to.
●​ Individual Souls as Intelligible Universes:
○​ Plotinus emphasizes that the human soul mirrors the structure of the
intelligible cosmos. By ascending to higher levels, a person becomes more
aligned with this cosmic order, embodying an "intelligible universe" within
themselves.

Interpretation of Platonic Daemon Texts (§6)

●​ Plotinus draws upon two major Platonic texts:

○​ Republic 10 (Myth of Er): In this myth, the daemon is presented as the soul’s
guide, chosen based on the individual’s life and inclinations. Plotinus
 interprets this as reflecting the soul’s ability to select its dominant focus and
path.
○​ Timaeus: The concept of the daemon is tied to the structure of the cosmos,
where every being has a place and a guiding principle. Plotinus aligns this
with his idea of different levels of daemons corresponding to the varying
levels of the soul.
●​ Levels of Daemons:
○​ The hierarchy of daemons corresponds to the soul's ascent. At the highest
levels, daemons are indistinguishable from gods, representing the soul's
union with the divine.

Plotinus' Core Message

1.​ The Soul’s Journey: The soul’s daemon symbolizes its current state and its potential.
Life is a process of aligning oneself with higher levels of reality.
2.​ Free Will and Responsibility: While the daemon reflects the soul’s state, individuals
are responsible for their spiritual development. The daemon does not dictate actions
but reflects the consequences of choices.
3.​ Unity with the Divine: The ultimate goal is for the soul to transcend all levels of
material and even intellectual activity, uniting with the One.

On Love (3.5)

Introduction: Reconciling Platonic Views on Love​

This treatise by Plotinus is an exploration of the nature of Love (Eros), synthesizing
seemingly divergent statements in Plato’s works, particularly Symposium and Phaedrus.
Plotinus seeks to provide a metaphysical and hierarchical understanding of Love, treating
it as both an affection of the soul and a cosmic principle. He emphasizes Love’s role as a
force that propels the soul toward beauty and the Good, bridging earthly and heavenly
realms.
Key Themes in the Treatise

1. The Nature of Love (§2-§3)

●​ Is Love a God, a Daemon, or an Affection?

○​ Plotinus rejects the simplistic categorization of Love as merely one of these
entities. Instead, he positions Love as:
■​ An affection of the soul: Love arises within the soul as a response to
beauty and the Good. It is a dynamic yearning that drives the soul
toward its ultimate fulfillment.
■​ A daemon: Love occupies an intermediate position between gods and
humans, reflecting its dual nature—aspiring to the divine while
remaining connected to the earthly.
○​ This intermediate status reflects Plato’s portrayal of Love in the Symposium
as the child of Plenty (Poros) and Poverty (Penia). Love is both abundant in
its aspirations and deficient in its current state, perpetually striving for the
Good.

2. Earthly Love and Heavenly Love (§4-§5)

●​ Two Dimensions of Love:

○​ Earthly Love: Rooted in the material world, it concerns human relationships,
physical beauty, and emotional attachments. It is linked to the Soul of the
universe, guiding individuals toward unity with others and encouraging the
formation of bonds (e.g., marriage).
○​ Heavenly Love: A higher form of Love that transcends the physical realm. It
directs the soul toward the intelligible world, fostering a longing for the
ultimate Good and eternal Beauty.
 ●​ Love as a Substance:
○​ Plotinus views Love not merely as an abstract affection but as a substantial
entity born of the Soul’s activity. Love is a product of the Soul’s connection to
the intelligible realm, embodying the drive to ascend to what is above.
●​ Role of Love in the Cosmic Order:
○​ Earthly Love is not an end in itself but serves as a stepping stone. By
engaging with beauty in the material world, the soul begins its journey
upward toward divine Beauty and the Good.

3. Love and the Individual Soul (§6)

●​ Personal Loves:​
Each individual soul has its own "loves," which are reflections of the universal
Loves. These personal loves are the motivating forces behind the soul’s desire for
beauty and goodness. They play a pivotal role in drawing the soul toward its higher
purpose.
●​ Hierarchy of Love:
○​ Higher Love as a God: This represents the pure, unchanging aspect of Love
that resides in the intelligible world. It is a force that draws the soul upward,
free from passions and affections.
○​ Lower Love as a Daemon: This reflects the soul’s engagement with the
material world, characterized by a mixture of rational and irrational
elements. It is this lower Love that experiences desire, lack, and unfulfilled
longing.

4. The Mythological Interpretation of Love (§7)

●​ The Platonic Myth of Plenty and Poverty:

○​ Drawing on Plato’s Symposium, Plotinus interprets the myth of Love’s birth
as an allegory:
 ■​ Plenty (Poros): Represents the abundance of the Soul, tied to its
connection with the intelligible realm.
■​ Poverty (Penia): Symbolizes the soul’s lack, its separation from the
ultimate Good, and its constant striving for fulfillment.
○​ Love, born of these two, is perpetually incomplete but always seeking to
attain higher states.
●​ Zeus and Aphrodite as Allegories:
○​ Zeus: Represents Intellect (Nous), the ultimate source of wisdom and order.
○​ Aphrodite: Represents Soul, the intermediary between Intellect and the
material world. Her association with Love emphasizes the soul’s ability to
unite with Beauty.

5. Love as a Mixed Being (§8)

●​ The Rational and Irrational Aspects of Love:

○​ Earthly Love is a mixture of rationality and irrationality. It is driven by
desire and longing, which are rooted in deficiency, but it can be guided by
reason to fulfill its ultimate purpose.
○​ When Love operates contrary to its nature—seeking only base or purely
physical desires—it becomes pathological, a state of passive affection that
misdirects the soul.
●​ Unfulfilled Desire as a Catalyst for Growth:
○​ Love’s intrinsic lack is not a flaw but a necessary condition for movement
and ascent. It is the soul’s dissatisfaction with its current state that propels it
toward the Good.

Key Insights

1.​ Love as a Cosmic Principle:​

Love is more than an emotion; it is a universal force that reflects the soul’s inherent
 connection to the intelligible world. It mediates between the material and the divine,
guiding the soul toward ultimate fulfillment.
2.​ The Hierarchical Nature of Love:​
Plotinus highlights the duality of Love, showing how it operates at both earthly and
heavenly levels. Earthly Love is concerned with material beauty and human
relationships, while Heavenly Love strives for eternal Beauty and the Good.
3.​ The Role of Desire:​
The unfulfilled nature of Love is essential for the soul’s progression. Desire, while
rooted in deficiency, becomes the driving force behind the soul’s ascent to higher
states of being.
4.​ Myth as Philosophy:​
Plotinus’ interpretation of Platonic myths (e.g., Plenty and Poverty, Zeus and
Aphrodite) demonstrates how these narratives encode profound metaphysical truths
about the nature of the soul and its journey.

Questions Addressed

1. What is the relationship between earthly and heavenly Love?

Earthly Love is a preliminary stage that engages with material beauty and relationships. It
serves as a bridge, leading the soul toward Heavenly Love, which is focused on eternal
Beauty and the Good.

2. How does Love relate to the intelligible realm?

Love originates in the Soul and looks toward the intelligible realm as its ultimate goal. It is
a dynamic force that propels the soul upward, aligning it with the divine order.

3. Why is Love a mixed being?

Love is a mixed being because it embodies both rational and irrational elements. Its
rational aspect seeks the Good, while its irrational aspect reflects its inherent deficiency
and longing. This duality is essential for its function as a driver of ascent.

Where do everyday human emotions and superficial and normal ways of being originate?

How Blushing from Shame Originates

1.​ The Hierarchical Structure of the Soul

○​ The higher soul operates in the intelligible realm, contemplating eternal
truths and the Good. It is pure and unaffected, guiding the individual
towards reason and moral ideals.
○​ The lower soul (psuche pathētikē or "passionate soul") acts as an
intermediary between the higher soul and the body. It deals with emotions,
instincts, and reactions tied to bodily existence.
2.​ Blushing as a Reaction of the Lower Soul​
Blushing from shame, a bodily response, originates in the lower soul’s awareness of
a moral ideal mediated by the higher soul. Here's how it unfolds:
○​ Awareness of Shame: The higher soul, attuned to intelligible ideals,
recognizes a deviation from virtue or moral order. This recognition is not
emotional in itself but intellectual and evaluative.
○​ Transmission to the Lower Soul: The higher soul's judgment is transmitted
to the lower soul, which translates this intellectual recognition into an
emotional and physical reaction. The lower soul interprets the higher soul's
judgment as a sense of shame or guilt.
○​ Physical Manifestation: The lower soul, being closely tied to the body,
triggers physiological changes (e.g., blushing). These changes are not in the
soul itself but occur in the material body as expressions of the soul's
response.
3.​ The Origin of Material Reactions​
The material manifestations of shame (e.g., blushing) stem from the soul's role as a
mediator between the intelligible and the material. While the higher soul imparts
 the awareness of deviation from the Good, the lower soul translates this into the
affective and sensory realm. This process follows the soul’s intrinsic nature to
communicate and guide the body without being affected itself.

How the Higher Soul Generates These Responses

1.​ Guidance Through Reason and Logos​

The higher soul acts as a source of rational and moral guidance. It "generates"
responses in the lower soul by:
○​ Infusing the lower soul with awareness of higher truths and ideals.
○​ Providing a standard of comparison that the lower soul interprets
emotionally (e.g., feeling shame when actions deviate from this standard).
2.​ Interaction as Overflow of Intelligible Reality​
Plotinus often describes the activity of higher realities as "overflowing" into lower
ones. The higher soul does not actively "cause" emotions like shame but provides
the intelligible framework (moral ideals) that the lower soul interprets in its
emotional and bodily context.

Where Do These Tendencies Originate?

1.​ Intelligible Ideals as Archetypes​

The origins of moral tendencies like shame are rooted in the intelligible realm. The
higher soul contemplates universal principles (e.g., justice, order, harmony), which
serve as archetypes for moral judgment.
2.​ Lower Soul as a Translator of Archetypes​
The lower soul, by virtue of its connection to the body, transforms these intelligible
archetypes into particularized experiences. The feeling of shame arises when the
lower soul perceives that the body or mind has acted in a way inconsistent with the
ideals imparted by the higher soul.
 3.​ The Role of the Universal Soul​
The Universal Soul, which governs the cosmos, imparts a general sense of order and
structure. Individual souls derive their ability to recognize moral deviations from
their connection to the Universal Soul. This connection explains why certain moral
emotions, like shame, are universal human experiences.

Summary of the Process

1.​ Higher Soul: Provides awareness of moral ideals and deviations from them. This
awareness is intellectual and does not involve emotion or physicality.
2.​ Lower Soul: Receives and interprets the higher soul's judgments, translating them
into emotional and sensory responses like shame.
3.​ Body: Reflects the lower soul’s emotional responses in physiological reactions, such
as blushing.

Conclusion

Blushing from shame originates in the higher soul’s recognition of a moral deviation but is
translated into an emotional and physical response by the lower soul. This process
demonstrates the hierarchical communication within the soul, where the higher soul’s
intellectual activity inspires emotional and material reactions in the lower soul and body.
The reaction, though material, ultimately derives its origin from the intelligible realm
through the soul’s mediation.

Even in greater detail about the origination of lower soul's activities e.g bodily functions.

1. The Origin of the Higher Soul's Governing Power

The Higher Soul derives its governing power and purpose from its connection to the
Intelligible Realm, particularly the Nous (Divine Intellect), which is the source of all forms
and rational principles:
 ●​ Source of Governance: The Higher Soul originates from the Nous, participating in
the eternal Forms, which are the perfect blueprints of existence.
●​ Role as Mediator: The Higher Soul mediates between the eternal Forms and the
material world, ensuring that the latter reflects the order and rationality of the
former.
●​ Overflow of Perfection: The governing activity of the Higher Soul arises as an
overflow or emanation of its contemplation of the Forms. This emanation organizes
and animates the material body.

2. How the Higher Soul Governs the Body

The Higher Soul governs the body indirectly, through an intermediary process, as it is
incorporeal and transcendent:

●​ Presence Without Contact: The soul is not physically "in" the body but is present in
it as an immaterial and unifying principle. Its influence is comparable to the way a
conductor directs an orchestra without being a physical part of the instruments.
●​ Illumination and Form-Giving: The soul’s governance is an act of illumination or
form-giving. It imparts structure and purpose to the body, animating it and allowing
it to participate in life.
○​ The soul organizes the body according to the principles it derives from the
Forms.
○​ It activates the body’s functions, such as growth, motion, and perception, by
acting as their underlying cause.

3. Mechanism of Manifestation in the Body

The Higher Soul governs the body through a hierarchical and layered structure of activity:

●​ From Nous to the Body: The governance flows downward from:

 1.​ Nous (Intellect): Provides eternal Forms and rational principles.
2.​ Higher Soul: Reflects the Forms and imparts them to the lower aspects of the
soul and body.
3.​ Lower Soul: Acts as an intermediary, translating the Higher Soul’s rational
governance into actions and processes that the body can perform.
●​ "Logoi Spermatikoi" (Seminal Principles): The Higher Soul transmits governing
principles or seeds (logoi spermatikoi), which unfold into specific bodily functions,
emotional states, and actions.
●​ Vitality and Order: The body’s vitality (e.g., heartbeats, digestion, perception) arises
from the soul's presence, which organizes these processes in accordance with its
rational order.

4. How Specific Processes Originate

The Higher Soul’s influence manifests in bodily and emotional processes as follows:

a. Bodily Processes

The Higher Soul activates and regulates the following:

1.​ Growth and Reproduction:

○​ The Higher Soul imparts the principles that enable the vegetative functions
of the body.
○​ These principles operate through the lower faculties of the soul (akin to
Aristotle's "nutritive soul").
2.​ Perception and Sensation:
○​ The soul activates the sensory organs, allowing the body to perceive the
external world.
○​ Sensory experiences are processed in the lower faculties of the soul but
remain subordinate to the rational governance of the Higher Soul.
3.​ Motor Function:
 ○​ The soul governs motion through the body’s faculties, coordinating the
physical responses to external stimuli.

b. Emotional States

The Higher Soul governs emotions indirectly:

●​ Emotional Origin in the Lower Soul: Emotions arise in the lower soul as a reaction
to bodily and external events.
●​ Higher Soul’s Role: The Higher Soul provides rational guidance, aligning emotions
with the higher principles of reason. For example:
○​ Blushing from shame originates in the body and lower soul as a response to
external stimuli.
○​ The Higher Soul introduces the moral awareness (reason) that gives the
shame its meaning, thereby aligning the response with a higher ethical
framework.

5. How Does It Originate?

The governance of the body by the Higher Soul originates as an act of emanation from the
Intelligible Realm:

●​ Emanation from the Nous: The Higher Soul’s activity is an overflow of its own
perfection and contemplation of the Forms.
●​ Unfolding of Unity into Multiplicity: The soul, while unified in its contemplation of
the Forms, unfolds its activity into multiplicity, organizing and animating the body
and lower faculties.

6. The Relationship Between Higher Soul and Lower Soul

The Higher Soul and Lower Soul operate in tandem, but with a clear hierarchy:
 ●​ Higher Soul: Contemplates the intelligible realm and provides overarching rational
principles.
●​ Lower Soul: Implements these principles in the material world, managing emotions
and bodily functions.

The Higher Soul does not directly generate bodily processes or emotions but ensures that
they align with the order and rationality derived from the Forms.

7. Analogy of Governance

To clarify how the Higher Soul governs the body, Plotinus employs several analogies:

●​ The Light of the Sun: The soul’s governance is like sunlight illuminating the earth,
enabling life and growth without being diminished.
●​ The Pilot and the Ship: The soul governs the body as a pilot steers a ship, directing
it without becoming part of it.
●​ A Singer and a Song: The soul’s presence in the body is like a singer producing a
melody—the song depends on the singer, but the singer is not altered by the song.

8. Summary of Origins and Process

●​ Where It Originates: The governance originates in the Higher Soul’s contemplation

of the Forms in the Nous.
●​ How It Originates: It arises as an emanation or overflow of the soul’s
contemplation, transmitting rational principles into the body.
●​ Mechanism: The Higher Soul operates through the lower faculties of the soul,
imparting vitality, order, and purpose to bodily processes and emotional states.
●​ Mode of Action: It acts immaterially, like light illuminating objects, organizing the
body and emotions without being subject to their affections.
Through this hierarchical, immaterial, and rational mechanism, the Higher Soul governs
the body while maintaining its transcendence and incorporeal nature.

On the Impassibility of Things Without Bodies" (Enneads 3.6

troduction: The Challenge of Impassibility

Plotinus tackles the philosophical problem of how incorporeal realities, such as the soul and
matter, interact with and remain unaffected by the physical world. He aims to clarify how
the soul can undergo moral and spiritual transformation without being physically altered,
while exploring a different type of impassibility in matter.

The dual focus reflects a broader theme in Plotinus’ metaphysics: the distinction between
higher, intelligible realities (Intellect and Soul) and lower, formless realities (matter). The
treatise contrasts the active immutability of the soul with the passive, inert immutability of
matter.

Key Themes and Explanations

1. The Nature of the Soul’s Impassibility (§1-§3)

●​ Question: How Can Vice Exist if the Soul is Unchangeable?​

Plotinus begins by addressing a central issue: if the soul, particularly its higher part,
is incorporeal and impassible, how can it exhibit moral qualities like virtue and
vice?
○​ Higher Soul and Unchangeability: The higher part of the soul, which is
aligned with Intellect, remains unaffected by external events or physical
 changes. It is immutable because it is connected to the intelligible realm,
which is beyond the flux of the material world.
○​ Moral Transformation: Vice and virtue arise not in the higher soul itself but
in how the individual exercises or fails to exercise reason. This involves the
lower faculties of the soul, which are influenced by bodily conditions but do
not themselves undergo physical change.
●​ Rejection of the Harmony Theory:​
Plotinus dismisses the theory of harmony as insufficient to explain the soul’s
susceptibility to moral failings. Instead, he emphasizes that virtue and vice are tied
to the soul’s rational activities and its orientation toward the intelligible or material.
●​ Physical Manifestations and Emotional States:​
The physical expressions of emotions (e.g., blushing from shame) are initiated by the
soul but do not imply that the soul itself is moved or affected. Instead, these
reactions occur in the body, where the soul’s presence is directive rather than
transformative.

2. The Affective Faculty and the Lower Soul (§4-§5)

●​ The Lower Soul’s Role in Emotions and Affections:​

Plotinus explains that the so-called "affective" aspect of the soul (emotions, desires,
passions) does not belong to the soul in its essence but reflects its interaction with
the body. Emotions arise in the material domain and affect the body, not the soul
itself.
○​ Form and Matter: The soul’s faculties are forms, and they remain
unchanged. For instance, the faculty of growth in plants does not itself grow;
it is an activity of the soul that imparts growth to the material body.
○​ Activity Over Movement: The soul’s activities, including its governance of
bodily processes, are not movements in the sense of physical motion but
rather a dynamic participation in being.
 ●​ Purification and Moral Growth:​
True purification occurs when the soul turns away from images and attachments to
the material and redirects itself toward the higher, intelligible realities. This
reorientation is a process of spiritual elevation, not a change in the soul’s essence.

3. The Impassibility of Matter (§6-§7)

●​ Is Matter Subject to Affection?​

Plotinus introduces the notion of matter’s unique impassibility, contrasting it
sharply with the soul’s. While soul's impassibility is active (it directs without being
changed), matter's impassibility is passive and inert.
○​ True Being vs. Matter:
■​ True being (associated with Intellect and Soul) possesses form,
activity, and intelligibility.
■​ Matter, in contrast, is the absence of form, activity, and intelligibility.
It is "unlimitedness" (apeiron) and "true non-being."
○​ Incapacity for Affection:​
Matter does not undergo affections because it lacks the properties necessary
to be affected. It is neither a subject nor an agent but a mere substrate,
providing a receptacle for forms without itself being transformed.

4. The Nature of Affections (§8)

●​ Affections in the Material World:​

In the physical realm, affections (e.g., heat, cold, decay) occur when one state
displaces another. For instance, heat replaces cold in a given object. These changes,
however, are limited to composite beings that combine matter and form.
●​ Matter’s Unique Impassibility:​
While affections destroy and replace one another in material composites, matter
 itself is not destroyed. It persists as the passive substratum for change, unaltered in
essence because it has no qualities or form of its own.

Key Insights

1.​ The Soul’s Dual Role:

○​ The soul is incorporeal and impassible in its essence, yet it directs and
governs bodily processes. Emotional and physical changes occur in the body,
influenced by the soul, but do not imply that the soul itself is affected.
2.​ Matter as True Non-Being:
○​ Matter’s incorporeality is radically different from that of the soul. While the
soul’s incorporeality is tied to its active participation in the intelligible,
matter’s incorporeality is defined by its formlessness and passivity.
3.​ Purification as Ascent:
○​ The soul’s moral and spiritual transformation involves turning away from
material distractions and ascending toward the intelligible world. This
process refines the soul’s activities without altering its unchanging essence.
4.​ Impassibility and the Nature of Change:
○​ The impassibility of the soul and matter highlights different kinds of
immutability:
■​ The soul is impassible because it is aligned with the eternal and
intelligible.
■​ Matter is impassible because it lacks the qualities necessary to
undergo change.

Questions Addressed

1. How can the soul interact with the body without being affected?
The soul interacts with the body as a directive force, initiating activities without
undergoing change itself. Changes occur in the body, reflecting the soul’s governance, but
the soul’s essence remains unaffected.

2. Why is matter considered impassible?

Matter is impassible because it is formless and lacks the qualities necessary to be affected.
As true non-being, it serves as a passive substratum for physical changes without being
altered in essence.

3. How does purification affect the soul?

Purification does not change the soul’s essence but reorients its focus from the material to
the intelligible. This ascent is a process of aligning the soul with its true nature, free from
material distractions.

§9. Different Meanings of Being Present to or In, or Being Affected by Something

●​ Presence in this context doesn’t mean physical proximity or mixing, but rather the
way one reality influences another. For example, a teacher’s knowledge is "present"
to a student through teaching, but it isn’t physically mixed with them.
●​ Affection (being affected) only occurs when opposites interact. For instance, heat
affects something cold by making it warm. However, simple entities (things without
parts or opposites, like the Higher Soul or Intellect) cannot be affected because they
have no internal contradiction or opposite nature.

§10. Matter Is in Itself Unalterable

●​ Matter, in Plotinus' philosophy, is a passive substratum. It is pure potentiality

without any qualities of its own. Since it lacks any inherent qualities or nature, it
cannot truly change. Alteration requires something to lose one quality and gain
another, but matter has no qualities to begin with.
§11. Matter Remains Unaffected, Evil, and Ugly Even When Form, Goodness, and
Beauty Are Present to It

●​ Matter is inherently devoid of qualities, making it the lowest level of reality.

●​ Even when Forms (patterns of goodness, beauty, or order) are present in matter,
they do not transform its essence. It remains chaotic and unstructured, like a canvas
that stays blank regardless of the painting on it.
●​ Matter’s evil and ugliness come from its total lack of form, structure, or alignment
with the higher intelligible realities.

§12. Plato Teaches That Matter Is Unaffected

●​ Plotinus builds on Plato’s idea that matter doesn’t act or react; it simply serves as a
passive recipient. For example, it’s like a mirror reflecting an image but not being
changed by the reflection.

§13. Interpretation of Platonic Phrases ("Matter Flees" and "Receptacle and

Nurse")

●​ When Plato says "matter flees", it reflects its inability to hold onto or fully embody
Forms. Like sand slipping through fingers, matter cannot retain the higher qualities
projected onto it.
●​ As a "receptacle and nurse", matter is a container for Forms but remains separate
from them. Think of a mirror: it shows images but doesn’t absorb them. Similarly,
Forms are present in matter but do not mix with it.
§14. Matter Is a Prerequisite for the Visible Universe

●​ Matter is necessary because without it, there would be no physical manifestation of

the intelligible world.
●​ However, its interaction with Forms is superficial, like a reflection on water—it’s
there but not deeply connected.

§15. Matter Does Not Mix with What Appears "In" It

●​ Forms do not merge with matter. They "appear" in it, much like sunlight
illuminates objects without physically mixing with them.
●​ Similarly, the soul’s mental images are "present" to it, but they don’t physically mix
with the soul.

§16. Even Size Is Projected Onto Matter from Outside

●​ Size, shape, and other attributes are not inherent to matter. They are imposed by
Forms.
●​ For example, the "bigness" of a mountain or the "smallness" of a pebble are
qualities derived from Forms, not from matter itself.

§17. Matter Is Not Magnitude but Only Appears to Have Size

●​ Magnitude (size or extent) is a Form, an intelligible quality. Matter only seems to

have size because of the Forms that shape it. Without Form, matter has no
measurable characteristics.
§18. Matter Can Receive and Reflect All Forms Because It Is Unaffected

●​ Matter’s emptiness allows it to receive and reflect any Form without being
transformed. This is why it can take on countless shapes and appearances—its
neutrality enables infinite possibilities.

§19. Matter as a Passive Receptacle

●​ Matter is likened to a mother, who provides the space for creation but does not
generate by herself.
●​ Plotinus compares matter to the eunuchs of Cybele, highlighting its inability to
produce anything on its own.
●​ The Forms, by contrast, are generative, bringing order, beauty, and life into the
cosmos, much like Hermes as a symbol of creativity and productivity.

Key Questions and Answers

1.​ Why is matter considered evil and ugly?

○​ Matter is evil and ugly because it represents absence—absence of order,
structure, and alignment with the higher intelligible realm. It is the furthest
removed from the Divine.
2.​ How does matter interact with Forms?
○​ Matter passively receives Forms, like a mirror reflects images. The Forms
impose order and structure, but they don’t mix with or change matter itself.
3.​ Why can matter "reflect all forms"?
○​ Matter’s lack of inherent qualities allows it to take on any appearance. Its
emptiness makes it infinitely adaptable, though it remains unaffected.
4.​ How does matter contribute to the visible universe?
 ○​ Matter provides the substratum for physical existence. Without it, the Forms
couldn’t manifest in a tangible way.

Simplified Analogy

Think of matter as a stage:

●​ The Forms are like actors and props that create the performance.
●​ The stage is essential for the play to happen but doesn’t participate—it just supports
the show without being changed by it.

On Eternity and Time (3.7)

Eternity and the Intelligible World

Eternity Defined

●​ Nature of Eternity: Eternity is not merely a static state but a dynamic, complete, and
unchanging "life" belonging to the intelligible realm (the realm of Forms or higher
realities).
○​ Eternity is not stability in the sense of immobility; rather, it is a perpetual
presence—a state of unchanging completeness.
●​ Distinct from Time:
○​ Time involves succession—past, present, and future.
○​ Eternity is timeless: It lacks past and future because it is a state of absolute
fullness where nothing can be added or subtracted.

Relationship to the One

●​ Eternal Activity: Eternity is described as an activity that is perpetually directed

toward the One, the ultimate principle of unity and source of all existence.
 ○​ This activity is perfect and without any deficiency because it exists outside
the limitations of temporal succession.
●​ Language and Inadequacy: Plotinus acknowledges that human language struggles
to fully express the essence of eternity since our concepts are deeply tied to the
temporal world.

Time and Its Nature

Time and the Soul

●​ Generation from Eternity: Time arises as a derivative of eternity. It is the "life" of the
soul, which moves through a sequence of thoughts and actions.
●​ Ceaseless Activity: Time is unstoppable because the activity of the soul, which
generates time, is inherently continuous and dynamic. This aligns with the soul’s
function of mediating between the intelligible (eternity) and the physical (temporal)
worlds.

Plato’s Influence

●​ Time as the "moving image of eternity":

○​ Plotinus draws heavily from Plato's Timaeus, where time is presented as a
reflection or image of eternity, crafted to make the eternal more
comprehensible within the physical universe.
○​ While eternity is whole and unified, time is fragmented into successive
moments.

Critique of Previous Views

●​ Rejection of Stoic and Epicurean Views:

○​ Stoics equated time with motion, but Plotinus refutes this, arguing that
motion is only an aspect of time, not its essence.
○​ Epicurus saw time as an accompaniment to motion, which Plotinus deems
insufficient.
 ●​ Aristotle’s Interpretation:
○​ Aristotle defined time as the "measure or number of motion," which Plotinus
partially critiques. He suggests that Aristotle may have been
misinterpreted—rather than measuring time, the heavenly bodies serve as
indicators of its passage.

Time in the Universe

●​ The physical cosmos exists in time, meaning it is subject to the constraints of

temporal succession.
●​ Heavenly Bodies and Time:
○​ While the celestial spheres (stars, planets) are not time itself, they manifest or
reveal time through their motions, serving as a symbolic representation of its
flow.

Philosophical Implications

●​ Human Existence:
○​ Humans, as composite beings of soul and body, participate in both eternity
and time.
○​ The soul, in its higher aspect, is rooted in eternity and contemplates the
eternal.
○​ The body, bound to the physical world, experiences the constraints of time.
●​ Aspiration of the Philosophical Life:
○​ To transcend time and align with eternity is the goal of the philosophical life.
This involves cultivating the soul’s eternal nature and directing it toward the
One.
Summary

1.​ Eternity is the timeless and complete life of the intelligible world, wholly present and
unchanging.
2.​ Time is a derived, temporal manifestation of eternity, characterized by sequence
and change, generated by the soul's movement.
3.​ The philosophical life bridges these realms, aiming to elevate the soul toward the
eternal.

Answers to Questions (if any)

1.​ What is eternity?

○​ Eternity is the unchanging, complete "life" of the intelligible world, a
perpetual and timeless activity directed toward the One.
2.​ How is time related to eternity?
○​ Time is the "moving image of eternity," a derived and sequential expression
of eternity created by the soul’s ceaseless activity.
3.​ Why is time unstoppable?
○​ Time is unstoppable because the soul, which generates it, is in constant
motion and activity.
4.​ What is the philosophical significance of this distinction?
○​ Understanding eternity and time is essential for the philosophical life, which
seeks to transcend temporal existence and align with the eternal.

On Nature, Contemplation and The One (3.8)

Hierarchy of Contemplation

Playful Supposition: All Things Contemplate

Plotinus begins with the bold yet playful premise that everything in existence contemplates.
This foundational idea serves to unify all levels of reality, from the lowest manifestations in
nature to the highest transcendent principles.

1. Nature’s Contemplation

●​ Nature as a Craftsman:
○​ At the lowest level of reality, nature engages in contemplation akin to a
craftsman working on matter.
○​ Nature’s contemplation operates through its expressed principles—the logoi
or rational structures that shape matter.
●​ Product Without Change:
○​ Nature produces its creations without being altered or diminished by the act
of creation. Its contemplation is a passive yet generative activity.
●​ Derivative Nature:
○​ Nature’s contemplation and products are images or reflections of higher,
more intense forms of contemplation. Thus, nature’s creativity is secondary
and dependent on higher realities.

2. Contemplation at the Level of Soul

●​ The Soul and Action:

○​ At a higher level, the soul contemplates by actively engaging in thought and
action.
○​ Even in its outward activity, the soul’s ultimate purpose is to return to
contemplation, demonstrating that action itself can lead back to
contemplative understanding.
●​ Weakening of Contemplation:
 ○​ As contemplation descends from higher levels (e.g., from Intellect to nature),
its intensity and purity diminish, resulting in less perfect creations.

3. Contemplation at the Level of Being

●​ Active Contemplative Principles:

○​ At the level of Being (a metaphysical realm above the soul but below
Intellect), contemplation produces active expressed principles that give form
to all levels of reality.
○​ Being serves as a mediator, ensuring that the contemplative nature of
Intellect is expressed in structured forms.
●​ Failure and Weakness:
○​ The imperfections we observe in the world arise from a progressive
weakening of contemplation as it descends through the levels of reality.

4. Contemplation in Intellect

●​ Unity of Contemplation and Object:

○​ In Intellect, contemplation achieves its highest form, where the act of
contemplating and the object of contemplation are identical.
○​ Intellect does not merely think about things; it is its thoughts. This
self-sufficient activity is described as the primary life.
●​ All Life as Contemplative:
○​ Plotinus emphasizes that all life at every level is fundamentally
contemplative, even if this is not always apparent in the physical world.

The One and Its Relationship to Contemplation

The One Beyond Intellect

●​ The One and the Good:
○​ Intellect is not the highest principle; it depends on the One (also called the
Good), which is beyond all being and thought.
○​ The One is the source of everything but is not itself everything. It is the
productive power that gives rise to all existence without being affected or
diminished.
●​ Transcendence:
○​ The One is utterly beyond comprehension or description, but we can have
access to it through a mystical ascent that transcends even the contemplative
activity of Intellect.

Dependence and Independence:

●​ Intellect Needs the One:

○​ While Intellect depends on the One for its existence, the One is entirely
self-sufficient and does not need anything else. This radical independence
underscores its absolute transcendence and perfection.

Philosophical Implications

1.​ Nature of Reality:

○​ All levels of reality are structured hierarchically, with the intensity of
contemplation increasing as one ascends toward the One.
○​ Imperfections in the world arise from the weakening of contemplation as it
moves further from its source.
2.​ Contemplation as the Essence of Life:
○​ Contemplation is not merely a human or intellectual activity but the very
essence of existence, driving the formation and sustenance of all things.
3.​ Mystical Ascent:
 ○​ Human beings, through contemplation, can ascend from the physical world
to the soul, then to Intellect, and ultimately to the One. This ascent is the
ultimate goal of the philosophical and spiritual life.

Answers to Questions (if any)

1.​ What is the role of nature’s contemplation?

○​ Nature contemplates as a craftsman, producing forms without being affected.
Its contemplation is derivative, reflecting the higher forms of contemplation
found in the soul and Intellect.
2.​ How does contemplation change across levels?
○​ At lower levels (e.g., nature), contemplation is weaker and less pure, leading
to imperfect products. At higher levels (e.g., Intellect), contemplation is more
intense, unified, and self-sufficient.
3.​ What is the relationship between Intellect and the One?
○​ Intellect depends on the One for its existence and activity, while the One
remains entirely independent, transcendent, and the source of all.
4.​ How can humans access the One?
○​ Through a process of contemplative ascent, transcending the physical world
and the intellect, humans can achieve a mystical union with the One.

Conclusion

This treatise provides a profound exploration of the interconnectedness of all levels of

reality through contemplation, culminating in the ineffable and transcendent One.
Plotinus' metaphysical system not only offers a vision of the universe's structure but also
serves as a guide for the philosophical life, emphasizing the transformative power of
contemplation as a path to ultimate unity and fulfillment.
 Detached Considerations (3.9)

Porphyry, Plotinus’ disciple, compiled these notes into the ninth treatise of the third
Ennead. The treatise serves as a philosophical miscellany, addressing various themes that
reappear throughout The Enneads. While unified in their focus on foundational
metaphysical ideas, these notes also explore nuanced variations of those themes, such as:

1.​ The unity of Intellect and its relation to thought.

2.​ The One as the ultimate principle that transcends all categories, including motion,
rest, and even thought itself.
3.​ The dynamics of soul, its connection to the body, and its movement between higher
and lower realities.

Key Concepts and Their Elaboration

1. Unity of Intellect and Its Object

●​ Interpretation of Timaeus 39E7-9:

○​ Plotinus reflects on the unity of Intellect and its object, a theme derived from
Plato’s Timaeus. He emphasizes that Intellect does not merely think about
something external; rather, it is one with its object.
○​ This unity means that thinking and the thought are indistinguishable at this
level, highlighting the self-sufficient and self-contained nature of Intellect.
●​ Implication for the Intelligible World:
○​ In the intelligible realm (the realm of Forms or eternal truths), everything is
unified and complete, akin to theorems in a perfect and comprehensive
science.
○​ When we engage with this realm, our soul becomes unified, mirroring the
unity of Intellect.
 2. Souls and the Body

●​ Souls Are Not in the Body:

○​ Plotinus challenges the common view that souls are contained within the
body. Instead, he argues that the body exists within the soul, a reversal of the
usual perspective.
○​ This highlights the soul’s ontological primacy over the body; the soul is the
formative principle that gives life and structure to the body, not a material
entity trapped within it.
●​ Departure and Return of Souls:
○​ Individual souls experience a movement of departure and return:
■​ Departure: Souls descend into the physical realm, engaging with
materiality and multiplicity.
■​ Return: Souls can ascend by contemplating higher realities,
reconnecting with their source in the intelligible world.
○​ This dynamic reflects the soul’s dual potential to focus either on what is
above (the intelligible) or what is below (the material).

3. The One and Multiplicity

●​ Multiplicity Originates from the One:

○​ The One is the ultimate source of all existence, and from it arises the
multiplicity of beings. However, this multiplicity does not compromise the
unity of the One.
○​ The One is described as being everywhere and nowhere:
■​ Everywhere: As the source, the One underlies all things.
■​ Nowhere: As transcendent, the One is beyond spatial or conceptual
limitation.
●​ Intellect as Matter for Soul:
○​ Just as the One generates Intellect, Intellect serves as the substratum or
“matter” for Soul:
 ■​ Intellect provides the intelligible content and structure that the soul
contemplates and expresses.
■​ This relationship shows the hierarchical progression from the One to
Intellect to Soul.

4. Intellect at Rest and Active Thinking

●​ An Intellect at Rest:
○​ Plotinus considers the idea of an Intellect that exists in a state of rest, prior to
the activity of thinking. This notion contrasts with the usual view of Intellect
as always engaged in active contemplation.
○​ This contemplative pause suggests a closer relationship between Intellect and
the transcendent stillness of the One.
●​ The One Transcends Thinking:
○​ While Intellect is defined by its contemplative activity, the One is beyond all
activity, including thinking.
○​ The One’s transcendence is absolute; it surpasses not only motion and rest,
but even the duality of potentiality and actuality that characterizes existence
in both corporeal and incorporeal realms.

5. Potentiality and Actuality

●​ In Corporeals and Incorporeals:

○​ Plotinus addresses the distinction between potentiality and actuality,
concepts central to Aristotelian metaphysics:
■​ In the corporeal realm, potentiality and actuality manifest as changes
in form or substance.
■​ In the incorporeal realm, potentiality and actuality describe the
dynamic processes of thought and being.
 ○​ However, the One transcends even these categories, existing beyond the
duality of becoming and being.

Philosophical Implications

1.​ The Hierarchical Structure of Reality:

○​ The metaphysical hierarchy progresses from the One to Intellect to Soul and
finally to the material world. Each level reflects the influence of the One but
becomes progressively less unified and intense in its contemplative activity.
2.​ The Role of Contemplation:
○​ Contemplation is the defining activity of Intellect and Soul. While Intellect
achieves perfect unity in its self-contemplation, Soul must strive to return to
this unity through ascent.
3.​ The Transcendence of the One:
○​ The One is utterly beyond all distinctions, even those of motion, rest, activity,
and thought. Its ineffability challenges human understanding, yet it remains
the source of all existence.

Answers to Questions (if any)

1.​ What is the relationship between Intellect and its object?

○​ Intellect and its object are a unity; in the act of contemplation, Intellect is
identical to what it contemplates.
2.​ Are souls contained within bodies?
○​ No, Plotinus argues that bodies exist within souls. The soul is the formative
principle that encompasses and gives life to the body.
3.​ How does multiplicity arise from the One?
○​ Multiplicity flows from the One as its creative emanation. The One, while
transcendent, is present in all things and serves as their source.
4.​ What is meant by “Intellect at rest”?
○​ This refers to the notion of Intellect existing in a state of stillness, a potential
state of pure unity preceding the activity of thought.
5.​ How does the One relate to potentiality and actuality?
○​ The One transcends these categories, existing beyond the duality of
potentiality and actuality.

On the Substantiality of the Soul (4.1)

Key Ideas in the Introduction

1.​ Intermediate Nature of the Soul:

○​ Plotinus views the soul as a mediating principle:
■​ It bridges the intelligible realm (associated with Intellect and the
Forms, which are indivisible and eternal) and the physical realm
(characterized by divisibility, change, and temporality).
○​ This duality is central to understanding how the soul can interact with both
higher and lower realms of reality.
2.​ Provocation by Plato’s Wording:
○​ Plato’s phrase about the soul being "divided about bodies" puzzles Plotinus.
He interprets this to mean that the soul, while maintaining its intrinsic
indivisibility, becomes divisible insofar as it operates in the physical world.
3.​ Significance of This Treatise:
○​ This essay serves as a philosophical appendix to Plotinus’ earlier work on the
soul’s immortality (Ennead 4.7) and foreshadows his more elaborate
discussions in Enneads 6.4–5.
○​ The question of how the soul can be both indivisible and divisible lies at the
heart of this exploration.
 Summary and Explication of the Sections

§1. The Soul as Divine and Intelligible

1.​ The Soul’s Dual Nature:

○​ Plotinus reiterates that the soul belongs to the intelligible realm:
■​ It is indivisible in its essence, like the Intellect.
■​ However, it is divisible in its actions when it extends itself into the
physical realm to animate bodies.
2.​ The Soul’s Role as an Intermediary:
○​ The soul stands between:
■​ The indivisible intelligible reality, which is eternal, unified, and
immutable.
■​ The divisible physical realm, characterized by multiplicity,
fragmentation, and temporal existence.
○​ The soul’s indivisibility comes from its proximity to Intellect, while its
divisibility arises from its connection to the corporeal world.
3.​ Recapitulation of Ennead 4.7:
○​ Plotinus emphasizes the divine nature of the soul. It retains its connection to
the higher, intelligible realm even when it operates within the lower, physical
world.

§2. Systematic Analysis of the Soul’s Divisibility and Indivisibility

1.​ Critiquing the Claims:

○​ Entirely Divisible: Some might argue that the soul is entirely divisible
because it permeates and animates physical bodies. Plotinus refutes this:
■​ If the soul were fully divisible, it would lose its unity and its
connection to the intelligible realm.
 ○​ Entirely Indivisible: Conversely, if the soul were entirely indivisible, it could
not account for its ability to animate multiple bodies or engage with the
divisible world. Plotinus also rejects this notion.
2.​ The Soul as Both Divisible and Indivisible:
○​ The soul is paradoxically “one and many”:
■​ Indivisible: In its essence, the soul is unified, eternal, and partakes in
the intelligible realm. It cannot be physically split.
■​ Divisible: In its operations, the soul can extend itself and become
“divided about bodies,” animating and interacting with the
multiplicity of the physical world.
3.​ Mechanism of Interaction:
○​ The soul maintains its unity even when it seems divided. This is possible
because:
■​ Its essence remains anchored in the intelligible realm.
■​ Its “division” is not a literal fragmentation but rather a functional
extension, allowing it to animate and guide individual physical forms.

Core Philosophical Themes

1.​ The Soul as a Mediator:

○​ The soul plays a critical role in Plotinus’ metaphysical hierarchy:
■​ It connects the timeless, changeless intelligible realm with the
mutable, temporal physical realm.
■​ This intermediary position makes it unique, as it partakes in both
realms without fully belonging to either.
2.​ Unity and Multiplicity:
○​ Plotinus explores a recurring theme in his philosophy: the relationship
between unity and multiplicity.
■​ The soul’s indivisibility represents its connection to the One and
Intellect.
 ■​ Its divisibility reflects its ability to engage with and manifest in the
physical world.
3.​ Divine Nature of the Soul:
○​ Despite its interaction with the physical, the soul retains its divine and
intelligible nature. Its true essence is eternal and imperishable.

Comparison with Later Works

●​ This treatise anticipates the deeper exploration of the soul’s nature in Enneads
6.4–5, where Plotinus addresses similar questions with greater detail and nuance.
●​ It also connects to broader themes in Plotinus’ work, such as the emanation process
(how the One gives rise to Intellect, Soul, and the physical world) and the soul’s
ultimate return to the intelligible realm.

Expounding the Soul’s Nature

1. Revisiting the Soul’s Intermediate Status

●​ Plotinus reaffirms that the soul occupies a unique middle ground in the
metaphysical hierarchy:
○​ It belongs to the intelligible realm, being divine, eternal, and indivisible in its
true essence.
○​ However, when it engages with the physical world (animating bodies, guiding
nature), it exhibits divisibility in its operations. This is not a fragmentation of
its essence but rather a reflection of its ability to extend itself into the
multiplicity of physical existence.

2. Clarifying ‘Divisible About Bodies’

●​ Not Literal Divisibility:

 ○​ Plotinus rejects the idea that the soul is literally divisible like a physical
entity. Unlike a material object, the soul cannot be broken into parts or
pieces.
●​ Functional Divisibility:
○​ The soul appears divisible because it extends its presence to animate and
govern different bodies. This functional divisibility enables it to:
■​ Animate multiple living beings simultaneously.
■​ Operate at various levels of the physical and psychic realms without
losing its unity.

3. Indivisibility of Essence

●​ In its essential nature, the soul remains indivisible, reflecting its origin in the
intelligible realm.
●​ Its indivisibility ensures that:
○​ The soul retains its unity and coherence despite its operations in the physical
world.
○​ It is always connected to higher realities (Intellect and the One), anchoring
its divine nature.

On the problems of the Soul (4.3)

1. The Relationship of Individual Souls to the Cosmic Soul (4.3.§§1-8)

●​ Key Question: How are individual souls related to the Soul of the universe?
○​ Plotinus views the World Soul as the archetype and source of all individual
souls.
○​ Individual souls are emanations of the World Soul, retaining a connection to
it even as they descend into the material world.
○​ While the World Soul governs the cosmos as a whole, individual souls govern
particular bodies.
●​ Unity Amidst Multiplicity:
 ○​ Though individual souls appear separate in their governance of different
bodies, they share an underlying unity because they originate from the same
source.

2. The Soul’s Descent into the Body (4.3.§§9-18)

●​ Key Question: How does the soul come to be in the body?

○​ Plotinus describes the soul’s descent as a voluntary turning toward the
material world, driven by its desire to animate and give life to the physical
realm.
○​ The World Soul engages with the cosmos in a similar way, but it does so
universally, while individual souls are bound to specific bodies.
●​ Cosmic Soul vs. Individual Souls:
○​ The World Soul operates as a whole, remaining unaffected by its connection
to the cosmos, whereas individual souls, in descending, experience a degree of
separation from their divine origin.

3. The Manner of the Soul’s Embodiment (4.3.§§19-23)

●​ Key Question: How does the immaterial soul interact with the material body?
○​ Plotinus rejects any physical or spatial containment of the soul within the
body. Instead, the soul is present to the body by its power rather than being
localized.
○​ This interaction is mediated through the soul’s activities, such as animating,
perceiving, and moving the body.
●​ The Problem of Mixture:
○​ The soul is not “mixed” with the body in a material sense; instead, its
presence is more akin to light illuminating a surface—it imparts life without
being diminished.

4. The Soul’s Departure and Memory (4.3.§24-4.4.§17)

●​ Key Question: What happens when the soul departs from the body? What does it
remember, and how?
 ○​ Plotinus affirms that the soul retains memory of its earthly life after leaving
the body, but this memory is not akin to bodily impressions.
○​ Memory and Levels of Being:
■​ At higher levels (closer to Intellect), the soul remembers only what is
aligned with its intelligible nature.
■​ Lower faculties and bodily memories fade as the soul ascends.

5. Joint Activities of Body and Soul (4.4.§§18-29)

●​ Key Question: How do the body and soul work together in emotions and
sense-perceptions?
○​ Emotions and raw sensory experiences are located in the body, but the soul
interprets and integrates them.
○​ The soul itself is not affected or changed by these experiences but oversees
and processes them.
●​ Excursus on Heavenly Bodies:
○​ Plotinus addresses whether heavenly bodies, like stars, have
sense-perception. He argues that their souls (if any) operate on a level higher
than sense-perception, rooted in pure contemplation.

6. Effects of Stars and Planets, Prayer, and Magic (4.4.§§30-39)

●​ Key Question: Can celestial bodies influence human life? What is the role of prayer
and magic?
○​ Astrology and Influence:
■​ Plotinus acknowledges that stars and planets signify cosmic patterns,
but they do not directly cause events on earth.
■​ Human souls retain autonomy and are not subject to deterministic
control by celestial movements.
○​ Prayer and Magic:
 ■​ Prayer aligns the soul with divine principles, while magic may attempt
to exploit cosmic sympathy. Both function within the metaphysical
structure of the cosmos.

7. Cosmic Sympathy and the Universe as a Living Organism (4.4.§§40-45)

●​ Key Question: How does cosmic sympathy function, and what does it reveal about the
universe?
○​ The universe operates as a living organism, unified by the World Soul.
○​ Cosmic sympathy ensures that all parts of the universe are interconnected,
enabling higher realities (like the World Soul) to influence and govern lower
realities harmoniously.

Key Philosophical Themes and Implications

1. The Soul as an Intermediary

●​ The soul’s position between the intelligible (Intellect) and the physical realm reflects
its dual nature:
○​ As indivisible, it remains rooted in the intelligible realm.
○​ As divisible, it animates and governs the multiplicity of bodies in the material
world.

2. The Nature of Embodiment

●​ Embodiment is not a spatial containment but a relationship of presence and activity.

This allows the soul to influence and animate the body without compromising its
transcendence.

3. Memory and Ascension

 ●​ Memory bridges the soul’s experiences in the material world with its ultimate return
to higher realities. As the soul ascends, it sheds bodily memories, retaining only
those aligned with its intelligible essence.

4. Cosmic Interconnection

●​ The doctrine of cosmic sympathy demonstrates how all levels of reality are
interconnected through the World Soul, ensuring harmony and order in the cosmos.

5. Human Autonomy

●​ Despite the influence of cosmic forces, Plotinus emphasizes the soul’s autonomy,
rejecting deterministic interpretations of astrology or celestial influence.

Continuation:

1. Background and Context

The treatise serves as an extension of the previous discussions in 4.3-4.4, which analyzed the
relationship between the soul and the body, particularly in the context of perception and
emotion. Plotinus deferred the specific question of whether sensory faculties like sight and
hearing need a medium to function. In 4.5, he resumes this discussion, addressing a
long-debated issue within Greek philosophy.

Earlier schools of thought—including Platonists, Stoics, and Epicureans—generally posited

that perception required a material intermediary. This medium facilitated interaction
between the object of perception and the perceiving subject, ensuring the transmission of
sensory data.

●​ Platonists: Suggested that images or rays connect the perceiver to the object.
●​ Stoics: Focused on the continuum of corporeal pneuma (a physical-spiritual
substance) through which impressions are transmitted.
 ●​ Epicureans: Argued that particles or "films" emitted by objects travel through a
medium to the perceiver.

Plotinus critiques these positions by rejecting the need for a medium altogether, proposing
instead a view rooted in the metaphysical unity of the cosmos.

2. Key Themes and Arguments

A. Rejection of the Medium for Perception

Plotinus begins by critically examining the necessity of a medium for perception. His
arguments unfold in the following way:

1.​ Sight Does Not Depend on a Medium:

○​ Plotinus dismisses theories that sight requires rays, particles, or material
images to travel between the perceiver and the object.
○​ Instead, he posits that perception occurs through a direct relationship
between the perceiving soul and the object of perception. The soul, being
immaterial and united with the cosmos, does not need a physical
intermediary.
2.​ Hearing and Sound Transmission:
○​ The idea that sound requires impact on intervening air or another medium is
similarly dismissed. Plotinus critiques this materialist view by pointing out
that it fails to explain the qualitative differences between sounds.
○​ If perception relied on mere physical transmission, the richness and variety
of auditory experiences would remain inexplicable.

B. Light as an Incorporeal Activity

Plotinus redefines the nature of light, arguing that it is not a corporeal substance but rather
an incorporeal activity. Light is an emanation from luminous bodies like the sun, and its
function cannot be reduced to the mechanics of material particles or waves.
 ●​ Light does not transmit matter but rather facilitates the perception of objects by
rendering them visible.
●​ This aligns with Plotinus’s metaphysical hierarchy, where incorporeal principles,
like the activity of light, underpin and animate the material world.

C. Unity of the Cosmos

Central to Plotinus’s argument is the concept of cosmic unity. The entire cosmos is viewed
as an organic whole, with all its parts intimately connected through the principle of
sympathy:

●​ Cosmic Sympathy: All entities within the cosmos are interrelated through the life
and activity of the World Soul. This unity enables direct interaction between
perceiver and object without requiring a separate medium.
●​ Direct Perception: Since the soul is a part of this unified structure, it can perceive
external objects directly, without the need for a physical intermediary.

D. Thought Experiment: Perception Beyond the Cosmos

Plotinus poses a thought experiment to challenge the necessity of cosmic sympathy:

●​ Imagine an object outside the universe or at its edge. Would it be perceivable from
within the cosmos?
●​ The answer is no, because the object would lack the sympathetic connection that
binds all entities within the cosmos.
●​ This underscores the idea that perception is not dependent on spatial or physical
mechanisms but on metaphysical relationships.

3. Broader Implications

A. The Nature of Sensory Perception

Plotinus’s account transforms the understanding of perception from a physical process to a
metaphysical one:

●​ Traditional View: Sensory perception is mediated by physical processes, such as the

transmission of particles or waves.
●​ Plotinus’s View: Perception is an act of the soul, enabled by its intimate connection
to the unified cosmos.

This has profound implications for how we understand the relationship between the body
and soul. The body is not the primary agent of perception but a vessel through which the
soul interacts with the material world.

B. The Incorporeal Basis of Reality

Plotinus’s analysis highlights the primacy of incorporeal principles, such as the activity of
light and the life of the soul, over corporeal phenomena. This reflects his broader
metaphysical system, where the material world is subordinate to and dependent upon the
intelligible and spiritual realms.

C. Rejection of Materialism

By dismissing the necessity of a medium for perception, Plotinus challenges materialist

theories that reduce sensory experience to physical mechanisms. His arguments emphasize
the limitations of such explanations and advocate for a more holistic, metaphysical
understanding.

4. Addressing Questions

If the passage raises questions such as “How does the soul perceive directly?” or “Why is a
medium unnecessary?” they can be answered as follows:

●​ How does the soul perceive directly? The soul perceives directly because it is part of
the unified structure of the cosmos. Through its intimate connection to the World
 Soul and the intelligible realm, it can interact with external objects without the need
for a material intermediary.
●​ Why is a medium unnecessary? A medium is unnecessary because perception is not
a physical process but an act of the soul. The interconnectedness of the cosmos
ensures that all parts are accessible to one another without requiring physical
transmission.

On Sense-perception and memory (4.6)

1. Background and Context

In the philosophical milieu of Plotinus, sensory perception and memory were often
explained using mechanistic metaphors. The dominant theories included the idea that
external objects create impressions (like a seal upon wax) on the soul or the sense organs.
This materialistic model was rooted in earlier Greek thought, notably in Aristotle and
Stoicism, which emphasized the passive reception of sensory data by the soul.

Plotinus, however, rejects this passive model. For him, the soul is not a passive recipient but
an active principle that perceives, processes, and remembers through its intrinsic power.
This shift reflects Plotinus’s broader metaphysical framework, where the soul occupies an
intermediary position between the intelligible realm and the material world.

2. Key Themes and Arguments

A. Critique of the ‘Impression’ Theory of Sense-Perception

Plotinus begins by dismantling the idea that sensory perception operates through
impressions upon the sense organs or the soul.

1.​ Flawed Metaphor:

○​ The notion of impressions likens perception to physical processes, such as the
imprint of a stamp upon wax. This, Plotinus argues, is an oversimplification
that fails to capture the non-material nature of the soul and its operations.
 2.​ The Soul as Active:
○​ Sense-perception is not the passive reception of external data. Instead, it is
the soul’s active engagement with the external world.
○​ The sensory organs serve as instruments or conduits, but the actual act of
perceiving originates within the soul itself. For example, when we see or hear,
the soul actively interprets and apprehends the external stimuli.
3.​ Taste and Smell as Examples:
○​ Even for senses like taste and smell, which seem purely physical, the soul’s
active role is evident. The soul discerns the qualities of flavors and odors
rather than merely registering them.

B. Comparison with Intellectual Perception

Plotinus strengthens his argument by comparing sense-perception with intellectual

perception, which clearly arises from within the soul.

●​ Intellectual activity, such as reasoning or understanding, does not rely on external

objects but flows directly from the soul’s inherent powers.
●​ Similarly, sensory perception is a process initiated and controlled by the soul, not
merely an external imprint.

C. Memory as an Active Power

Plotinus extends his critique to the concept of memory, emphasizing its dynamic and
creative nature.

1.​ Rejection of Passive Retention:

○​ Memory is not the passive retention of sensory impressions, as though the
soul were a storage vessel for images or experiences.
○​ Instead, memory is an active faculty that works upon sensory or intellectual
inputs.
2.​ Training and Development of Memory:
 ○​ Plotinus highlights that memory can be cultivated and trained, indicating its
active nature. A passive mechanism would not allow for such improvement
or refinement.
3.​ Role of the Intellect:
○​ Memory is closely linked to the intellect. It involves recalling not only sensory
experiences but also intellectual insights and knowledge, further illustrating
the soul’s active engagement with both realms.

3. Philosophical Implications

A. The Soul’s Central Role

This treatise reaffirms the soul’s primacy in Plotinus’s metaphysical system. The soul is not
merely a bridge between the material and intelligible worlds but a powerful agent capable
of shaping and interpreting its experiences.

B. Rejection of Materialism

By rejecting the impression theory, Plotinus distances himself from materialistic

explanations of perception and memory. For him, these processes cannot be reduced to
physical or mechanical operations, as they originate in the non-material essence of the soul.

C. Unity of Perception and Memory

Plotinus’s insights reveal a deep connection between perception and memory:

●​ Perception involves the active apprehension of the external world.

●​ Memory involves the active recollection and processing of those apprehended
experiences.

Both are functions of the soul’s unified activity, reflecting its dual engagement with the
sensory and intellectual realms.

D. Comparison with Modern Views

Plotinus’s emphasis on the active role of the perceiver resonates with certain modern
philosophical and psychological theories:

●​ Constructivism: Perception is not merely a passive reception of data but an active

construction of reality by the mind.
●​ Cognitive Psychology: Memory is understood as a dynamic and reconstructive
process, rather than a passive storage of information.

4. Addressing Potential Questions

If the treatise prompts questions such as “How does the soul actively perceive?” or “What
is the mechanism of memory in Plotinus’s view?”, they can be answered as follows:

1.​ How does the soul actively perceive?

○​ The soul perceives by engaging with the external world through its innate
power. Sensory organs serve as tools, but the act of perception arises from
the soul’s ability to interpret and understand sensory inputs.
2.​ What is the mechanism of memory in Plotinus’s view?
○​ Memory is not a repository of impressions but an active faculty. It recalls and
reconstitutes experiences based on the soul’s intellectual and sensory
engagement. Training and deliberate recollection demonstrate its active
nature.

5. Broader Context in Plotinus’s Philosophy

This treatise aligns with Plotinus’s overarching metaphysical framework:

●​ The soul is an active intermediary between the material and intelligible realms,
constantly bridging the gap between sensory data and intellectual understanding.
 ●​ Perception and memory are not isolated faculties but integral aspects of the soul’s
dynamic activity.

6. Conclusion

In 4.6 (41), Plotinus offers a profound rethinking of sense-perception and memory,

challenging passive, mechanistic theories and emphasizing the soul’s active role. By doing
so, he not only refines the philosophical understanding of these processes but also
reinforces the centrality of the soul in his metaphysical system. The treatise invites us to
view perception and memory as dynamic, creative acts of the soul, intimately tied to its
essence and its connection to the broader cosmos.

On the Immortality of The Soul (4.7)

1. Introduction: The Nature of the Human Being

Plotinus begins with a reflection on the human being as a composite of body and soul,
emphasizing the distinct roles of these two principles:

●​ The Body: The corporeal and transient aspect of existence.

●​ The Soul: The immaterial and eternal principle, responsible for life, movement,
thought, and self-awareness.

This dualistic framework sets the stage for Plotinus’s defense of the soul’s immortality and
critique of materialist philosophies.

2. Refutation of Materialist Psychologies

A. The Epicureans

Epicureans argue that the soul is composed of fine, material atoms. Plotinus counters:
 ●​ Lack of Cohesion: Atoms, no matter how fine or light, are divisible and subject to
decay. Such a composition would make the soul perishable and incapable of
sustaining the unity and continuity of consciousness.
●​ Failure to Account for Intellect: Material atoms cannot explain thought, reason, or
self-reflection, which are immaterial activities.

B. The Stoics

The Stoics conceive of the soul as a pneuma (a kind of fiery breath or tension in the body).
Plotinus refutes this notion:

1.​ Soul’s Non-Materiality:

○​ If the soul were a material entity, it would be bound by spatial and physical
constraints, unable to penetrate the body entirely or exercise governance
over it.
○​ The soul’s ability to think and reason transcends the limitations of material
existence.
2.​ Against Total Mixture:
○​ The Stoic idea of the soul mixing with the body (like wine with water) is
incoherent. A true mixture would compromise the soul’s indivisibility and
immaterial nature.

C. Body as a Principle of Existence or Movement

Plotinus demonstrates that the body, being inert and devoid of self-motion, cannot be the
principle of life or movement. Instead:

●​ Life originates in the soul, which animates and directs the body.

3. Refutation of Other Philosophical Schools

A. The Pythagoreans
Some Pythagoreans, influenced by Plato’s Phaedo, suggest that the soul is merely an
attunement (harmony) of bodily elements. Plotinus rejects this view:

1.​ The Soul as a Principle, Not a Product:

○​ An attunement depends on pre-existing material elements (like the harmony
of strings in a lyre). If the soul were merely a harmony, it would cease to exist
when the body disintegrates.
○​ The soul is the source of harmony and order in the body, not its product.
2.​ Active Power:
○​ The soul’s capacity for thought, self-awareness, and autonomy proves it
cannot merely be a derivative of bodily composition.

B. The Aristotelians

Aristotle describes the soul as the entelekheia (actuality) of the body. Plotinus critiques this:

1.​ Reductionism:
○​ Aristotle’s view implies that the soul cannot exist independently of the body,
which undermines its eternal and divine nature.
2.​ The Soul as Life Itself:
○​ Plotinus argues that the soul is not merely the actuality of the body but is life
itself, possessing intrinsic existence apart from the body.

4. Affirmation of the Soul’s Immortality

A. The Indivisibility of the Soul

Plotinus emphasizes that the soul:

1.​ Has no parts or divisions and is therefore impervious to alteration or dissolution.

2.​ Exists as a unity, unlike the body, which is composed of divisible, perishable
elements.
B. The Soul’s Eternal Nature

1.​ Life of Itself:

○​ The soul is the principle of life and cannot be deprived of its own essence.
2.​ Divine Origin:
○​ The soul shares in the divine and eternal nature of the Intellect (Nous) and is
therefore indestructible.

C. Distinction Between Parts of the Soul

Plotinus distinguishes between:

●​ The purely intellective part: This never descends into the body and remains
eternally in the intelligible realm.
●​ The lower, desiring part: This part interacts with the body and material world, but
its association with the body does not compromise the soul’s immortality.

5. The Role of the Soul in the Cosmos

A. Cosmic Governance

The soul is not confined to individual bodies but:

1.​ Embellishes, orders, and directs the cosmos.

2.​ Acts as an intermediary between the Intellect (Nous) and the physical world.

B. Non-Human Souls

Even the souls of animals and plants maintain a degree of independence from their bodies,
proving that the soul’s essence is not bound to corporeal existence.

6. Theological Postscript
In his concluding remarks, Plotinus draws on:

1.​ Divine Pronouncements:

○​ Prophetic utterances and religious traditions affirm the soul’s immortality.
2.​ Universal Belief:
○​ The widespread recognition of the soul’s eternal nature in various cultures
and philosophies supports its validity.

7. Philosophical Implications

A. Rejection of Materialism

Plotinus’s refutations of the Epicureans and Stoics highlight the limitations of materialist
philosophies. He affirms the soul’s immaterial essence, emphasizing that it transcends the
physical constraints of the body.

B. Duality and Unity

While Plotinus maintains a dualistic framework (body and soul), he stresses the soul’s unity
and indivisibility, distinguishing it from the composite and perishable nature of the body.

C. Connection to the Intelligible Realm

The soul’s immortality and divine nature affirm its intimate connection to the Intellect
(Nous) and the One, grounding human existence in the higher, eternal realities of Plotinus’s
metaphysics.

8. Addressing Questions

Why is the soul not a body?

 ●​ A body is divisible, perishable, and inert. The soul, being indivisible, eternal, and the
source of life, cannot share these characteristics.

How does the soul govern the body and cosmos?

●​ The soul acts as an immaterial principle that animates and organizes both the body
and the universe, without being confined by physical constraints.

What evidence supports the soul’s immortality?

●​ The soul’s indivisibility, its independence from the body, and its connection to divine
principles affirm its eternal nature.

On the descent of Soul into Body (4.8)

1. Introduction: Reconciling Plato’s Contradictions

Tensions in Plato’s Writings

Plotinus begins by acknowledging that Plato, his philosophical predecessor, seems to

present conflicting views on the soul’s descent:

1.​ In some passages (e.g., Timaeus), Plato describes the descent as a necessary and even
purposeful part of the universe’s order.
2.​ In others (e.g., Phaedrus and Phaedo), the descent appears as a misfortune or
punishment, a fall from grace into a lower, corrupted existence.

Plotinus’s Constructive Approach

Rather than dismissing these contradictions, Plotinus seeks to reconcile them by offering a
nuanced interpretation:

●​ The descent is not inherently negative; it is a natural process reflecting the cosmos's
hierarchical structure.
 ●​ The soul's experience in the material world depends on how it navigates this
descent.

2. The Role of the Soul in the Physical World

Vivid Autobiographical Reflection

Plotinus includes a personal reflection that reveals his own sense of alienation from the
material world. He writes, "I am ashamed of my body," underscoring a longing for the
purity of the intelligible realm. Yet, this sentiment is balanced by his recognition of the
soul’s purpose in descending into the physical world.

Survey of Earlier Philosophical Views

Plotinus examines the views of early thinkers like Empedocles, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras:

●​ Empedocles saw the soul’s descent as a fall due to guilt or sin.

●​ Heraclitus viewed it as part of the natural flux and unity of opposites.
●​ Pythagoras emphasized the soul’s purification and eventual return to higher realms.

By engaging these perspectives, Plotinus situates his own view as a development of this
tradition.

3. The Nature of the Descent

Is the Descent a Misfortune?

Plotinus asks whether the soul’s descent is:

●​ A tragic fall into imperfection and corruption.

●​ Or an integral and meaningful aspect of the universe’s structure.
He concludes that the descent is necessary and even positive when viewed within the
broader context of the cosmos:

1.​ The Structure of Reality:

○​ The cosmos reflects the creative outflow of the One, through the Intellect
(Nous) and Soul.
○​ The descent of the soul is part of this dynamic process, ensuring the existence
of the material world.
2.​ Human Purpose:
○​ The soul’s presence in the body allows it to engage with multiplicity, learn,
and grow.
○​ The quality of life lived after descent determines whether the experience is
enriching or degrading.

4. The Soul’s Dual Nature

Intermediate Position of the Soul

The soul occupies an intermediate position between:

●​ The intelligible realm (the eternal, unchanging world of the One and Intellect).
●​ The physical realm (the world of change, multiplicity, and materiality).

This duality gives the soul a unique role as a mediator:

●​ It animates and organizes the material world while remaining rooted in the
intelligible realm.
●​ It enables humans to reflect the divine order even while engaged in physical
existence.

No Necessary Harm

Plotinus insists that the soul is not inherently harmed by its association with the body:
 ●​ Harm arises only when the soul forgets its divine origin and becomes excessively
attached to material concerns.
●​ By retaining awareness of its higher nature, the soul can navigate the material world
without being degraded.

5. The Power of the First Principle

Emanation and Multiplicity

Plotinus explains that the cosmos is structured through a process of emanation:

1.​ The One is the ultimate source of all existence, radiating outward without losing its
unity.
2.​ This radiation produces the Intellect (Nous) and then the Soul, which in turn
projects itself into the material world.
3.​ This outward movement creates multiplicity, ensuring the existence of a diverse and
dynamic universe.

The soul’s descent is a natural consequence of this creative outflow, reflecting the cosmos’s
hierarchical order.

6. The Soul’s Retention of a Higher Element

A Part Remains ‘Above’

Plotinus makes a crucial distinction:

●​ While the soul engages with the body and the material world, a part of it always
remains in the intelligible realm.
●​ This higher element:
○​ Retains connection with the divine.
 ○​ Guides the soul’s aspirations and enables it to transcend material limitations.

Consciousness of the Higher Part

Humans are not always conscious of this higher aspect of the soul. However:

●​ Spiritual practices, philosophical reflection, and moral discipline can help

individuals reconnect with their higher nature.
●​ This connection fosters wisdom, virtue, and alignment with the divine.

7. Ethical and Existential Implications

Living the Descent Well

Plotinus emphasizes that the descent is not a punishment but an opportunity:

1.​ Self-Realization:
○​ The soul can discover its true nature by engaging with the challenges of
material existence.
2.​ Moral Responsibility:
○​ Humans have the responsibility to live in a way that reflects the soul’s divine
origin, rather than succumbing to material distractions.

The Role of Philosophy

Philosophy plays a central role in helping the soul navigate its descent:

●​ It provides the tools to understand the soul’s dual nature and reconnect with its
higher aspect.
●​ It fosters a vision of the cosmos that inspires reverence, purpose, and alignment with
the divine.

8. Addressing Questions
Why does the soul descend?

The soul descends as part of the natural order of the cosmos, reflecting the emanation of
the One into multiplicity. This descent allows the soul to animate the material world and
engage in a process of growth and self-discovery.

Is the descent a misfortune?

No, the descent is not inherently a misfortune. It becomes problematic only if the soul
forgets its divine origin and becomes overly attached to the material world.

How can the soul remain connected to the divine?

A part of the soul always remains in the intelligible realm. By cultivating self-awareness,
virtue, and philosophical understanding, individuals can strengthen their connection to this
higher aspect

On Whether All Souls are One (4.9)

1. Introduction: The Context and Question

Plotinus is grappling with a central concern inherited from Platonic and earlier
philosophical traditions:

●​ Unity and Multiplicity: How can we reconcile the apparent oneness of the universal
soul with the plurality of individual souls?
●​ Cosmic and Individual Soul: Plotinus explores the relationship between the World
Soul (the soul of the cosmos) and the souls of individuals. Are they distinct entities,
or is there a deeper, essential unity?

The treatise serves as both a response to these questions and a meditation on the
metaphysical principles underlying the nature of souls.
2. The Thesis: All Souls Are One

Plotinus’s Proposal

Plotinus posits that all souls are, in a fundamental sense, one. This unity does not negate the
individuality of particular souls but places them within a shared framework:

●​ The hypostasis Soul (a metaphysical principle of the soul) is a singular, unified

reality.
●​ Individual souls are expressions or emanations of this unified Soul.

Challenges to the Thesis

In §1, Plotinus raises potential difficulties with this claim:

1.​ How can a single soul account for the evident differences among individual souls?
○​ Why do some souls seem more virtuous or intellectual than others?
○​ How can individuality and personality arise from a shared essence?
2.​ What exactly is this single soul, and how does it relate to particular souls?
○​ Is it merely a metaphysical abstraction, or does it have a real existence?

3. Addressing the Difficulties: Unity Within Diversity

Analogies of the Body and Soul

In §2, Plotinus addresses the first difficulty by using an analogy:

●​ Just as a single soul governs a body, different parts of the body can have diverse
experiences (e.g., pain in one limb is not felt in another).
●​ Similarly, the universal soul can encompass diverse individual souls without
contradiction.

This analogy emphasizes that unity does not imply uniformity. Diversity can exist within a
single overarching principle.
4. Cosmic Sympathy as Evidence of Unity

The Phenomenon of Cosmic Sympathy

Plotinus points to the phenomenon of cosmic sympathy (discussed in §3) as evidence for the
unity of souls:

●​ The universe operates as an interconnected whole, with every part influencing and
being influenced by others.
●​ This interconnectedness suggests that all individual souls are aspects of a single,
unified soul.

Diversity of Levels of Soul

Plotinus argues that the existence of different levels of soul (e.g., rational, vegetative) does
not undermine their fundamental unity:

●​ These levels represent different expressions or functions of the same underlying

reality.
●​ The multiplicity is akin to various manifestations of light from a single source.

5. The Immaterial Nature of the Soul

Incorporeality and Unity

In §4, Plotinus explains that the incorporeal nature of the soul allows it to be both one and
many:

●​ If the soul were a physical entity, its unity would necessitate spatial separation
among individual souls.
●​ However, as an immaterial reality, the soul can remain unified while expressing
itself in diverse forms.
Analogy of Light

An apt analogy is that of light emanating from a single source:

●​ The source remains singular, even as its light spreads across multiple spaces.
●​ Similarly, the universal soul remains unified, even as it animates individual beings.

6. Unity Without Division: The Science Analogy

How Can One Substance Be Present in Many?

In §5, Plotinus addresses the question of how a single, indivisible substance can be present
in a multiplicity of souls:

●​ He uses the analogy of a science and its individual propositions:

○​ A science, like geometry, is a unified body of knowledge.
○​ Each proposition within the science assumes the entire structure of the
science and reflects its unity.

Application to the Soul

The universal soul operates similarly:

●​ It is a unified principle that permeates and animates all individual souls.

●​ Each soul reflects the whole, even as it functions in its particular context.

7. Ethical and Spiritual Implications

Unity as a Basis for Interconnectedness

The unity of souls underpins the Neoplatonic view of the cosmos as an interconnected
whole:

●​ Individual actions and thoughts affect the broader cosmos.

 ●​ Ethical living involves recognizing this unity and aligning oneself with the harmony
of the whole.

The Soul’s Journey

The soul’s connection to the universal soul highlights its potential for transcendence:

●​ By cultivating awareness of its higher nature, the individual soul can reconnect with
its source.
●​ This process involves turning away from material distractions and embracing the
intellect and the divine.

8. Addressing Questions

How can individual differences arise if all souls are one?

Individual differences result from the unique expressions of the universal soul within the
context of material existence. Just as light can take on different hues when refracted
through various media, souls express themselves differently based on their circumstances
and choices.

Why is the soul’s immaterial nature important?

The immaterial nature of the soul allows it to remain unified while being present in many
forms. Unlike physical entities, which require spatial separation, the soul can permeate and
animate multiple beings simultaneously.

What is the role of cosmic sympathy in Plotinus’s argument?

Cosmic sympathy demonstrates the interconnectedness of all things within the universe.
This interconnectedness reflects the unity of the universal soul, as every part of the cosmos
participates in the same underlying principle.
 On the Three Primary Hypostases (5.1)

Introduction: Context and Purpose

This treatise builds upon Ennead 6.9 (9) (On the Good or the One) by addressing the critical
question of separation from the One. If the One is perfect and self-sufficient, why does
anything distinct or separate exist? Why do souls become embodied and entangled with
matter?

Plotinus offers answers through the doctrine of emanation:

1.​ Reality unfolds hierarchically from the One.

2.​ Each stage of this emanation increases in complexity and distance from the One.
3.​ Embodied souls represent the lowest point of this emanation and must seek return
to the divine.

1. The Hierarchical Structure: The Three Hypostases

Plotinus outlines three primary hypostases (underlying principles) that define the
metaphysical order of existence:

1.​ The One: The absolutely simple, transcendent source of all.

2.​ Intellect (Nous): The realm of intelligible reality and the Forms.
3.​ Soul (Psyche): The principle of life and motion, bridging the intelligible and physical
realms.

Each hypostasis emanates from the one above it, reflecting its cause but also introducing
increasing multiplicity and complexity.

2. The One: Absolute Simplicity

Nature of the One

 ●​ The One is the source of all being, but it is beyond being itself (hyperousios).
●​ It is absolutely simple, without parts, qualities, or distinctions.
●​ It transcends thought, as thinking involves a distinction between thinker and object
of thought.

Role of the One

●​ The One is the cause of all things, yet it does not change or diminish in producing
them.
●​ Its emanation is likened to the radiance of the sun: it gives without losing anything
of itself.

3. Intellect (Nous): The First Emanation

Generation of Intellect

●​ The One produces Intellect by its overflowing abundance. This act does not imply
movement or effort on the One’s part but is a natural consequence of its perfection.
●​ Intellect turns back toward the One, seeking to contemplate its source. In this act of
self-contemplation, Intellect generates the realm of intelligible Forms.

Nature of Intellect

●​ Intellect is the principle of intelligibility and order.

●​ It contains all the Forms (Platonic Ideas), which are the eternal archetypes of all
things in the cosmos.
●​ Intellect represents a unity-in-multiplicity, as it encompasses a diversity of
intelligible realities while remaining a single entity.

4. Soul (Psyche): The Bridge Between Intelligible and Sensible

Generation of Soul

●​ Soul is generated by Intellect’s outward activity, analogous to how Intellect is

generated by the overflowing abundance of the One.
●​ Soul contemplates Intellect, and through this contemplation, it derives its order and
purpose.

Nature of Soul

●​ Soul is the principle of life, motion, and multiplicity.

●​ It serves as the intermediary between the intelligible realm (Intellect) and the
physical cosmos.
●​ While the higher Soul remains in direct contact with Intellect, the lower aspect of
Soul engages with the material world.

Embodied Souls

●​ Individual souls are extensions of the universal Soul.

●​ Their descent into material bodies represents a turning away from higher reality.
However, this descent is not inherently a misfortune but part of the cosmic order.

5. The Path of Return

Reconciliation of Souls with the One

Plotinus emphasizes the need for souls to turn away from the distractions of the material
world and ascend back toward their divine origin:

1.​ Self-Knowledge: Souls must recognize their divine heritage and the presence of the
One within.
2.​ Inner Ascent: The soul must turn inward, away from external objects, to reconnect
with the intelligible realm.
 3.​ Union with the One: The ultimate goal is to transcend even Intellect and achieve
direct union with the One, an experience of profound simplicity and unity.

6. Philosophical Influences and Justifications

Plotinus situates his doctrine within the broader philosophical tradition:

1.​ Platonic Foundations:

○​ The One corresponds to Plato’s Good.
○​ Intellect and Soul reflect Plato’s Forms and the World Soul.
2.​ Pre-Socratic Contributions:
○​ Parmenides: His insights into the nature of unity and being influenced the
conception of the One.
○​ Heraclitus and Anaxagoras: Their ideas about the interplay of unity and
multiplicity are reflected in Plotinus’s system.
3.​ Aristotle’s Influence:
○​ Plotinus critiques and refines Aristotle’s concept of the unmoved mover and
the soul as the form of the body.

7. Ethical and Spiritual Implications

Unity Within the Soul

●​ Each individual soul contains the entire structure of the three hypostases within
itself.
●​ Intellect and the One are present in the soul, offering it the capacity for thought and
divine connection.

The Need for Asceticism

 ●​ Embodiment and materiality are distractions that pull the soul away from its higher
nature.
●​ By cultivating disdain for the material and focusing on the intelligible, the soul can
ascend toward its source.

8. Key Questions Answered

How does multiplicity arise from the One?

Multiplicity arises through emanation, a process in which each principle overflows with
abundance and produces a lower principle. The One generates Intellect, which introduces
distinction and multiplicity by contemplating itself.

Why is the soul separated from the One?

The soul’s separation is not a flaw but part of the cosmic structure. The descent into
materiality allows for the manifestation of life and motion. However, the soul retains the
ability to ascend and reunite with its source.

What is the role of self-knowledge in Plotinus’s system?

Self-knowledge is essential for the soul’s return to the One. By recognizing its divine origin
and turning inward, the soul can transcend material distractions and ascend to higher
realities.

On the Generation and Order of Things that come After the First (5.2)

Expounding Plotinus’s Ennead 5.2 (11): On the Generation and Order of the Things
Which Come After the First

Plotinus’s treatise On the Generation and Order of the Things Which Come After the First
serves as an extension of 5.1 (10), delving further into the structure and coherence of his
metaphysical hierarchy. It emphasizes the continuity of emanation from the highest
principle (the One) down to the lowest forms of life (plant souls). Plotinus defends the
logical and necessary arrangement of this hierarchy, showing that it reflects both the
perfection of the higher principles and the natural order of existence.

This treatise elaborates on three essential themes:

1.​ The nature and role of the One as the source of all things.
2.​ The process by which Intellect and Soul emanate from the One and give rise to
lower realities.
3.​ The hierarchical relationship among rational beings, animals, and plants.

1. The One: All Things and No Thing

Nature of the One

●​ The One is the source of all existence but is itself beyond all specific qualities and
distinctions.
●​ Plotinus describes the One paradoxically as “all things and no thing.” This reflects
the idea that:
○​ The One contains all things in potentiality, as their ultimate source.
○​ However, it transcends all things, being utterly simple and without
differentiation.

Emanation from the One

●​ From the absolute simplicity of the One arises the first hypostasis, Intellect (Nous),
through a process of overflowing or emanation.
●​ This emanation is not a material or physical action but a metaphysical principle,
comparable to the way light radiates from the sun.
2. The Process of Emanation: Stability, Procession, and Reversion

Plotinus outlines a threefold process of emanation that defines the relationship between
higher and lower levels of reality:

1.​ Stability: The higher principle remains stable, unchanged, and perfect.
○​ The One does not diminish or change in generating Intellect.
○​ Similarly, Intellect generates Soul without losing its essence.
2.​ Procession: The higher principle produces a lower principle.
○​ The One generates Intellect as an act of overflowing abundance.
○​ Intellect generates Soul, which in turn gives rise to individual souls.
3.​ Reversion: The lower principle turns back to its source.
○​ Intellect seeks to contemplate the One, its origin.
○​ Soul strives to ascend toward Intellect, its source of order and intelligibility.

This cycle of emanation and return establishes the continuity and coherence of the
metaphysical hierarchy.

3. Intellect and Soul: Their Role in the Hierarchy

Intellect (Nous)

●​ Intellect is the realm of Forms and the archetypal blueprint of all existence.
●​ It embodies unity-in-multiplicity, containing all intelligible realities as distinct yet
integrated principles.

Soul (Psyche)

●​ Soul emanates from Intellect and serves as the intermediary between the intelligible
and physical worlds.
●​ It is the principle of life, motion, and multiplicity in the cosmos.
4. The Hierarchy of Souls: Rational Beings, Animals, and Plants

Superiority of the Higher Over the Lower

●​ The emanative hierarchy reflects a gradation of perfection:

○​ Rational beings (human souls) are superior because they possess the power of
reason and self-reflection.
○​ Animal souls are lower, as they lack reason but retain sensation and motion.
○​ Plant souls are the lowest, possessing only growth and reproduction.

Continuity of the Hierarchy

●​ There are no gaps in the chain of being. Every possible level of existence is realized:
○​ The rational soul bridges the intelligible and the physical.
○​ Animal souls represent a further step away from Intellect but retain life and
perception.
○​ Plant souls are at the lowest level of life, entirely immersed in matter yet still
connected to the higher principles.

Souls of Plants

●​ Even at the lowest level, plant souls emanate from the universal Soul, maintaining
their link to the intelligible realm.
●​ This inclusion emphasizes that all levels of existence are ordered and purposeful.

5. The Necessary Order of the Cosmos

The Hierarchy as an Expression of Perfection

●​ The hierarchy is not arbitrary but reflects the natural order of emanation from the
One.
●​ Each level of existence is necessary, with the lower depending on the higher for its
being and purpose.
Implications for Individual Souls

●​ Human souls, as rational beings, have the capacity to ascend the hierarchy by
turning inward and seeking the intelligible realm.
●​ The descent of souls into embodiment is part of the cosmic order, but it does not
sever their connection to higher principles.

Key Questions Addressed

Why does the hierarchy exist?

The hierarchy exists because of the overflowing perfection of the One, which naturally
generates Intellect, Soul, and all levels of existence. This emanation is a process of
increasing complexity, ensuring the fullness of being.

Could there be another arrangement of the hierarchy?

No, Plotinus argues that the current hierarchy is the only possible arrangement. It reflects
the logical and ontological structure of reality, where each level is both necessary and
interdependent.

What is the relationship between higher and lower principles?

●​ The higher principles are superior and provide the cause and purpose for the lower.
●​ The lower principles, while distinct, remain dependent on and connected to the
higher through emanation and reversion.

On knowing the Hypostasis and on that Which is Transcendent (5.3)

Expounding Plotinus’s Ennead 5.3 (49): On the Knowing Hypostasis and on That
Which Is Transcendent

This treatise explores the nature of knowledge, self-intellection, and the relationship
between Intellect (Nous), the highest hypostasis capable of intellection, and the One, which
transcends all thought. Plotinus engages in a profound inquiry into the processes of
knowing, the nature of self-knowledge, and the limitations of human cognition in relation to
ultimate principles.

Central to this discussion is the concept that intellection is paradigmatically

self-intellection, meaning that the act of thinking involves the unity of subject and object
within Intellect. The treatise also examines the hierarchical structure of cognition,
culminating in the recognition that the One, as absolutely simple and transcendent, lies
beyond intellection.

Key Themes and Analysis

1. Thinking as Self-Thinking (Section 1)

Plotinus begins by establishing that thinking, in its purest form, is self-thinking. This
principle applies to the hypostasis Intellect:

●​ Intellect’s thinking is identical with its being. It does not think external objects as
separate but contains within itself all intelligible realities (the Forms).
●​ This unity between the knower and the known makes Intellect the archetype of all
intellection.

In contrast, human thinking is discursive and often reliant on sense-perception, reflecting a

fragmented and less perfect mode of cognition.

2. Embodied Thinking vs. Disembodied Intellection (Sections 2-3)

Plotinus contrasts embodied human intellects with the paradigmatic activity of Intellect:

●​ Human thinking is mediated by sense-perception and is discursive, involving

sequential reasoning.
 ●​ By comparison, Intellect operates in a unified and immediate mode, contemplating
all intelligibles simultaneously.

Human intellection is thus an inferior image of the pure activity of Intellect, which is free
from the constraints of embodiment and temporality.

3. Ascent from Discursive Thinking to Intellect (Sections 4-5)

Plotinus emphasizes the possibility of ascent:

●​ Through self-knowledge, the individual intellect can transcend the limitations of

sense-bound cognition and align with Intellect itself.
●​ This ascent involves moving from fragmented, discursive thinking to a state of unity
with the intelligibles.
●​ The process culminates in the realization that Intellect’s knowledge is
self-knowledge, as it fully identifies with the intelligible objects it contemplates.

4. The Dialectical Path to Self-Knowledge (Sections 6-7)

Plotinus outlines the steps for recognizing the nature of discursive thinking as an imperfect
image of true intellection:

●​ Discursive thinking, though fragmented, hints at the unified and immediate activity
of Intellect.
●​ By contemplating its own activity, the embodied intellect can gain insight into its
higher, undescended nature, which participates in Intellect.

Self-knowledge thus serves as a bridge between the human and divine realms, leading to a
deeper understanding of both Intellect and the first principle.

5. Intellect’s Intellection and Its Limitations (Sections 8-12)

While Intellect represents the pinnacle of knowing within the intelligible realm, it remains
secondary to the One:

●​ Intellect’s self-knowledge involves complexity: it knows itself as both subject and

object, as well as the multiplicity of intelligibles it contains.
●​ This complexity distinguishes Intellect from the One, which is absolutely simple and
transcends all differentiation.

Plotinus argues that Intellect cannot fully cognize the One. Instead, it can only grasp a
multiplicity of the One’s images—the intelligibles.

6. The Simplicity of the One and Its Transcendence (Sections 13-16)

The One lies beyond intellection because:

●​ Thinking implies a distinction between subject and object, which contradicts the
absolute simplicity of the One.
●​ The One does not think itself, nor can it be an object of thought, as both would
introduce duality.

Instead of being known in the conventional sense, the One can be intuitively apprehended:

●​ Through a direct awareness of its presence, the soul experiences the One as the
source of all being and intelligibility.
●​ This awareness transcends ordinary cognition and involves a union with the One.

The One is thus the ultimate source of all things, producing them without itself undergoing
change or division.

7. The Self-Sufficiency of the One and Intellect (Sections 16-17)

Plotinus concludes with reflections on the productive power of the One and the role of
Intellect in the hierarchy of existence:

●​ The One is absolutely self-sufficient, generating all reality through a process of

emanation.
●​ Intellect, while less self-sufficient, still reflects the One’s productive power by
generating Soul and intelligibles.
●​ The ultimate goal of the embodied individual is to ascend through the levels of
cognition, moving from discursive thinking to union with the One.

Hierarchy of Cognition and the Role of Ascent

Plotinus outlines a hierarchical progression of cognition:

1.​ Sense-Perception: The lowest level, tied to the physical and external.
2.​ Discursive Thinking: Sequential reasoning based on sensory input, characteristic of
the embodied intellect.
3.​ Pure Intellection: The activity of Intellect, contemplating all intelligibles in a unified
manner.
4.​ Awareness of the One: A direct and non-discursive experience of the One’s presence.

The process of ascent involves turning inward, achieving self-knowledge, and transcending
the limitations of embodiment. Ultimately, the soul seeks unity with the One, which is
beyond all thought and being.

Key Questions Addressed

How can self-knowledge lead to the One?

Self-knowledge enables the soul to recognize its higher nature and align with Intellect,
which is the closest reality to the One. From this vantage point, the soul can intuitively
apprehend the One’s presence.

Why can’t the One be an object of thought?

The One’s absolute simplicity precludes any distinction between knower and known.
Thought inherently involves duality, making it incompatible with the One’s nature.

What is the relationship between Intellect and the One?

Intellect emanates from the One as its first differentiation. While Intellect is the highest
hypostasis capable of knowing, it remains secondary to the One’s ineffable simplicity.

How That Which Is After the First Comes from the First, and On the One (5.4)

Introduction and Context

This treatise is a condensed version of Ennead 5.1 (10) and revisits key issues from earlier
discussions, such as:

1.​ How the absolutely simple One, without division or change, can give rise to the
many.
2.​ The need for the emanation process to maintain the One’s simplicity, avoiding any
implication of external activity or diminution.
3.​ The role of Intellect (Nous), the first hypostasis, as both the immediate product of
the One and the locus of all intelligible reality.

The treatise emphasizes:

●​ The ontological priority of the One.

●​ The emanative process through which Intellect arises.
 ●​ Intellect's dual role as the first complex being and the bridge between the One and
all subsequent realities.

Detailed Exposition

§1. The Ontological Priority of the One

The One is the first principle and the source of all existence:

1.​ Absolute Simplicity:

○​ The One is utterly simple, beyond being, form, or differentiation.
○​ It cannot be described in terms of any attributes or actions; it simply is.
○​ As the ultimate reality, it is the cause of all things without being affected or
changed by them.
2.​ Primacy and Independence:
○​ The One is entirely self-sufficient and independent. It is not a part of
anything greater, nor does it rely on anything external.
○​ Its perfection is such that it overflows, naturally giving rise to other realities
without itself undergoing any alteration.
3.​ Beyond Thought and Being:
○​ The One transcends thought and being because both involve duality (a
subject and an object). The One is pure unity, prior even to
self-consciousness.

§2. The Emanation of Intellect from the One

The first product of the One is Intellect (Nous), marking the beginning of multiplicity:

1.​ Emanation Without Diminution:

○​ The One produces Intellect through a process of emanation, akin to the sun
emitting light.
 ○​ This emanation does not reduce or alter the One’s nature, as the One
remains entirely itself.
2.​ Internal vs. External Activity:
○​ The One does not act externally (as an artisan shaping material) but instead
produces through an internal overflow of its infinite perfection.
○​ This internal activity ensures that the One retains its simplicity.
3.​ The Role of Intellect:
○​ Intellect is the first being that contemplates the One. Through this
contemplation, Intellect knows itself and its source.
○​ It is the first locus of complexity, introducing multiplicity while remaining
united in its self-awareness.
○​ Intellect contains within itself all intelligibles—the Forms or archetypal
realities of all things.
4.​ The Indefinite Dyad and Being:
○​ Plotinus identifies Intellect with the Indefinite Dyad, a principle of
multiplicity that allows for the differentiation of intelligibles within Intellect.
○​ Intellect is also identical with Being, as it encompasses all that exists
intelligibly.

Key Philosophical Insights

1. How Multiplicity Arises from Unity

Plotinus addresses the profound question of how the many can come from the One:

●​ The One is not a being among beings but the source of being itself.
●​ Multiplicity arises as a necessary consequence of the One’s perfection, which
overflows into creation without compromising its unity or simplicity.

2. The Nature of Intellect

Intellect is the first hypostasis and the bridge between the One and the rest of reality:
 ●​ It is complex, containing all intelligibles, yet unified in its self-contemplation.
●​ Intellect’s contemplation of the One generates the intelligible world—the archetypes
or Forms of all that exists.

3. The Relationship Between Unity and Multiplicity

Plotinus’s metaphysics posits a hierarchical structure:

●​ The One is at the top as the absolutely simple and transcendent source.
●​ Intellect follows as the first manifestation of complexity and the foundation of
intelligible reality.
●​ From Intellect, Soul and the material world emerge, marking further stages of
complexity and separation from the One.

Questions Addressed

1. How Can the One Produce Without Changing?

The One produces through a process of emanation, which is intrinsic to its nature as
infinite and perfect. This emanation does not involve any external activity or division,
preserving the One’s simplicity.

2. What is the Role of Intellect in the Emanative Process?

Intellect is the first product of the One and serves as the intermediary between the One’s
absolute unity and the multiplicity of subsequent realities. It introduces self-awareness and
contains all intelligibles, forming the foundation of being.

3. How is Intellect Related to the Indefinite Dyad and Being?

Intellect is both:

●​ The Indefinite Dyad, embodying the principle of differentiation and multiplicity.

●​ Identical with Being, as it encompasses all intelligible reality.
"That the Intelligibles Are Not Outside the Intellect, and On the Good"

Plotinus’s treatise Ennead 5.5 (32) is a critical exploration of two central themes in his
metaphysics:

1.​ The inseparability of intelligibles (Forms) from Intellect.

2.​ The transcendence and absolute simplicity of the One, which is equated with the
Good.

This treatise builds upon the foundations laid in earlier works (5.8 [31] and others),
refining Plotinus's systematic philosophy that emphasizes the unity of the intelligible and
the ineffable transcendence of the first principle, the One.

Introduction and Context

The primary objective of 5.5 is to establish that the Forms (intelligibles) are not external to
Intellect but are integral to its nature. This assertion has profound implications for the
nature of cognition and the structure of reality:

1.​ If the Forms were external to Intellect, Intellect could not fully grasp them,
undermining the paradigmatic unity of thought and being.
2.​ By arguing that Intellect is identical with the Forms, Plotinus ensures that
intelligibles are alive, interrelated, and constitutive of the intelligible realm.

Furthermore, the treatise contrasts the complexity of Intellect with the absolute simplicity
of the One, showing how the One transcends all predicates, including Being, Intellect, and
goodness.

Detailed Exposition
 That the Intelligibles Are Not Outside the Intellect, and On the Good (5.5)

§1. The Necessity of the Internality of Forms to Intellect

Plotinus begins by asserting that the Forms are not external objects but intrinsic to
Intellect’s very being.

1.​ Unity of Intellect and Forms:

○​ Intellect does not perceive Forms as external objects but is the Forms.
○​ This means that intelligibles are alive, dynamic, and interrelated, reflecting
the unity of Intellect.
2.​ Implications for Cognition:
○​ If Forms were external, Intellect would depend on something outside itself,
contradicting its nature as the second principle and locus of all intelligibility.
○​ Intellect’s cognition is immediate and direct, without mediation or inference.

§2. Cognitive Identity of Intellect and Forms

1.​ Self-Cognition of Intellect:

○​ Intellect’s knowledge is not inferential or propositional but immediate
self-knowledge.
○​ Intellect knows itself and the intelligibles simultaneously because they are
one and the same.
2.​ The Nature of Forms in Intellect:
○​ Forms are eternal and interrelated within Intellect.
○​ They represent the fullness of intelligible reality, encompassing all that can be
known or thought.

§3. Intellect as the Second God and the Locus of Being

1.​ Intellect’s Derivation from the One:

 ○​ Intellect originates from the One, the first principle, through an act of
emanation.
○​ This establishes the hierarchy where the One is absolutely simple, and
Intellect is the first instance of complexity.
2.​ Intellect as the Foundation of Being:
○​ Intellect is the locus of Being because it contains all intelligibles.
○​ While Intellect is a god, it is derivative and dependent on the transcendent
One.

§4. The Inferior Unity of Intellect Compared to the One

1.​ Unity in Complexity:

○​ Intellect’s unity is a unity of multiplicity, as it contains all Forms within itself.
○​ This unity, though profound, is inferior to the absolute simplicity of the One.
2.​ The One as Beyond Number:
○​ The One is not a number or a collection of parts. It is indivisible, beyond all
forms of differentiation or multiplicity.

§5. The One as the Source of All Things

1.​ Creative Power of the One:

○​ The One is the source of all existence but does not participate in anything.
○​ It produces Intellect as the first emanation without undergoing any change
or diminution.
2.​ Self-Sufficiency of the One:
○​ The One exists entirely in and of itself, transcending all categories of being,
thought, and activity.

§6. The Transcendence of the One

 1.​ Negative Theology:
○​ The One cannot be described in positive terms because it transcends all
attributes, including existence and goodness.
○​ To speak of the One, we must rely on negations (e.g., "not-being,"
"not-intellect").
2.​ Beyond Being:
○​ The One is not part of the realm of Being; it is the source of Being but is itself
beyond it.

§7. Analogies and Reflections on the One

1.​ Intellection and Sight:

○​ Plotinus compares the act of intellection to sight, emphasizing direct
apprehension rather than discursive reasoning.
○​ This analogy helps clarify the immediacy of Intellect’s self-cognition.
2.​ Containment and Transcendence:
○​ Soul is contained within Intellect, and Intellect is contained within the One,
but the One is itself contained within nothing.
○​ The One’s omnipresence is not spatial but metaphysical, as it is the source of
all.

§8-12. The Absolute Simplicity and Goodness of the One

1.​ Unlimited Power:

○​ The One’s productive power is unlimited and entirely self-sufficient.
○​ This power is not an attribute but an aspect of its nature as the source of all
things.
2.​ Identity with the Good:
○​ The One is the Good, the ultimate object of desire for all beings.
 ○​ Desire for the Good precedes even the desire for beauty, as the Good is the
source of all value.
3.​ Immateriality and Transcendence:
○​ The One is absolutely immaterial, making it distinct from all it produces.
○​ Its simplicity is such that it possesses no predicates or qualities, not even
"goodness" in the usual sense.

Key Philosophical Insights

1. Unity of Intellect and Forms

Plotinus’s assertion that the Forms are internal to Intellect resolves a fundamental
metaphysical issue:

●​ Forms are not external, lifeless abstractions but are alive and dynamic within
Intellect.
●​ This unity ensures that cognition is possible, as Intellect directly apprehends its own
contents.

2. Transcendence of the One

The One, as the absolute first principle, transcends all categories:

●​ It is beyond Being, thought, and description, accessible only through a form of

negative theology.
●​ The One’s simplicity and self-sufficiency underscore its role as the source of all
existence.

3. The Hierarchical Structure of Reality

Plotinus presents a hierarchical metaphysics:

1.​ The One: Absolute simplicity and the source of all.

2.​ Intellect: The locus of intelligibility and Being, containing all Forms.
 3.​ Soul: The principle of life and motion, derived from Intellect.

On the Fact That That Which Transcends Being Does Not Think and on What the Primary
Thinking Is and What Is Secondary (5.6)

Plotinus’s Ennead 5.6 (24) addresses profound metaphysical questions about the nature of
the first principle—the One—and its relationship to thinking and Being. This treatise
serves as a polemic against those who equate the first principle with thinking (e.g.,
Aristotle’s Unmoved Mover) or primary Being. Plotinus asserts that the first principle, the
One, transcends both thinking and Being, distinguishing it from secondary principles such
as Intellect (Nous).

The central thesis is that the One, as the absolutely simple and ineffable source of all,
cannot engage in thinking because thinking implies distinction and multiplicity, which are
contrary to its nature. Plotinus also explains the relationship between the One and the
Good, arguing that the Good is beyond intellection and Being.

Introduction and Context

The treatise responds to competing philosophical perspectives, especially those of:

1.​ Aristotle’s Unmoved Mover: Defined as pure thought thinking itself, Aristotle’s first
principle is described in terms of activity and self-contemplation. Plotinus rejects
this identification for the One.
2.​ Certain Platonists: These thinkers identified the Demiurge or divine intellect with
the ultimate principle. Plotinus clarifies that while Intellect is divine, it is not the
first principle; it is secondary to the One.

The key distinction is between thinking and the source of thinking:

●​ Thinking presupposes multiplicity (a thinker and the object of thought).

 ●​ The One, being absolutely simple, cannot engage in thinking as it would introduce
differentiation within its unity.

Detailed Exposition

§1: Thinking of Externals vs. Self-Thinking

1.​ Thinking as a Dualistic Activity:

○​ Thinking inherently involves a subject (the thinker) and an object (the thing
thought). This relational structure presupposes differentiation.
○​ For example, external thinking involves contemplation of something outside
oneself, while self-thinking (as in Aristotle’s Unmoved Mover) involves
self-reflection.
2.​ Primary Thinking as Self-Thinking:
○​ Plotinus acknowledges that self-thinking is the highest form of thinking
within the realm of Being.
○​ However, even this self-thinking involves complexity: the thinker must
distinguish itself as both subject and object.

§2: The Necessity of an Absolutely Simple Principle Prior to Thinking

1.​ The Precedence of Unity:

○​ Before any activity of thinking can occur, there must be an absolutely simple
principle, free from all distinction or multiplicity. This principle is the One.
○​ Thinking, even self-thinking, implies a duality (subject-object), whereas the
One is purely one and indivisible.
2.​ The One as Beyond Thinking:
○​ Thinking arises only in the second hypostasis, Intellect (Nous), which
emanates from the One.
 ○​ The One’s simplicity excludes any form of internal differentiation or duality,
making thinking incompatible with its nature.

§3: The One Cannot Have Parts or Be Many in Any Sense

1.​ The One’s Indivisibility:

○​ The One cannot be composed of parts, qualities, or distinctions, as these
would introduce multiplicity into its nature.
○​ If the One were divisible, it would cease to be the first principle and would
instead depend on something more fundamental.
2.​ Distinction from Intellect:
○​ Intellect, as the second principle, contains the multiplicity of intelligibles
(Forms) and engages in thinking.
○​ The One, by contrast, is prior to all multiplicity and serves as the source of
Intellect.

§4: Analogies of Light and Number

1.​ The Analogy of Light:

○​ Just as light enables sight without being sight itself, the One enables Being
and thinking without itself being either.
○​ The One illuminates reality but remains distinct from the activity or content
of that illumination.
2.​ The Analogy of Number:
○​ Numbers derive from the unity of “one,” yet the “one” itself is not a number.
○​ Similarly, the One is the source of all multiplicity and differentiation but
remains beyond these.

§5: Why the Good Cannot Think

 1.​ Thinking Requires Distinction:
○​ Thinking always involves a distinction between the thinker and the object of
thought. For the Good (the One), this distinction is impossible because it is
wholly undivided and beyond all relationality.
○​ The Good cannot think because it cannot be distinct from itself.
2.​ Thinking Is Always Directed Toward the Good:
○​ Thinking, whether of externals or self-thinking, is ultimately oriented toward
the Good as its end or goal.
○​ The Good, being the ultimate source, has no external object toward which it
might direct its thinking.

§6: The Good’s Activity Is Not Intellection

1.​ Beyond Thinking and Being:

○​ The Good’s activity is not a form of intellection or cognition. Instead, its
activity is the emanation of all things, including Intellect and Being.
○​ The Good transcends Being because Being implies determination and
differentiation, while the Good is absolutely undetermined and transcendent.
2.​ Negative Theology:
○​ The Good (the One) cannot be described in positive terms, as all predicates
imply limitation or distinction.
○​ To understand the Good, one must rely on negative theology, describing it in
terms of what it is not (e.g., “not Being,” “not thinking”).

Key Philosophical Insights

1. The One’s Absolute Simplicity

●​ The One is prior to all multiplicity and complexity, making it fundamentally distinct
from both Being and thinking.
 ●​ Its absolute simplicity excludes any internal differentiation, rendering it
incompatible with the activity of thinking.

2. The Nature of Thinking

●​ Thinking is a relational activity that presupposes a duality between subject and

object.
●​ Even self-thinking involves this duality, as the thinker must distinguish itself from
the object of thought.

3. The Hierarchical Structure of Reality

●​ The One is the first principle, transcending both Being and Intellect.
●​ Intellect (Nous) is the second principle, containing the intelligibles and engaging in
self-thinking.
●​ Being arises from Intellect and encompasses the multiplicity of existence.

Implications of the Treatise

1. The Good as Beyond Intellection

●​ The Good is the ultimate source of all things but is itself beyond thought, Being, and
all predication.
●​ Its transcendence underscores its ineffable nature, accessible only through negation
and mystical insight.

2. Distinction from Aristotelian Thought

●​ Plotinus rejects Aristotle’s identification of the first principle with self-thinking.

●​ For Plotinus, self-thinking belongs to Intellect, not the One, as it implies complexity
and differentiation.

3. Philosophical Ascent
 ●​ The treatise invites the reader to ascend from the multiplicity of thought and Being
to the simplicity of the One.
●​ This ascent requires transcending discursive reasoning and embracing the ineffable
unity of the source.

On Whether or Not There Are Ideas of Individuals (5.7)

Introduction and Context

1. The Platonic Principle of Forms

●​ Forms as Universals: Plato’s Forms are the eternal, intelligible paradigms of things in
the sensible world. For example, the Form of Human Being is the paradigm for all
human beings.
●​ The Question of Individuality: While Forms traditionally represent universals (e.g.,
the Form of a horse applies to all horses), this treatise asks whether unique
individuals—such as Socrates or an individual tree—have their own specific
paradigms in the intelligible world.

2. Plotinus’s Approach

●​ Plotinus defends the intelligible realm as the source of all being, including
individuality. However, he is cautious about positing an infinite multiplicity of
Forms, as this could undermine the unity of the intelligible world.
●​ His inquiry focuses primarily on human individuality, especially individual
intellects, and whether their uniqueness is reflected in the intelligible realm.

Detailed Exposition of Key Sections

§1: Are There Forms for Individual Human Beings?

 1.​ The Existence of Individual Forms
○​ Plotinus examines whether each human being has a specific Form in the
intelligible realm in addition to the universal Form of Human Being.
○​ He acknowledges the uniqueness of each human intellect, suggesting that
individual paradigms for intellects exist in the intelligible world. These
paradigms are referred to as undescended intellects.
2.​ No Infinite Forms
○​ The existence of individual paradigms does not necessitate an infinite
proliferation of Forms.
○​ Each individual may have its own intelligible archetype, but these archetypes
are rooted in the unity and simplicity of the intelligible world.
3.​ The Intelligibility of Uniqueness
○​ Individual uniqueness can be intelligibly accounted for without undermining
the unity of the Form of Human Being.
○​ This means that the intelligible paradigm of an individual does not imply a
complete separation from the universal paradigm of humanity.

§2: The Problem of Children

1.​ The Development of Individuality

○​ Plotinus considers the individuality of children, who have not yet fully
developed their rational capacities.
○​ Even in their undeveloped state, children possess a unique essence that may
have an intelligible archetype.
2.​ Potentiality and Actuality
○​ The individuality of a child can be understood in terms of potentiality within
the universal Form of Human Being.
○​ As the child matures, their individuality becomes fully actualized, possibly
corresponding to their unique intelligible paradigm.
§3: Radical Uniqueness and Identical Twins

1.​ The Stoic Doctrine of Individuality

○​ The Stoics emphasized the radical uniqueness of every individual, asserting
that no two individuals, even identical twins, are exactly the same.
○​ Plotinus acknowledges this perspective but approaches it from his
metaphysical framework, where individuality is rooted in intelligible
archetypes.
2.​ Can Two Individuals Be the Same?
○​ Plotinus argues that no two individuals are exactly alike, even if they share
many attributes.
○​ Each individual’s essence is distinct, and their individuality is grounded in
the intelligible realm.

Philosophical Insights

1. Individuality in the Intelligible Realm

●​ Plotinus emphasizes that individuality is not merely a feature of the sensible world
but is rooted in the intelligible realm.
●​ For humans, this is particularly evident in the uniqueness of individual intellects,
which correspond to intelligible paradigms.

2. Unity and Multiplicity in the Intelligible World

●​ Plotinus navigates the tension between the unity of the intelligible world and the
multiplicity of individual paradigms.
●​ While Forms are universal, they also account for the uniqueness of particular beings
without fracturing the unity of the intelligible realm.

3. The Relationship Between Universal and Individual Forms

 ●​ The universal Form of Human Being encompasses all humans, but individual
paradigms within this Form reflect the unique essence of each person.
●​ This approach avoids an infinite multiplicity of Forms while preserving the
intelligibility of individuality.

Plotinus’s Position on Non-Intellectual Beings

Plotinus’s treatise primarily focuses on individual intellects, but the question remains
whether non-intellectual beings (e.g., animals, plants) have unique paradigms. While
Plotinus does not explicitly resolve this, his broader metaphysical framework suggests that:

●​ Non-intellectual beings participate in universal Forms (e.g., the Form of a tree).

●​ Their individuality in the sensible world may not correspond to distinct paradigms
in the intelligible realm.

Implications of the Treatise

1.​ Human Uniqueness:

○​ Plotinus highlights the profound uniqueness of individual humans, grounded
in their undescended intellects.
○​ This perspective affirms the intelligible significance of each person while
maintaining the unity of the intelligible world.
2.​ Unity and Diversity:
○​ The intelligible realm is both unified and diverse, containing paradigms for
universal Forms and individual intellects.
○​ Plotinus balances these aspects to preserve the coherence of his metaphysical
system.
3.​ Philosophical Ascent:
 ○​ By contemplating the intelligible archetype of one’s own intellect, individuals
can ascend toward a deeper understanding of their true essence and its
participation in the universal Form of Human Being.

What Are Forms?

●​ According to Plato, Forms are perfect, unchanging ideas that exist in a higher realm
(the "intelligible world").​
For example:
○​ There's a Form of Human Being, which is the perfect idea of what it means
to be human.
○​ This Form is universal, meaning it applies to all humans, like a blueprint.

The Question Plotinus Is Asking

●​ If there's a universal Form for "Human Being," does this mean every individual
human (like Socrates, you, or me) has their own unique Form?
●​ What about other individual things, like specific animals, plants, or even rocks?

Plotinus’s Argument

1.​ Yes, Individual Humans Have Their Own Forms (Sort Of):
○​ Each human is unique, especially in their intellect (their ability to think and
understand).
○​ Plotinus believes that every person’s unique intellect has its own "paradigm"
or perfect version in the intelligible realm.
○​ These paradigms aren’t separate from the universal Form of Human Being;
they are like unique expressions of it.
2.​ No, There Aren’t Infinite Forms for Everything:
 ○​ Plotinus argues that there aren’t separate Forms for every single thing in the
world, like each individual tree or rock.
○​ Forms stay simple and unified, even though they can explain the
individuality we see in the physical world.

Why This Is Important

●​ Plotinus’s main goal is to explain how intellect and individuality fit into the bigger
picture of reality:
○​ Humans are special because their individuality (their unique intellect) is
directly connected to the intelligible realm.
○​ Non-intellectual things (like animals or rocks) don’t have this same level of
connection.

Key Takeaways

1.​ Humans Have Unique Intelligible Paradigms:​

Your intellect (the part of you that thinks and knows) is so special that it reflects a
unique, perfect version of you in the intelligible world.
2.​ Unity in the Intelligible World:​
Even though people are unique, their uniqueness doesn’t create chaos in the
intelligible realm. All individual paradigms are part of the greater, unified Form of
"Human Being."
3.​ Not Everything Has a Unique Form:​
Rocks, plants, and even animals don’t necessarily have unique Forms. They
participate in universal Forms (like "Tree" or "Rock") without having individual
paradigms.
A Simple Analogy

Think of the intelligible realm as a library:

●​ The Form of Human Being is like a general book about what it means to be human.
●​ Your unique "paradigm" is like a personalized version of that book, written just for
you, but it’s still part of the same collection.

On the Intelligible Beauty (5.8)

This treatise is a profound exploration of the relationship between beauty, intellect, and
intelligibility within the metaphysical framework of Plotinus. It is part of a broader
discussion across several treatises and focuses on the role of Intellect as both the paradigm
(model) and producer of the sensible world. It also delves into the activity of Intellect and
its method of knowing, which Plotinus argues is fundamentally different from human,
embodied cognition.

Here’s a comprehensive explanation:

Core Ideas and Themes

1. Intellect as Paradigm

●​ The Intellect (Nous) is the second hypostasis in Plotinus’s metaphysical hierarchy,

emanating from the One.
●​ As the paradigm of all intelligible and sensible realities, Intellect contains within
itself the Forms or Ideas—perfect, eternal, and universal realities that serve as
blueprints for everything that exists in the physical world.
○​ For instance, the beauty in nature and moral beauty in human behavior
derive their perfection from the paradigms within Intellect.
2. Beauty in Nature and Morality

●​ Plotinus connects the beauty of nature and moral beauty to their origins in Intellect.
●​ Nature’s beauty reflects the order, harmony, and proportion of the intelligible
realm, while moral beauty is derived from the soul’s alignment with higher realities.

3. Ascent to Intellect

●​ The path to Intellect involves recognizing the beauty in its images (e.g., nature, art,
morality) and ascending beyond these to their ultimate source.
●​ This ascent requires:
○​ Eliminating materiality: Stripping away the physical and mutable aspects of
the world.
○​ Contemplating Forms: Focusing on the eternal and immutable truths of
Intellect.

4. Life of Intellect and Non-Propositional Knowledge

●​ The life of Intellect is dynamic and vibrant. It is not static contemplation but an
active and unified cognition of itself and its contents.
●​ Intellect’s cognition is non-discursive, meaning it does not think through
propositions or sequential reasoning as humans do.
○​ Instead, Intellect knows all things simultaneously in their unity.
○​ Plotinus uses the analogy of Egyptian hieroglyphics to explain this kind of
understanding: just as hieroglyphs convey meaning through symbols rather
than sequential sentences, Intellect grasps the totality of reality in a unified,
symbolic way.
5. Intellect as Producer

●​ Intellect is not just a model; it also produces the sensible world as its image.
●​ The physical world reflects the order and intelligibility of the intelligible realm,
although in a diminished and fragmented way.

6. The Beauty of the Intelligible World

●​ Plotinus emphasizes that the intelligible realm possesses a higher, purer form of
beauty than the sensible world.
●​ This beauty stems from its unity, order, and eternal nature, which far surpass the
transient and material beauty of the physical world.

7. The Method of Ascent

●​ Plotinus outlines a method for ascending to the intelligible realm:

○​ Begin by contemplating the beauty of the physical world.
○​ Progressively abstract and eliminate materiality and focus on the order and
harmony underlying it.
○​ Direct one’s attention to the Forms and ultimately to the Intellect, the source
of all intelligibility and beauty.

8. Soul’s Unity with Intellect

●​ The soul can achieve unity with Intellect by ascending through contemplation and
purifying itself of material distractions.
●​ In this state, the soul participates in the life of Intellect and perceives the intelligible
Forms directly.
Symbolism and Myth

Plotinus uses mythical analogies to explain the relationships between the hypostases:

1.​ Kronos (Time) and Zeus (Order) represent the intelligible and sensible worlds,
respectively.
2.​ The myth further extends to include Ouranos (the heavens) and Aphrodite (beauty
and love), symbolizing different aspects of the metaphysical structure:
○​ Ouranos corresponds to the highest reality (the One).
○​ Aphrodite symbolizes the desire and love that drive the soul’s ascent toward
unity with higher realities.

Connections to Other Treatises

●​ This treatise transitions naturally into Ennead 5.5 (32) and ties into the themes of 3.8
(30) and 2.9 (33).
●​ It emphasizes the importance of understanding the role of Intellect in the larger
metaphysical system, particularly in showing why it cannot be the first principle of
all (this role belongs to the One).

Key Takeaways

1.​ Intellect’s Dual Role: It is both the paradigm and the producer of the sensible world.
2.​ Beauty and Intelligibility: All beauty in the physical world is a reflection of the
higher, intelligible beauty in Intellect.
3.​ Ascent to Intellect: Achieved by contemplating the beauty of the physical world and
progressing toward the intelligible.
4.​ Non-Discursive Knowledge: Intellect knows through a unified, immediate
awareness, unlike human sequential reasoning.
 5.​ Unity with Intellect: The soul can achieve unity with Intellect by purifying itself and
focusing on intelligibles.

On Intellect, Ideas, and Being (5.9)

5.9 (5): On Intellect, Ideas, and Being

This treatise is a foundational exploration of the intelligible realm—the world of Intellect

and Forms—and its critical role in explaining the nature of the sensible world. Plotinus
defends the Platonic worldview against the criticisms of Epicureans and Stoics,
emphasizing the superiority of the intelligible over the sensible and the indispensable
nature of Forms in understanding existence. While the treatise does not delve into the
ultimate principle (the One), it establishes the crucial intermediary role of Intellect and its
identity with the intelligible Forms.

Core Themes and Analysis

1. The Superiority of Platonism

●​ Critique of Epicureanism and Stoicism:

○​ Epicureans deny the intelligible realm entirely, focusing on the material and
atomic as explanations for reality.
○​ Stoics propose an immanent rational principle but reject the existence of
transcendent intelligibles or Forms.
●​ Plotinus’s Argument:
○​ Platonism offers greater explanatory power because it accounts for the
eternality, intelligibility, and perfection of the sensible world through the
paradigms in the intelligible realm.
○​ Without transcendent Forms, the existence and order of the sensible world
remain inexplicable.
2. The Ascent from Sensible to Intelligible

●​ Role of the Sensible World:

○​ The sensible world is not an end in itself; it serves as a stepping stone to
higher realities.
○​ Sensible things participate in the intelligible realm, and their beauty, order,
and intelligibility point toward their paradigmatic source in Intellect.
●​ The Ascent Process:
○​ By contemplating the order and beauty of the sensible, the soul ascends to
the intelligible world, recognizing that the sensible is a shadow or image of
the Forms.

3. The Necessity of Intellect and Intelligibles

●​ Argument for Intellect’s Existence:

○​ Intellect is necessary because it explains the existence and order of Forms,
which in turn explain the sensible world.
○​ Without Intellect, the intelligible world would lack coherence, and the
sensible world would lack its paradigmatic foundation.
●​ Intelligibles as Internal to Intellect:
○​ Intellect contains the Forms internally; they are not external objects but
aspects of Intellect’s self-knowing activity.
○​ This self-reflexive knowing is eternal, non-discursive, and perfect.

4. The Superiority of Intellect over Soul

●​ Hierarchy of Hypostases:
○​ Intellect is superior to Soul because it is closer to the ultimate source, the
One.
 ○​ Soul derives its order and intelligibility from Intellect and cannot exist
independently of it.
●​ Dependency of Soul:
○​ The activity of Soul—especially in generating the sensible world—is entirely
dependent on the intelligibility it receives from Intellect.

5. Eternity of Intellect’s Intellection

●​ Timeless Knowledge:
○​ Intellect’s knowledge of Forms is eternal and unchanging.
○​ Unlike human cognition, which is discursive and temporal, Intellect knows
all things simultaneously in a unified act of self-contemplation.
●​ Participation of Sensibles:
○​ Sensible objects “participate” in Forms, meaning they derive their
intelligibility and order from these eternal paradigms.

6. Identity and Distinctness in Intellect

●​ Unity and Multiplicity:

○​ Intellect is identical with all intelligibles, meaning it contains all Forms
within itself as its own nature.
○​ However, each Form remains distinct within Intellect, preserving its
individuality while being unified with the whole.
●​ Forms as Primary Knowledge:
○​ The objects of Intellect’s primary knowledge are Forms.
○​ These Forms are not created by Intellect but are coexistent with it, forming
the very essence of Being.

7. The Relationship Between Being, Intellect, and Forms

 ●​ Being and Intellect:
○​ For Plotinus, Being is not separate from Intellect; they are identical.
○​ Intellect is the locus of all that exists intelligibly, and there is nothing outside
of Intellect in the intelligible realm.
●​ Forms as the Essence of Being:
○​ Being is constituted by Forms, which are the eternal realities underlying all
existence.

8. The Intelligible as Paradigm

●​ Intelligibles as Archetypes:
○​ Everything intelligible serves as a paradigm or model for the sensible world.
○​ Any measure of intelligibility in the sensible derives from its archetype in the
intelligible realm.
●​ Absence of Evil in the Intelligible:
○​ There is no evil in the intelligible world because evil arises from privation—a
lack of form or order—which is impossible in the realm of perfect Forms.

9. Artefacts, Crafts, and the Intelligible

●​ Human Creativity and Intelligibles:

○​ Artefacts and crafts (e.g., a sculptor’s creation) have their paradigms in the
intelligible world insofar as they embody intelligibility.
○​ The Forms of these creations exist in Intellect, reflecting the ordered activity
of human reasoning.

10. Forms of Individuals

●​ Deferred Discussion:
 ○​ The question of whether there are Forms for individual entities is raised but
not resolved in this treatise.
○​ Plotinus addresses this issue more thoroughly in Ennead 5.7 (18), where he
argues that at least individual intellects have paradigms in the intelligible
world.

11. Souls and the Intelligible World

●​ Souls’ Relation to Intelligibles:

○​ Souls are in the intelligible world in a sense but are distinct from Forms.
○​ They descend into the sensible world, but their essence remains tied to the
intelligible.
●​ No Forms for Some Sensibles:
○​ Not everything in the sensible world has a corresponding Form.
○​ Accidental composites, results of decay, and evils are excluded from the
intelligible realm since they lack true intelligibility.

Key Takeaways

1.​ Intellect and Forms: Intellect is both the locus and the essence of the intelligible
realm, containing all Forms as its own self-knowledge.
2.​ Intelligible as Necessary Paradigm: The intelligible world explains the order and
existence of the sensible world, which participates in the Forms.
3.​ Superiority of Intelligible: The intelligible world is eternal, perfect, and devoid of
evil, unlike the mutable and imperfect sensible world.
4.​ Soul’s Role: While distinct from Forms, the soul is tied to the intelligible realm and
depends on Intellect for its activity.
5.​ Deferred Questions: Some issues, such as the Forms of individuals and the status of
certain sensible entities, are left for further exploration.
Expounding on Enneads 6.1-3: On the Genera of Being

Plotinus’ treatise On the Genera of Being (6.1-3) is a dense and critical examination of the
concept of being and its classification. It spans three sections:

1.​ A critique of Aristotle’s Categories and Stoic doctrines (6.1),

2.​ The establishment of a positive theory of being inspired by Plato's Sophist (6.2),
3.​ An application of these insights to beings that undergo change (6.3).

The treatise is notable for Plotinus’ effort to reconcile and refine ideas from Platonic,
Aristotelian, and Stoic traditions while advancing his own metaphysical system.

6.1 – Critique of Aristotle and the Stoics

Plotinus on Aristotle’s Categories

●​ Aristotle’s Ten Categories: Substance, Quantity, Quality, Relation, Place, Time,

Position, State, Action, and Passion are proposed as the primary genera of being.
●​ Plotinus’ Criticism:
○​ No unity within genera: Plotinus argues that the entities grouped under each
category (e.g., different substances or qualities) are too diverse to form a
coherent genus.
○​ Inapplicability to intelligibles: Aristotle’s categories are rooted in the sensible
world and cannot adequately account for the intelligible realm. For instance:
■​ Intelligible substances and sensible substances are fundamentally
different; they share only a homonymy (the same name but different
definitions).
■​ This distinction undermines the coherence of substance as a single
category.

The Nature of Substance

●​ Substance as a genus:
 ○​ Includes both sensible substances (e.g., physical objects) and intelligible
substances (e.g., Forms).
○​ Plotinus questions whether such a vast and diverse group can truly form a
single category.
●​ Conclusion: Substance, as Aristotle conceives it, cannot function as a single genus
because its members lack a common unifying characteristic.

The Nature of Quantity

●​ Two types of quantity:

○​ Continuous (e.g., space and time) and discrete (e.g., numbers).
○​ Plotinus challenges Aristotle by arguing that only numbers are true
quantities, while space and time are only accidentally quantitative.
●​ Key Insight: Plotinus redefines quantity, emphasizing its intelligible essence rather
than its physical manifestations.

The Nature of Relatives

●​ Relatives (e.g., larger, smaller, double):

○​ Plotinus critiques the coherence of relatives as a genus:
■​ Relatives seem to depend on external contexts and the relations
between entities.
■​ Some relatives, such as states or measures, involve distinct principles
and cannot belong to a single genus.
●​ Key Distinction: Relatives exist "for us" (i.e., as perceived relationships) but do not
affect the relata (the entities in relation).

The Nature of Quality

●​ Aristotle’s four types of quality:

○​ States (e.g., knowledge),
○​ Dispositions (e.g., health),
○​ Capacities (e.g., strength),
○​ Shapes (e.g., geometric forms).
 ●​ Plotinus’ Critique:
○​ These distinctions lack consistency and cannot form a unified genus.
○​ Qualities of body and soul differ fundamentally and require separate
treatment.

Place and Time (Where and When)

●​ The “Where” (Place):

○​ Plotinus argues that place is reducible to relative positions within space.
○​ It is not a true genus because it lacks the simplicity required of a category.
●​ The “When” (Time):
○​ Time, like place, is relative and derivative.
○​ Plotinus reduces it to quantity, specifically the measure of motion or change.

6.2 – A Positive Theory of Being

Five Genera of Being

●​ Inspired by Plato’s Sophist, Plotinus introduces five fundamental genera of being:

1.​ Being: The essence or existence of things.
2.​ Motion: The principle of change or activity.
3.​ Rest: The principle of stability or permanence.
4.​ Sameness: The principle of unity and identity.
5.​ Difference: The principle of diversity or distinction.
●​ These genera are interdependent and apply to both sensible and intelligible realms.

Superiority of Intelligible Being

●​ Relation to the One:

○​ All beings derive their existence from the One, the ultimate source of all
reality.
○​ Intelligible being is closer to the One and therefore superior to sensible being.
The Interplay of Genera

●​ The genera of being work together to explain reality:

○​ Sameness and Difference account for the unity and diversity of beings.
○​ Motion and Rest explain the dynamics of change and permanence.

6.3 – Beings Undergoing Change

Application to Sensible Beings

●​ Plotinus extends the theory of genera to account for changeable beings in the
sensible world:
○​ Change involves the interaction of motion and rest, guided by sameness and
difference.
○​ Sensible beings participate in the intelligible genera but are imperfect copies
of their paradigms in the intelligible world.

Reduction of Categories

●​ Plotinus argues that many of Aristotle’s categories can be reduced to combinations

of the five Platonic genera:
○​ Substance corresponds to Being.
○​ Quality and Relation derive from Difference.
○​ Place and Time are aspects of Motion and Rest.

Evil and Imperfection

●​ Evil and imperfection arise in the sensible world due to privation—the absence of
intelligible order or form.
●​ Such phenomena cannot exist in the intelligible realm, which is purely good and
complete.
Key Takeaways

1.​ Critique of Aristotle:

○​ Aristotle’s categories fail to account for the intelligible world.
○​ Many of his categories lack coherence as genera.
2.​ Platonic Genera:
○​ The five Platonic genera (Being, Motion, Rest, Sameness, Difference) provide
a more comprehensive framework for understanding reality.
○​ They apply to both intelligible and sensible beings, unifying the two realms.
3.​ Reduction of Categories:
○​ Many of Aristotle’s categories can be reduced to combinations of the Platonic
genera.
○​ This unification simplifies and strengthens the metaphysical structure.
4.​ Intelligible Primacy:
○​ Intelligible being is superior to sensible being, as it is closer to the One and
serves as the paradigm for the sensible.
5.​ Evil and Privation:
○​ Evil is not a substantive reality but a lack of order or form in the sensible
world.

1. Motion and Activity in Plotinus' Framework

Motion as Activity

Plotinus critiques Aristotle’s definition of motion as an “incomplete activity” (energeia

ateles). Aristotle views motion as a process that is always in the act of becoming, never fully
realized, which distinguishes it from a complete activity (energeia). Plotinus, however,
disputes this characterization:

●​ Complete in Every Instant: For Plotinus, motion is a complete activity at every

instant of its occurrence. It is not incomplete but rather continuous and fully actual
in each moment of its operation.
 ●​ Continuity and Indivisibility: Plotinus challenges the Aristotelian idea that motion is
infinitely divisible. Instead, he emphasizes its continuous nature as a unified activity.

By redefining motion as a form of activity, Plotinus elevates it beyond the Aristotelian

notion of something that exists only in the process of becoming.

2. The Relation Between Acting and Being Affected

Acting vs. Being Affected

Plotinus explores the interplay between acting (producing change) and being affected
(undergoing change):

●​ Two Species of Motion: Both acting and being affected are classified as species of
motion. The distinction lies in whether the activity relates to another entity:
○​ Acting: Activities that arise from a being’s own essence and do not
necessarily involve another being. For instance, thinking is an activity that
does not inherently affect another being.
○​ Being Affected: Activities that involve interaction or reception from another
being. For instance, being cut involves an external agent causing change.

Blurring the Boundaries

Plotinus notes that the distinction between acting and being affected is not always clear-cut:

●​ Example of Cutting: Cutting involves both acting (the act of cutting) and being
affected (the object being cut). This dual nature makes it difficult to separate these
categories definitively.
●​ Positive and Negative Aspects: Being affected is not merely about negative processes
like degradation or harm; it can also involve neutral or positive transformations.

Relative Nature of Acting

In §§21-22, Plotinus argues that all acts are relational:

●​ Activities that do not relate to other beings are not truly “acting.” For example,
internal activities like thinking are not considered acting unless they have relational
effects.
●​ Therefore, acting is inherently relative—it always implies a relationship to
something else.

3. Genera of Being: Plotinus’ Critique

Critique of “Having” as a Genus

Plotinus examines the idea of "having" as a genus and raises concerns:

●​ Restricted Scope: The concept of “having” is too limited to function as a universal

genus.
●​ Overlapping Categories: Many items classified under “having” can be better
categorized under other genera, reducing the utility of the notion as a distinct
classification.

Stoic Genera and Their Limitations

Plotinus critiques the Stoic categorization of genera, which includes:

1.​ Substrate: The underlying matter or substance.

2.​ Qualified Thing: The way a thing is determined or characterized.
3.​ Way of Being: The mode or condition of existence.
4.​ Relationality: The way things relate to other things.

Plotinus’ Objections:

1.​ Logical Inconsistencies:

 ○​ A genus can only be divided into species using differences intrinsic to the
genus itself. The Stoic genera fail this test, as their differentiations involve
external characteristics.
2.​ Corporealism:
○​ The Stoics reduce all genera (except for incorporeal “sayables,” or lekta) to
corporeal realities. Plotinus rejects this materialist framework, as it
undermines the intelligible and incorporeal dimensions of being.
3.​ Violation of the Law of the Excluded Middle:
○​ The Stoic conception of a genus encompassing both beings and non-beings
(e.g., incorporeals like lekta) violates fundamental logical principles.
4.​ Confusion of Substrate and Matter:
○​ The Stoic notion of substrate conflates matter (a principle) with body (a
composite entity). For Plotinus, matter is more foundational and cannot
belong to the same genus as body.

4. Motion and Change in the Ontological Hierarchy

Plotinus situates motion and change within his broader metaphysical framework:

●​ Intelligible Realm: True activity exists fully and eternally in the intelligible realm
(Nous), where Forms are self-sufficient and immutable.
●​ Sensible Realm: Motion and change belong to the realm of becoming, where they
are contingent and relational. They are not true substances or genera but
manifestations of interaction between beings.

5. Summary and Implications

Plotinus’ discussion reveals a nuanced view of motion, activity, and change:

 1.​ Motion as Activity: Motion is redefined as a continuous, complete activity rather
than an incomplete process.
2.​ Relativity of Action: All actions are relational, blurring distinctions between acting
and being affected.
3.​ Critique of Genera: Plotinus dismantles overly broad or logically inconsistent
classifications (e.g., “having,” Stoic genera), emphasizing the need for clear
ontological principles.
4.​ Ontological Hierarchy: Motion and change reflect the dynamics of the lower realms
and are not part of the eternal and immutable intelligible realm.

This framework highlights Plotinus’ effort to refine and elevate the metaphysical
understanding of motion, activity, and their place within the hierarchy of being.

Part 1: Exemplifying the Role of Genera in Intellect (Nous)

In Plotinus’ metaphysics, the Intellect (Nous) is the locus where the greatest genera are
unified and fully realized. The five genera—Being, Motion, Stability, Identity, and
Difference—manifest as principles that define the very activity and essence of Nous. Below
is an exemplification of their roles:

1. Being Defines Its Essence

●​ Exemplification: The Intellect exists as the eternal ground of all intelligible realities.
Its essence as Being is its self-subsistent reality, the foundation of all that is
intelligible. For instance, in the act of knowing Beauty, Intellect not only
understands beauty but is beauty in its essence, fully embodying what it knows.
●​ Elaboration: Being here is not a static existence but the plenitude of intelligible life.
Unlike in the sensible world, where being might be subject to decay or change, the
Being of Intellect is eternal and unchanging, representing the pure actuality of
existence.
2. Motion Pertains to Its Dynamic Act of Intellection

●​ Exemplification: The Intellect is in constant activity, eternally thinking itself and the
Forms. This act of thinking is Motion—not in the physical sense but as the perpetual
dynamism of intellectual activity. For example, the Intellect contemplates the
multiplicity of Forms while maintaining their unity.
●​ Elaboration: Motion in Nous is the ceaseless activity of knowing, creating, and
holding the intelligible cosmos together. It is not motion in space but the vital energy
of thought that allows Nous to contain both unity and multiplicity.

3. Stability Corresponds to the Constancy of Its Nature

●​ Exemplification: Despite its dynamic activity (Motion), Intellect is stable. It does not
change in essence or deviate from its eternal nature. For example, when the Intellect
contemplates the Form of Justice, its understanding is timeless, fully actualized, and
unalterable.
●​ Elaboration: Stability ensures that the activity of Nous is not chaotic or transient. It
grounds the eternal truths of the intelligible world, allowing the Forms to remain
immutable and intelligible.

4. Identity and Difference Structure Its Ability to Think Distinct Forms and Their Interrelations

●​ Exemplification: Identity allows the Intellect to recognize a Form as itself (e.g.,

Beauty as Beauty), while Difference allows it to distinguish one Form from another
(e.g., Beauty from Justice). For instance, the Intellect can simultaneously affirm the
unity of the Forms as aspects of Being and their distinctness as individual principles.
●​ Elaboration: These principles allow Nous to think relationally, integrating
multiplicity within unity. Without Identity and Difference, Intellect could neither
discern individual Forms nor understand the relationships between them.
Part 2: Comprehensive Elucidation of Enneads 6.3 (44)

Introduction to 6.3

In Enneads 6.3 (44), Plotinus extends the insights from 6.2 into the realm of becoming. He
explores how the greatest genera, primarily applicable to being, manifest in the domain of
becoming, which is characterized by change and temporality. This treatise addresses:

1.​ The relationship between being and becoming.

2.​ The application of the five primary genera—substance, relatives, quantity, quality,
and motion—to the realm of becoming.
3.​ A critique of Aristotelian substance and its relevance to Plotinus’ metaphysics.

What Does Becoming Share with Being?

Plotinus begins by examining the overlap between being and becoming:

●​ Analogous Genera: The same genera—substance, motion, quality, etc.—that define

being also apply to becoming, but only analogously. In being, these genera are
eternal and immutable; in becoming, they are temporal and contingent.
●​ Hierarchy: Genera in being hold primacy, while their manifestations in becoming
are secondary and dependent on the intelligible realm.

Critique of Aristotelian Substance

Plotinus challenges Aristotle’s concept of substance, particularly its application to

becoming:
 ●​ Substance as Source: For Plotinus, substance is not merely the substrate of
attributes (as in Aristotle) but the active source of production. It is “that because of
which there are other things,” encompassing both matter and form.
●​ Sensible and Intelligible Substance:
○​ In the intelligibles: Substance is self-sufficient and eternal. It is not “in”
anything else and is synonymous with the unity of Being and the Forms.
○​ In the sensibles: Substance is more complex, being a composite of matter and
form. For example, a tree as a sensible substance consists of material
elements (matter) and a particular form that gives it identity.

Deduction of Five Genera in Becoming

Plotinus identifies the five primary genera that apply to becoming:

1.​ Substance: The underlying reality of things that come to be.

2.​ Relatives: Relations between entities (e.g., parent-child, larger-smaller).
3.​ Quantity: The measurable aspect of things (e.g., size, number).
4.​ Quality: The attributes or properties of things (e.g., color, texture).
5.​ Motion: The process of change or becoming.

Discussion of the Five Genera

1.​ Substance (§§4-10):

○​ Substance in the intelligible realm is simple and self-sufficient, while in the
sensible realm, it is composite (matter and form).
○​ Form, Matter, and Composite: Sensible substances rely on matter for their
being, but matter itself derives its being from higher principles.
2.​ Quantity (§§11-15):
○​ Quantity in the intelligible realm pertains to order and proportion.
 ○​ In the sensible realm, it is measured as discrete (e.g., number) or continuous
(e.g., size, time).
3.​ Quality (§§16-20):
○​ Intelligible qualities are immutable (e.g., the quality of Justice).
○​ Sensible qualities are accidental and contingent (e.g., the paleness of a
person).
4.​ Motion (§§21-27):
○​ In being, motion is the dynamic activity of intellection and life.
○​ In becoming, motion manifests as physical change, growth, and decay.
5.​ Relatives (§28):
○​ In becoming, relatives depend on other entities for their definition (e.g., taller
requires a comparison).
○​ In being, relatives are more abstract and foundational (e.g., the relationship
between different Forms).

Synthesis and Comparison to Plato

Plotinus ties his account to Platonic dialogues:

●​ In the Timaeus, becoming is discussed as a reflection of being, brought into existence

by the Demiurge.
●​ The Parmenides addresses the relationship between unity and multiplicity, central to
Plotinus’ treatment of being and becoming.
●​ The Philebus explores the balance between unity and plurality, echoed in Plotinus’
treatment of the five genera.

Key Takeaways

1.​ Being and Becoming: Becoming is a secondary and dependent manifestation of the
principles of being, grounded in the intelligible realm.
 2.​ Substance as Active Source: Substance is more than a substrate; it is the productive
principle of existence.
3.​ Genera Across Realms: The five genera apply to both being and becoming but differ
in their mode of manifestation.
4.​ Critique of Aristotelian Substance: Plotinus rejects Aristotle’s reduction of
substance to mere substrate, emphasizing its active, productive nature.

This treatise integrates Platonic and Aristotelian metaphysics, elevating the intelligible
realm as the ultimate ground of reality while accounting for the contingent nature of the
sensible world.

This passage explores key aspects of substance, quantity, and quality within the
metaphysical framework of Plotinus, integrating insights from Aristotle and Plato while
addressing the ontological categories of being and their interrelations. Below is a
comprehensive elucidation of the passage with added context and analysis.

1. Individuals and Universals: Priority in Knowledge and Nature

Passage:

“Individuals are prior to us, in that they are more knowable to us, but naturally prior are
those which are more general, i.e., species.”

Explication:

●​ Epistemic Priority of Individuals: Individuals (e.g., this specific tree, this particular
person) are more immediately accessible to human perception and understanding
because we encounter concrete entities through the senses before abstracting their
universal properties.
●​ Ontological Priority of Universals: However, species (e.g., "tree" or "human") are
naturally prior because they are more foundational in defining what things are.
Universals express the essence or form that individual instances instantiate.
 ●​ Philosophical Context: This distinction reflects a synthesis of Platonic realism and
Aristotelian empiricism. Plato emphasized the primacy of Forms (universals), while
Aristotle recognized the importance of particulars in empirical knowledge.

2. Substances and Their Division

Passage:

“It is possible to divide substances by the coupling of simple qualities or else by a quality,
i.e., their form in the case of organic substances.”

Explication:

●​ Division by Qualities: Substances, especially organic ones, are differentiated by their

forms (e.g., the specific characteristics that define a human or an animal). These
qualities are fundamental in distinguishing between different species within a genus.
●​ Coupling of Qualities: Inorganic or simpler substances may be categorized by
combinations of basic attributes (e.g., hardness and transparency for minerals).

3. The Nature of Quantity

Passage:

“The quantity that makes instances of quantity lies in both number and magnitude. There
are contraries in quantity — large-small, many-few. There is quantity when a unit or point
is extended.”

Explication:

●​ Quantity in Number and Magnitude: Quantity manifests as either discrete (e.g.,

number: 1, 2, 3) or continuous (e.g., magnitude: length, area, volume). For example:
○​ Discrete Quantity: A countable number of objects (e.g., five apples).
 ○​ Continuous Quantity: The measurable extension of an object (e.g., the length
of a rope).
●​ Contraries in Quantity: Contraries such as large-small or many-few represent
relative differences in quantity, rooted in the comparison of measures.
●​ Extension of Units or Points: A single unit becomes quantitative when extended
spatially or temporally, forming a line, plane, or other measurable dimension.

Philosophical Significance:

Plotinus refines the Aristotelian framework by distinguishing quantity as an inherent

property of being that relates to both the intelligible (ideal measurements) and the sensible
(actual measurable entities).

4. Magnitudes and Their Boundaries

Passage:

“The continuous magnitude is to be distinguished from the discrete one by the possession of
a boundary. Line, plane, and solid are species of magnitude.”

Explication:

●​ Continuous vs. Discrete Magnitudes:

○​ Continuous: Defined by boundaries (e.g., a line has endpoints; a plane has
edges).
○​ Discrete: Lacks continuity and is separated into distinct units (e.g., numerical
values like 1 and 2).
●​ Species of Magnitude: Examples include:
○​ Line: A one-dimensional extension.
○​ Plane: A two-dimensional surface.
○​ Solid: A three-dimensional object.
5. The Relationship Between Quality and Quantity

Passage:

“Even if magnitudes are distinguished by qualities, they remain magnitudes. Sameness in

magnitude is quality, but the differentiae of quantity should really be placed along with the
things they are differentiae of.”

Explication:

●​ Magnitudes Retain Their Essence: Magnitudes like lines or planes can be distinguished
by qualities (e.g., straight vs. curved), but their primary classification remains
quantitative, as they are fundamentally extensions.
●​ Differentiae of Quantity: Features that differentiate quantities (e.g., a straight line
vs. a curved line) should be treated as intrinsic to those quantities, rather than as
qualities that exist independently.

6. Substance, Quality, and Their Differentiation

Passage:

“So too the differentiae of substances are rather substances than qualities. A quality is what
is said of something, apart from what is its substance, and indicates what kind of a thing it
is, such as virtue or baseness in the soul.”

Explication:

●​ Substance as Self-Defining: The characteristics that distinguish substances (e.g.,

rationality for humans) are more closely aligned with the essence of substance itself
rather than being external qualities.
●​ Quality as Accidental: Qualities like virtue or baseness describe how a substance is
but do not define what it is.
7. Qualities in the Intelligible and Sensible Realms

Passage:

“Some such characteristics are in the intelligible, and some in the sensible. Crafts relating
to body are sensible qualities, whilst other crafts are intelligible.”

Explication:

●​ Intelligible vs. Sensible Qualities:

○​ Intelligible Qualities: Pertaining to the soul and intellect (e.g., wisdom,
mathematical precision).
○​ Sensible Qualities: Pertaining to the physical world (e.g., color, texture).
●​ Crafts as Examples:
○​ A carpenter's skills (sensible quality) involve physical manipulation of
materials.
○​ A mathematician's reasoning (intelligible quality) involves abstract
principles.

8. Contraries and Privations in Qualities

Passages and Explication:

1.​ Contrariety Between Qualities:

○​ Contrariety arises when there is the greatest possible change between two
extremes (e.g., pale vs. dark). Some contraries lack intermediaries, such as
life and death.
2.​ Privations as Qualities:
○​ Privations (e.g., blindness) are classified as qualities because they describe a
state of deficiency relative to a norm.
9. Motion and Its Irreducibility

Passage:

“Motion cannot be reduced to any other genus. Coming to be is not a motion, since motion
presupposes that something already is.”

Explication:

●​ Motion as a Unique Genus: Motion (change) is irreducible because it involves a

dynamic process that cannot be fully encapsulated by static categories like quantity
or quality.
●​ Coming to Be: The process of something coming into existence (genesis) is distinct
from motion, as motion requires a pre-existing entity undergoing change. For
example:
○​ Coming to Be: The birth of a living organism.
○​ Motion: The growth of that organism.

Synthesis and Implications

●​ Interrelation of Categories: Plotinus weaves together the Aristotelian categories

(substance, quality, quantity, motion) into a metaphysical framework that
distinguishes their roles in both the intelligible and sensible realms.
●​ Hierarchy of Being: The intelligible realm contains the pure forms of these
categories, while the sensible realm manifests them in a contingent and composite
way.
●​ Irreducibility of Motion: Motion’s unique nature underscores the dynamic interplay
between potentiality and actuality, central to Plotinus’ cosmology.
Unanswered Questions:

1.​ How do qualities like pale and dark differ if they fall under one form of
sense-perception?
○​ Pale and dark differ in their degrees of intensity and their relational
positioning within a spectrum of light and shadow, but their distinction
ultimately reflects the interplay of contrariety.
2.​ Why are privations considered qualities?
○​ Privations signify the absence of a normal state but still describe a condition
that affects a being’s substance or existence.

1. Alteration and Motion

Plotinus begins by describing alteration as a specific kind of motion—one that involves a

transition or change from one state to another. Motion, in its broadest sense, is a journey
from potentiality to actuality, from a latent capacity to its active realization. This is a
"woken form," emphasizing a dynamic and active process as opposed to a static or inert
state.

Key Points:

●​ Motion as a transition: Motion universally involves a departure from an identical,

prior state. It encapsulates change, whether in physical location, quality, or state of
being.
●​ Alteration as a subset: Alteration refers specifically to qualitative change, distinct
from spatial or structural motions.

2. Motion in Sensible Things

Plotinus contrasts motion in the physical (sensible) world with motion in other domains. In
the physical realm, motion originates externally—it is imposed by an external agent upon
the object being moved.
Key Points:

●​ The locus of motion: While motion is initiated externally, it manifests internally

within the object moved.
●​ Determination of motion: The nature of motion is shaped by:
○​ The mover (cause of motion),
○​ The moved (object receiving motion), and
○​ The medium or process through which motion occurs.

3. Local Motion

Local motion, or movement through space, is distinguished as a specific category of motion.

Plotinus identifies two key aspects:

●​ Unity through natural order: All local motions can be unified under the principle
that things move toward their natural place.
●​ Differentiation by geometry: Local motion can be further distinguished by the path
it follows—its geometrical form (e.g., straight, curved, circular).

Subcategories of Local Motion:

●​ Combination and Separation:

○​ These involve either spatial dynamics (approach/withdrawal) or qualitative
processes (mixing/separation).
○​ Plotinus asserts that while they involve local motion, they cannot be wholly
reduced to mere alteration, as their nature is more complex.

4. Causation of Motion

Motions can be classified by their origin:

●​ By Soul: Motions initiated through conscious or intentional acts of the soul.

 ●​ By Nature: Motions arising naturally, without external interference.
●​ By Craft or Choice: Motions brought about by deliberate action, implying a rational
or purposeful cause.

5. Repose and Stability

Repose (rest) is defined as the negation of motion, but its nature varies depending on the
context:

●​ In physical things: Repose occurs when entities cease to move, despite their inherent
capacity for motion.
●​ In intelligibles: Stability is a higher-order concept that exists in harmony with
motion, reflecting the perfection and unity of the intelligible realm.

6. Reduction of Genera

Plotinus asserts that the various kinds of motion (e.g., producing motion, being affected)
can be reduced to a few fundamental categories. By doing so, he aims to simplify the
understanding of motion and its relationship to being.

Implications and Questions Addressed:

1.​ What unifies motion across contexts?​

Motion, whether in the sensible or intelligible realm, represents a departure from
stasis and an actualization of potential. This universal characteristic unites all forms
of motion.
2.​ How does motion differ across realms?​
In the sensible world, motion is externally imposed and temporally bound, whereas
 in the intelligible realm, motion and stability coexist harmoniously, transcending
temporal constraints.
3.​ How are alteration, combination, and separation related?​
Alteration involves qualitative changes, often triggered by combination (integration
of elements) or separation (disintegration of unity). Yet these processes extend
beyond mere alteration, involving spatial and structural dimensions.
4.​ What is the philosophical significance of repose?​
Repose highlights the interplay between motion and rest, emphasizing that rest is
not the negation of being but a complementary state. Stability in the intelligible
realm exemplifies this concept in its purest form.

6.5) That Being, One and Identical, is Simultaneously Everywhere Whole

1. Introduction: The Unity and Omnipresence of the Intelligible

The core premise of this work is that the intelligible realm—being one, unified, and
non-material—exists simultaneously and wholly everywhere. This omnipresence is not
spatial or physical; it transcends limitations imposed by the sensible world. The intelligible
retains its unity while being present in all things, and any restriction in its presence arises
from the limitations inherent to the sensible realm, not the intelligible itself.

Key Idea:

●​ The intelligible realm does not "occupy space" but pervades all existence by virtue
of its incorporeal nature. This challenges us to rethink presence, location, and
extension beyond physical dimensions.

2. Soul’s Presence in the Cosmos

Plotinus tackles the question of how the soul, which is incorporeal, can extend throughout
the cosmos. Drawing from Plato’s Timaeus, he provides two solutions:

1.​ The Cosmos as a Reflection of the Intelligible:

○​ The sensible world is situated within the intelligible realm and is its imperfect
imitation. This makes the intelligible present in the cosmos as the model for
its existence.
2.​ The Intelligible's Non-Local Presence:
○​ The intelligible is everywhere because it is not bound to any specific place. Its
presence is defined by its nature, not by spatial constraints.

Key Idea:

●​ Immaterial Presence: The intelligible is not "in" the cosmos in a physical sense but
permeates it as the source of being, unity, and order.

3. Multiplicity and Unity in the Intelligible Realm

While the intelligible is unified, it contains a multiplicity within itself, allowing for a
diversity of intellects and souls. This multiplicity does not compromise its unity but is a
harmonious coexistence of unity and plurality.

Key Idea:

●​ Paradox of Unity and Multiplicity: The intelligible embodies both oneness and
diversity, enabling the multiplicity of souls and intellects without fragmentation.

4. The Non-Corporeal Greatness of the Soul

Plotinus argues that the soul is "great," but its greatness does not consist of mass or size. It
belongs to the body only insofar as the body strives to align with it. The soul is singular and
incorporeal, yet it animates and connects many bodies, showing its transcendence over
spatial limitations.

Key Idea:

●​ Unity of the Soul: Multiple bodies share in one soul, reflecting its infinite and
incorporeal nature.

5. Images of Understanding: The Hand and Luminous Sphere

To aid comprehension, Plotinus offers two metaphors:

1.​ The Hand: Just as a hand touches and influences without being bound to the objects
it touches, the intelligible interacts with the sensible without being constrained by it.
2.​ The Luminous Sphere: Like light emanating from a central source and illuminating
all things without division, the intelligible permeates all existence while remaining
undiminished and intact.

Key Idea:

●​ Metaphorical Insight: These images emphasize the incorporeal and indivisible nature
of the intelligible’s omnipresence.

6. The Intelligible and Sensible: Participation and Limitation

The sensible world participates in the intelligible to the extent of its capacity. However, the
sensible is limited by its corporeal nature and can only receive as much of the intelligible as
it is capable of containing. Plotinus uses examples such as the ear and sound, or the eye and
sight, to illustrate this principle of partial participation.

Key Ideas:
 ●​ Dependence on the Intelligible: Sensible powers are mere reflections or images of the
intelligible.
●​ Capacity for Reception: The degree to which a sensible entity participates in the
intelligible depends on its ability to align with the non-corporeal.

7. The Soul’s Sufficiency and Unlimited Nature

The soul is sufficient for all living things because it is unlimited in its essence. It contains
within itself the principles of all intellects and souls, ensuring that all beings are connected
to the intelligible source.

Key Idea:

●​ The Soul as Mediator: The soul bridges the gap between the intelligible and the
sensible, animating and sustaining all living things.

8. The Approach of Body to the Intelligible

When a body aligns itself with the intelligible, it can only receive what is appropriate to it.
Plotinus warns that in living beings, the body often dominates the intellect, creating an
imbalance that obscures the soul’s connection to the intelligible.

Key Idea:

●​ Intellectual Dominance: True alignment requires the body to harmonize with the
intellect, rather than overpower it.

9. Philosophical and Practical Implications

Questions Raised:
 1.​ How can something non-material be everywhere?
○​ The intelligible's omnipresence is non-local, rooted in its nature as the source
of all being. Its presence is not spatial but metaphysical.
2.​ Why is there a limit to participation?
○​ The sensible world, being material, is inherently limited in its capacity to
reflect the intelligible fully.
3.​ What is the role of the soul in uniting the intelligible and sensible?
○​ The soul serves as a conduit, animating the sensible world while remaining
rooted in the intelligible.

1. Introduction: The Nature of Being and Unity

Plotinus opens with the assertion that Being, unified and identical, is simultaneously
present everywhere in its entirety. This omnipresence, a hallmark of the intelligible realm,
reflects its transcendence over the limitations of physical reality. The intelligible, while
remaining one and whole, is shared by all beings to the degree they can participate in it.

2. God as Omnipresent and Identical Everywhere (§§1–3)

Key Points:

●​ Omnipresence of God and the Intelligible: Plotinus argues that the concept of God as
omnipresent parallels the nature of Being in the intelligible realm. God (or the One)
is present in each being and imparts its essence universally, without fragmentation
or diminution.
●​ Goodness and Being: Every being partakes in the intelligible's essence, specifically
the Good and Being. These attributes are fundamental and omnipresent across all
existence.

Philosophical Implication:
 ●​ Believing in the omnipresence of God equates to understanding the intelligible as the
universal source of unity and existence. Where there is soul, there is also the One
and the intellect.

3. Proper Principles of the Intelligible Realm (§4–5)

Key Points:

●​ Avoiding Corporeal Analogies: Plotinus emphasizes that the intelligible must be

understood on its terms, not through the principles of physical bodies. It is
incorporeal and operates beyond spatial constraints.
●​ Unity and Participation: True unity remains self-contained and unchanging. Other
entities participate in it only insofar as they can, based on their capacity for
reception.

Philosophical Implication:

●​ Participation in the intelligible is limited by the nature of the participant, not the
intelligible. Unity's presence does not require spatial proximity but reflects the
metaphysical structure of reality.

4. The Image of the Circle and Radii (§6)

Plotinus critiques the analogy of the circle with radii extending outward to explain the
intelligible's omnipresence. While useful, this image risks suggesting a spatial or physical
interpretation, which misrepresents the nature of the intelligible.

Key Point:
 ●​ The intelligible's omnipresence is non-spatial and cannot be fully captured by
physical metaphors. Any spatial analogy must be used cautiously to avoid
misleading interpretations.

5. The Intelligible as One, Many, and Unlimited (§7)

Key Points:

●​ Unity and Multiplicity: The intelligible realm embodies both unity and multiplicity. It
is one in its essence but diverse in its manifestations.
●​ Interaction with Intellect: Rather than the intellect entering into things, things
"press upon" the intelligible, seeking its essence.

Philosophical Implication:

●​ The intelligible's unlimited nature allows it to encompass all diversity while

remaining singular and unchanging. Its presence is a result of beings' orientation
toward it, not its movement into them.

6. Participation and Ascent Toward the Intelligible (§§8–10)

Key Points:

●​ Matter and Form: Plotinus explores how matter participates in forms. Forms are not
spatially separate but are impressed upon matter according to its capacity.
●​ Unity of the Sensible World: The sensible world derives from a single cause,
animated by one life and one soul.

Philosophical Implication:
 ●​ The intelligible’s presence in the sensible is relational and reflective. Matter does not
contain forms spatially but participates in their essence to the extent it is capable.

7. True Unity and Its Self-Sufficiency (§§11–12)

Key Points:

●​ Unlimited and Immaterial Power: The intelligible is unlimited, without magnitude,

eternal, and all-powerful. It transcends physical constraints entirely.
●​ Finding the Intelligible Within: To access the intelligible, one must strip away the
layers of non-being that obscure the soul's essence. This inward journey reveals the
unity and power of the intelligible.

Philosophical Implication:

●​ The intelligible realm is not external to us but lies within our innermost being. By
removing distractions and false identifications, we can ascend to and become one
with it.

Comprehensive Reflection and Implications

1. How Can Being Be Identical and Everywhere Simultaneously?

●​ Being's omnipresence is non-spatial. It exists everywhere as a universal essence

without dividing itself or being constrained by location. Its presence reflects the
metaphysical nature of unity and multiplicity.

2. What Does It Mean for Matter to Participate in Form?

 ●​ Matter does not contain forms physically but reflects their essence to the degree it
can. This participation demonstrates the hierarchical relationship between the
intelligible and the sensible.

3. What Is the Role of Unity in the Intelligible?

●​ Unity is self-sufficient, remaining unaltered while imparting its essence to all things.
It is the foundation of all existence, enabling diversity without fragmentation.

Conclusion: Ascending to the Intelligible

Plotinus’ exploration in Enneads 6.5 highlights the profound nature of the intelligible as the
foundation of all being. It is omnipresent, unlimited, and the source of unity and diversity.
By understanding and aligning ourselves with its principles, we ascend toward the
intelligible, shedding the limitations of the sensible world and participating in the eternal
and unchanging essence of reality.

On Numbers (6.6)

Introduction: The Nature of Number and Its Role in Being

Plotinus begins with a fundamental question: how can numbers, which appear unlimited in
their generation, relate to the intelligible realm, where Being is inherently limited and
structured? Numbers are not merely abstract or incidental; they are intrinsic to the
intelligible order, providing a framework for differentiation and unity within Being.

Key questions addressed:

1.​ Are numbers products of counting, or do they preexist independently in the

intelligible realm?
2.​ How do numbers govern and articulate the intelligible and sensible realms?
1. Unlimited Numbers and the Paradox of Being (§§1–3)

Key Points:

●​ The Paradox of Unlimitedness: Counting appears to generate an endless sequence of

numbers, suggesting unlimitedness. However, Plotinus contends that numbers are
not produced by counting; rather, they exist inherently in the intelligible realm,
independent of the act of enumeration.
●​ Unlimitedness in Itself: Unlimitedness is not external but a quality that must be
reconciled within the intelligible structure of Being.

Philosophical Implication:

Numbers are not arbitrary extensions of the sensible realm but reflect deeper metaphysical
realities. Their apparent unlimitedness poses no contradiction because their "limit" is
internal, arising from their participation in Being.

2. The Origin and Status of Number (§§4–10)

Key Points:

●​ Numbers as Forms: Plotinus asserts that numbers are not accidents or secondary
qualities of beings but are intrinsic Forms themselves. They are part of the
intelligible framework, shaping and governing the structure of existence.
●​ The Triadic Structure of the Intelligible: Numbers are connected to the triad of
Being, Life, and Intellect. This triad reflects the intelligible's simultaneous unity and
multiplicity:
○​ Being: The foundational essence.
○​ Life: The dynamic unfolding and differentiation within Being.
 ○​ Intellect: The reflective understanding that organizes and comprehends
Being.

Philosophical Implication:

Numbers mediate between unity and multiplicity, serving as the "rule" that allows Forms
to differentiate while remaining harmonious within the intelligible whole.

3. Differentiation Between Substantial and Counted Numbers (§§11–14)

Key Points:

●​ Substantial Number: This is the true, metaphysical essence of number as it exists in

the intelligible realm. It constitutes the unity and identity of beings.
●​ Counted Number: This is the numerical system we use in the sensible realm, an
image or reflection of Substantial Number.
●​ Unity and Multiplicity: Plotinus responds to objections (e.g., from Peripatetics and
Stoics) by clarifying that numbers unify multiplicity without losing their grounding
in intelligible unity.

Philosophical Implication:

Substantial Numbers are foundational, while counted numbers are derivative. The latter
are expressions of the former, allowing beings in the sensible realm to participate in the
intelligible order.

4. Critiques of Stoic and Peripatetic Views (§§12–14)

Plotinus critiques the Stoic view that numbers are mere affections of the soul, arguing that
this relegates numbers to the sensible realm and severs their connection to the intelligible.
Similarly, he challenges Peripatetic interpretations that fail to recognize the metaphysical
unity underlying multiplicity.

Key Points:

●​ Unity as Fundamental: Numbers cannot be reduced to relative or accidental qualities.

They are inherent to the essence of beings.
●​ Rejection of Sensible Reduction: The intelligible realm transcends the limitations of
sensible interpretation, grounding numbers in their metaphysical significance.

Philosophical Implication:

The intelligible nature of numbers affirms their role as intrinsic principles of order and
differentiation within Being.

5. Substantial vs. Numbered Numbers and the Nature of Unlimitedness (§§15–16)

Key Points:

●​ Numbering Numbers: Substantial Numbers are the source of identity and

differentiation within the intelligible. They represent the archetypal unity of
multiplicity.
●​ Numbered Numbers: These are the counted manifestations in the sensible realm,
subordinate to the intelligible's organizing principles.
●​ Internal Limit: Unlimitedness in numbers is not external but an intrinsic property,
reflecting the boundless potential within the intelligible realm.

Philosophical Implication:

The seeming paradox of unlimitedness is resolved through the concept of internal

limitation. Numbers are unlimited not as chaotic extensions but as expressions of the
infinite potential within the intelligible order.
6. Final Reflections on Numbers and Being (§§17–18)

Plotinus concludes by returning to the original question: the unlimitedness of numbers does
not contradict their participation in Being. Instead, numbers, like lines and figures,
embody an internal limit that harmonizes their infinite progression with their intelligible
essence.

Key Points:

●​ Numbers in Cosmology: Numbers are central to the differentiation and articulation of

beings, bridging the intelligible and sensible realms.
●​ Unity Through Participation: Numbers unify multiplicity, ensuring that all beings
participate in the intelligible without losing their individuality.

Philosophical Implication:

Numbers exemplify the unity-in-multiplicity principle that underpins Plotinus'

metaphysics. Their role extends beyond mere counting to encompass the very structure of
Being itself.

Comprehensive Reflection

1.​ What Are Numbers in Plotinus' Cosmology?

○​ Numbers are not arbitrary constructs but intrinsic to the intelligible order.
They provide the framework for differentiation and unity within Being and
reflect the triadic structure of the intelligible: Being, Life, and Intellect.
2.​ How Can Numbers Be Unlimited Yet Grounded in Being?
○​ The unlimitedness of numbers reflects their boundless potential within the
intelligible realm. This unlimitedness is internally governed by the principles
of unity and differentiation, ensuring harmony rather than chaos.
3.​ Why Are Substantial Numbers Essential?
 ○​ Substantial Numbers constitute the essence of beings, grounding them in the
intelligible realm. They are the metaphysical principles that enable beings to
participate in the unity and multiplicity of existence.

Expounding and Elaborating Enneads 6.7 (38): "How the Multiplicity of the Ideas
Came to Exist, and on the Good"

This treatise by Plotinus explores the relationship between the Good, Intellect, and Forms,
and how their interplay gives rise to the multiplicity of ideas and life in both the intelligible
and sensible realms. It systematically addresses the nature of reality, the derivation of
multiplicity from unity, and the ultimate aim of the soul's orientation toward the Good.

Introduction and Central Theme

Plotinus begins with a central assertion: all reality stems from the Good, which is the
ultimate source and cause of existence. To understand multiplicity in the intelligible world
and its reflection in the sensible world, one must investigate how Forms and Intellect
emanate from the Good. The treatise unfolds in three major sections:

1.​ The Relation Between Sensible Things and Forms (§§1–14).

2.​ The Role of the Good in Rational Choice (§§8–14).
3.​ The Nature of Intellect, Forms, and Their Connection to the Good (§§15–42).

Each section seeks to resolve fundamental philosophical problems about life,

sense-perception, multiplicity, and the hierarchical structure of reality.

Key Explanations and Philosophical Insights

The Relationship Between Sensible Things and Forms (§§1–14)

 1.​ The Role of Intellect and the Forms in Sensible Life
○​ Forms are the archetypal realities that provide structure and meaning to
sensible things. Intellect contains all Forms and represents complete
Life—the totality of being in a unified and harmonious state.
○​ Sensible life is an imperfect imitation of the intelligible realm. While the
intelligible perceives things clearly, sense-perception in the material world is
faint and indirect.
2.​ Sense-Perception in the Intelligible vs. Sensible Worlds
○​ Plotinus distinguishes between the clarity of perception in Intellect and the
obscured nature of perception in the physical world. In the intelligible,
perception is direct and inherent to Intellect’s activity. In the sensible,
perception depends on external stimuli and is limited by materiality.
3.​ Multiplicity Within Intellect
○​ Intellect contains the fullness of life in a structured and hierarchical way. It is
"one-many", meaning it unites multiplicity without losing its intrinsic unity.
This structure allows Intellect to embody all life while remaining a single,
unified being.

The Role of the Good in Rational Choice (§§8–14)

1.​ Hierarchy and Life

○​ All forms of life exist in Intellect, arranged hierarchically. Each level
represents Intellect in its unique way, with lower forms compensating for
their limitations through distinctive attributes.
2.​ The Good as the Guiding Principle
○​ The Good is the ultimate source of orientation and fulfillment. To be guided
by the Good is to live in alignment with the highest reality, free from
distractions or external dependencies.
3.​ Intellect and the Good
 ○​ Intellect does not merely know the Good—it lives in accordance with it. The
Good explains the existence of Forms, their substance, and their
intelligibility. The Forms, in turn, make Intellect variegated, enabling it to
express the fullness of life.

The Nature of Intellect, Forms, and the Good (§§15–42)

1.​ Good-like Nature of the Forms

○​ Forms are described as Good-like because they reflect the perfection of the
Good within the intelligible realm. Intellect turns toward the Good to
comprehend the Forms, and in doing so, acquires its own structure and
boundaries.
2.​ Life in Intellect vs. Sensible Life
○​ Life in Intellect is complete and archetypal, while life in the sensible world is
a mere trace of its intelligible counterpart. This distinction highlights the
degradation of clarity and perfection as life descends into materiality.
3.​ Multiplicity in Intellect
○​ Intellect contains all Forms and lives in accordance with the Good. This
alignment allows it to be the source of rationality for the soul, passing on a
trace of the Good to the lower realms.
4.​ The Soul’s Relationship to the Good
○​ The soul desires to return to Intellect because it inherently seeks the Good.
However, this return requires the soul to overcome the distractions of the
sensible world and align itself with the higher realities of the intelligible.

Metaphysical Implications

1.​ The Emanative Structure of Reality

 ○​ Reality flows from the Good through Intellect and the Forms into the
sensible world. This emanation preserves unity while giving rise to
multiplicity, with each level reflecting the Good to the degree that it can.
2.​ Multiplicity Within Unity
○​ The multiplicity of ideas and forms in Intellect does not contradict its unity.
Instead, it demonstrates how unity can encompass diversity without division,
maintaining harmony within the intelligible whole.
3.​ The Good as the Ultimate Cause
○​ The Good is the cause of all being, thought, and life. It transcends the
intelligible and sensible realms, acting as the ultimate aim and orientation for
all existence.

Hierarchy in the Nous: What Does It Mean?

In Plotinus' thought, Nous is the realm of the Forms—unified yet differentiated expressions
of being. The hierarchy of Forms within the Nous is not based on a linear ranking of
"better" or "worse," as all Forms participate in the Good and are, therefore, inherently
good. Instead, the hierarchy reflects the structure of intelligible reality and is rooted in the
following principles:

1.​ Proximity to Unity Without Division:

○​ Forms in the Nous are "ranked" by how closely they reflect unity versus
multiplicity.
○​ The highest Forms are closer to pure unity, embodying universal principles
that govern broader categories (e.g., Life, Being, Intellect).
○​ Lower Forms exhibit greater specificity and differentiation, representing
particular aspects of reality (e.g., the Form of a specific species or attribute).
2.​ Causal Dependence:
○​ Higher Forms serve as the causal principles for lower Forms. The lower
Forms "emanate" from the higher ones while still existing simultaneously in
the timeless realm of the Nous.
 ○​ For example, the Form of "Life" contains within itself the potential for the
Forms of "plant life" and "animal life," which, in turn, unfold further
differentiation.
3.​ Degrees of Universality:
○​ Higher Forms are more universal and encompass broader, more abstract
realities.
○​ Lower Forms are more particular, corresponding to specific manifestations
or instantiations of the universal principles.

Is the Hierarchy Based on Proximity to the One?

It’s true that all Forms in the Nous are inherently oriented toward the One (the Good), and
each participates in the Good to the fullest extent of its being. However, the hierarchy is not
based on "proximity" to the One in a spatial or comparative sense, for the following
reasons:

1.​ The Good Transcends Hierarchy:

○​ The One is utterly beyond being and thought. It does not "descend" into the
Nous but instead emanates it as a whole.
○​ All Forms participate in the Good equally insofar as they are intelligible
realities, meaning there is no "better" or "worse" in their relation to the
One.
2.​ Multiplicity as an Expression of Unity:
○​ The differentiation of Forms is not a dilution of goodness but a variegated
expression of it. Each Form expresses the Good in its unique way,
contributing to the fullness of intelligible reality.

What Is the Basis of the Hierarchy?

The hierarchy in the Nous reflects ontological order, rather than moral or qualitative
superiority. Here are the key bases for this structure:

1.​ Order of Emanation:

○​ The higher Forms are more immediate expressions of the Nous'
contemplation of the One, while lower Forms result from further
differentiation within the Nous.
○​ For example, the Form of Being encompasses all that exists, but within it are
distinctions such as Life, Intellect, and specific entities.
2.​ Logical and Structural Necessity:
○​ Higher Forms are logically prior because they define the principles that
make the lower Forms intelligible. The lower Forms are contained within the
higher ones implicitly and unfold from them explicitly.
3.​ Unity-Multiplicity Dynamic:
○​ Higher Forms embody greater unity, while lower Forms embody greater
multiplicity. However, even the most differentiated Form retains a connection
to the unity of the intelligible realm.

Philosophical Implications of the Hierarchical Arrangement

1.​ Unity in Diversity:

○​ The hierarchy demonstrates how a single source (the One) can give rise to a
structured reality that remains unified despite its multiplicity. This reflects
Plotinus’ vision of a cosmos where differentiation is not fragmentation but an
organized fullness.
2.​ Participation and Interrelation:
○​ Every Form participates in the higher Forms and ultimately in the One. This
interrelation ensures the coherence of the intelligible realm and its reflection
in the sensible world.
3.​ The Ascent of the Soul:
 ○​ The hierarchical arrangement also provides a ladder of ascent for the soul.
By moving from the particular (lower Forms) to the universal (higher
Forms), the soul approaches the unity of the One.

§18. Life is Only Good When It Comes from the Good

Plotinus asserts that life itself is not inherently the Good, but it is good only when it
emanates from the Good. This distinction underscores the hierarchical structure of being in
Plotinus’ metaphysics:

●​ The Good is the source of all reality but transcends it entirely. It does not itself
contain life, intellect, or multiplicity.
●​ Life, as a dynamic principle, flows from the Good into Intellect and subsequently
into Soul, gaining its "goodness" through this emanation.

This section emphasizes the derivative nature of goodness in all things except the Good
itself, which is the source and criterion of goodness without needing any external
validation.

§19. The Nature of Desire and Virtue

Plotinus addresses the role of desire and virtue in the sensible and intelligible worlds:

●​ In the sensible realm, beings are good insofar as they achieve their proper virtue
and alignment with the Good. However, this process involves desire and striving
because beings in the sensible world are imperfect and incomplete.
●​ In the intelligible realm, there is no badness or deficiency. All Forms participate
fully in the Good, and there is no need for desire as a striving for completion.
Intellect reflects the Good without being it, and the Soul desires the Good through
the life of Intellect.
This distinction highlights the ontological gap between the intelligible and sensible realms,
where the former is a domain of fulfillment and the latter a domain of striving.

§20. The Good and Its "Coloring" Effect

Plotinus explains that things become desirable not solely because of their essence but
because the Good "colors" them:

●​ The Good imbues grace, beauty, and love into beings, making them attractive to the
desiring soul.
●​ This "coloring" does not alter the essence of a being but elevates its desirability and
perceived value in the eyes of those who seek it.

This metaphor of "coloring" reflects the Good's role as the ultimate source of beauty and
attraction, making all things intelligible and desirable by lending them a trace of its
perfection.

§23. The Good Produces Intellect, Life, and Soul

Plotinus reiterates the causal primacy of the Good:

●​ The Good is the first principle, from which emanate Intellect, Life, and Soul in a
structured hierarchy.
●​ The presence of vice and imperfection in the sensible world indirectly confirms the
Good’s existence, as these deviations presuppose a standard of perfection.

The causal sequence—Good → Intellect → Life → Soul—defines the metaphysical

structure of reality and ensures that all things, even the lower realms, are connected to the
Good.
§§24–30. Nine Questions About Defining the Good

§24. Is the Good What the Soul Desires?

Yes, but Plotinus emphasizes that the Good is not limited to being an object of desire. It is
the ultimate fulfillment and perfection of being itself, beyond mere subjective longing.

§25. Is the Good a Mixture of Pleasure and Knowledge?

No, the Good is not a combination of these elements. Instead:

●​ Pleasure and knowledge are secondary goods that arise from alignment with the
Good.
●​ The Good is the source of fulfillment, but it transcends any composite qualities.

§26. The Good and Its Relationship to Life and Intellect

The Good is beyond Life and Intellect:

●​ Life and Intellect are good because they participate in the Good.
●​ The Good itself is desired for its intrinsic nature, not for what it provides. This
distinction emphasizes the absolute nature of the Good.

§28. Appropriation and Fulfillment

Each being attains fulfillment by aligning with its superior principle:

●​ For the body, it is the Soul.

●​ For the Soul, it is Intellect.
●​ For Intellect, it is the Good.
This hierarchical alignment ensures that every level of being is oriented toward its highest
potential, culminating in the Good.

§29. Matter and the Good

Matter, as the furthest emanation from the Good, has only a faint awareness of it:

●​ Matter's "awareness" arises when it is formed by higher principles, giving it a

semblance of being and order.
●​ The Good is as distant from matter as possible, highlighting the ontological tension
between the intelligible and the material.

§30. The Good and Pleasure

Pleasure is not intrinsic to the Good:

●​ Pleasure often arises from the filling of a lack, whereas the Good is beyond lack or
need.
●​ True participation in the Good is marked by fulfillment, harmony, and sufficiency,
not the fleeting satisfaction of pleasure.

Metaphysical Implications

1.​ Transcendence of the Good:

○​ The Good is the cause of all being and value but transcends them entirely,
standing as the ultimate principle beyond even Intellect and Life.
2.​ Participation in the Good:
○​ All things derive their goodness by participating in the Good, whether
directly (in the intelligible) or indirectly (in the sensible).
3.​ The Desirability of the Good:
 ○​ The Good is desired not because it fulfills a lack but because it is inherently
attractive and the source of all fulfillment.
4.​ The Hierarchical Cosmos:
○​ The structured emanation from the Good to Intellect, Life, and Soul reflects
the dynamic interplay of unity and multiplicity in Plotinus’ metaphysics.

The passage from Enneads 6.7 (38) articulates the soul’s return to its origin in the Good
and the profound nature of the Good itself as beyond all categories of being, thought, and
form. Below is an extensive explication of each section, elucidating the philosophical
nuances and metaphysical implications.

§§31-36: The Soul’s Return to Its Origin in the Good

§31. The Good Transcends Truth, Beauty, and Proportion

●​ The Good is beyond the truth, beauty, and proportion inherent in Intellect. While
Intellect represents the pinnacle of structured, rational existence, the Good
transcends even these ideals.
●​ The soul’s orientation toward the Good means moving beyond all specific Forms or
intelligible content. It is a movement not just away from the sensible but even from
the intelligible, to unite with the formless source of all being.

This conveys the supra-intelligible nature of the Good. It is not constrained by any specific
category or attribute, being the ultimate principle that gives rise to all.

§32. Beauty Lies in the Formless Good

●​ The principle of the beauty of the Forms resides in something formless—the Good
itself.
 ●​ While Forms are measured and bounded, the Good is without measure and form.
Beauty, as the nature of the Good, is boundless and ineffable.

Here, Plotinus suggests that true beauty lies beyond proportionality, residing in the
unbounded essence of the Good. Beauty in this sense is not aesthetic but metaphysical, a
reflection of the Good’s all-encompassing perfection.

§33. The Soul’s Arrival at Beauty Itself

●​ When the soul reaches Beauty itself, it discards all other properties and attains
supreme contentment.
●​ This contentment arises not from possessing something external but from complete
union with the source of all fulfillment.

This idea reflects the culmination of the soul’s ascent: the shedding of all multiplicity and
differentiation to become one with the ultimate simplicity and unity of the Good.

§34. Cessation of Motion and Thought

●​ Upon reaching the Good, the soul ceases all motion and thought. The Good is so
perfect and complete that no further striving or inquiry is necessary.
●​ Intellect remains capable of both reflecting on its contents and being receptive to the
Good. The presence of the Good unifies Soul and Intellect, anchoring them in
ultimate simplicity.

This cessation represents the final rest and perfection of the soul, where all striving and
differentiation dissolve in the presence of the Good.

§35. Beauty and the Good: Seeing and Light as One

 ●​ Cognizing the Good is described as the highest subject of learning. In the experience
of the Good, seeing and light are one—a unity of perception and illumination.
●​ This reflects the self-luminous nature of the Good, which is not only the object of
vision but also the source of the light by which it is seen.

This analogy demonstrates the immediacy and self-sufficiency of the Good. It needs no
external medium or intermediary for its apprehension.

§36. Unity through the Good

●​ The Good acts as the unifying principle that brings Intellect and Soul into harmony.
●​ This unification occurs not through imposition but through the sheer presence of the
Good, which aligns all things with their ultimate source.

This reinforces the Good’s role as the origin and end of all being, the principle toward
which all things naturally converge.

§§37-42: The Good and Thought

§37. Separation of Intellect and the Good

●​ The Good and Intellect are distinct: the Good is the source, while Intellect
represents structured, rational existence.
●​ While Intellect engages in thought, the Good is beyond thought, being utterly simple
and undifferentiated.

This distinction reflects the hierarchical structure of existence, where the Good remains the
ineffable ground of all being.

§38. The Good Does Not Think

 ●​ Unlike the Peripatetics, who claim that the highest principle must think itself,
Plotinus argues that the Good does not think itself:
○​ Thinking requires a distinction between subject and object, introducing
duality.
○​ The Good, being perfectly one, cannot engage in thought without
compromising its simplicity.

This point underscores the transcendence of the Good, which lies beyond all relational
activity, including thought.

§39. Persuasion Through Argument

●​ Plotinus emphasizes that the Good is not mixed with thought or being. It is reached
only by moving beyond thought.
●​ Persuasion here involves showing the inadequacy of thought to grasp the Good,
emphasizing the necessity of an intuitive, direct experience.

This argument highlights the limitations of discursive reasoning in apprehending ultimate

reality, requiring instead a mystical ascent.

§40. The Good as the Primary and Independent Source

●​ The Good, being perfectly primary and independent, does not rely on any external
reality.
●​ Its independence ensures its absolute status as the principle of all existence.

This affirms the Good’s role as the uncaused cause, the origin of all things without itself
being caused.

§41. Thinking Requires Difference

 ●​ Intellect, as the realm of structured thought, requires difference and multiplicity to
function. The Good, being utterly simple, does not engage in thinking, as it has no
difference within itself.

This reflects the ontological simplicity of the Good, which transcends the multiplicity of
thought and existence.

§42. The Hierarchy of Existence

●​ The Good is the ultimate aim of all existence, with Intellect following directly after
it.
●​ Soul, through its operation within Intellect, produces the sensible world, ensuring
that even the lowest levels of reality are indirectly connected to the Good.

This hierarchical structure reinforces the idea that all levels of being derive their order and
meaning from the Good.

Metaphysical Implications

1.​ Transcendence of the Good:

○​ The Good is beyond thought, form, and being, representing the ultimate
source of all reality without itself being limited by it.
2.​ Mystical Ascent:
○​ The soul’s journey involves moving beyond both the sensible and intelligible
realms to unite with the Good in a state of ultimate simplicity.
3.​ Unity and Differentiation:
○​ The Good is the principle of unity, grounding the multiplicity of Intellect and
Soul while remaining undivided and unconditioned.
4.​ Ineffability of the Good:
 ○​ The Good cannot be comprehended through discursive reasoning but must
be experienced directly, emphasizing its ineffable nature.

Conclusion

The soul’s return to the Good represents the culmination of existence, where all striving,
thought, and differentiation dissolve in the ultimate unity of the Good. Plotinus’ vision of
the Good as transcendent, ineffable, and perfectly simple offers a profound framework for
understanding the ultimate goal of life and the nature of reality.

6.8 (39), "On the Voluntary, and the One’s Wishing

The treatise 6.8 (39), "On the Voluntary, and the One’s Wishing", grapples with the
metaphysical and philosophical concept of freedom as it applies to the One (or the Good),
as well as the implications for intelligible and human realms. Plotinus examines whether
the One can be said to act voluntarily or freely, the meaning of “freedom” at different levels
of being, and how we as humans might comprehend or participate in this ultimate freedom.

§1-§7: Key Themes and Philosophical Exploration

§1. ‘What Depends on Us’ and Its Application to the One

●​ Human Freedom and ‘What Depends on Us’:

○​ Plotinus begins by examining the concept of freedom as understood in the
human realm. In human action, "what depends on us" is closely tied to
choice, desire, and reason.
 ○​ He raises the question of whether this human understanding of freedom can
be extended to intelligible beings and ultimately to the One.
●​ Question of Agency:
○​ If no human action is entirely independent, how does freedom function in
intelligibles, and does it apply to the One?
○​ For intelligible beings, there is no division between activity and substance,
meaning they are what they do and act according to their essence. This
differs from humans, who experience a split between their nature and their
actions.

§2. Freedom in the Intellect

●​ Plotinus contends that true freedom lies in the activity of the intellect, not in the
realm of opinion or sensory representations.
●​ Virtue as Secondary Freedom:
○​ Virtue, although resembling a form of intellect, is derivative and secondary
in terms of freedom. It imitates intellect but does not achieve the same
absolute autonomy.

This discussion demonstrates that freedom in Plotinus’ framework is a function of

proximity to the Good. True freedom is realized when beings act in alignment with their
highest nature, which is intellectual contemplation of the Good.

§3-§4. The Reckless Argument and Necessity

●​ The Paradox of the Good’s Freedom:

○​ A potential objection arises: If the Good does not control its own nature, can
it truly be free?
 ○​ Plotinus refutes this by suggesting that the Good’s freedom is unique because
it is prior to all necessity, contingency, or accident. Its freedom is intrinsic
and boundless, not dependent on external conditions.
●​ Freedom and Causality:
○​ The Good is the uncaused cause, prior to all conditions, necessities, or even
being itself. Its freedom is absolute because it is identical to its essence, and
its activity is self-sufficient.

This passage emphasizes that the Good’s freedom is not like human freedom, which
involves choice or deliberation. Instead, it is a perfect and immutable self-sufficiency.

§5. The Limits of Predication About the Good

●​ Predicates and the Ineffable Nature of the Good:

○​ The Good cannot be described using the predicates or categories that apply
to beings within the intelligible or sensible realms. It is neither accidental nor
subject to the necessity of being.
○​ The Good is beyond all predicates—it “is not” in the sense that it transcends
even the highest forms of being.

This passage reinforces the ineffable and transcendent nature of the Good, which cannot be
captured by language or concepts rooted in being.

§6. Freedom as a Reflection of the Good

●​ Freedom as an Attribute of the Good:

○​ Plotinus argues that our experience of freedom reflects the freedom inherent
in the principle that makes us free—the Good.
○​ The Good is the cause of all freedom, and its activity is identical to its
essence, meaning it is not constrained by any external force.
●​ Satisfaction of the Good:
 ○​ Unlike beings, the Good is wholly self-sufficient and satisfies itself. Predicates
applied to the Good, therefore, are metaphorical or provisional, meant to
persuade the soul rather than describe the Good literally.

This section invites contemplation of how the Good’s nature is reflected in our own
freedom, urging a movement beyond literal understanding toward mystical insight.

§7. The Good’s Substantiality and Will

●​ The Good and Self-Causation:

○​ Plotinus explores whether the Good is prior to itself if it produces itself. He
concludes that the Good’s will and substantiality are identical, meaning it is
entirely self-determined and not subject to any external necessity or accident.
○​ The Good produces itself exactly as it does because it is its own essence and
activity.
●​ Contemplation of the Good:
○​ To approach the Good, one must discard all predicates and concepts, moving
beyond even the highest intelligible categories to achieve direct apprehension.

This section underscores the ultimate unity of the Good’s essence, will, and activity,
presenting it as the absolute source of all being and freedom.

Metaphysical Implications

1.​ The Nature of Freedom:

○​ In humans, freedom involves deliberation and dependence on reason. In
intelligible beings, freedom is the alignment of essence and activity. In the
Good, freedom is absolute self-sufficiency, beyond all necessity or externality.
2.​ The Ineffability of the Good:
 ○​ The Good is beyond all categories of being, thought, and predication. It is
known not through discursive reasoning but through direct contemplation
and mystical union.
3.​ Freedom and Hierarchy:
○​ Freedom increases with proximity to the Good. The One is absolutely free
because it is the cause of all without being caused.
4.​ Human Participation in the Good:
○​ Human freedom is a reflection of the Good’s self-sufficiency. By aligning our
intellect with the Good, we participate in its freedom and transcend the
limitations of the sensible world.

On the Good or The One (6.9)

Enneads 6.9 (9): On the Good or the One is a profound and succinct treatise that
consolidates Plotinus’ metaphysical vision of the One (or the Good) as the ultimate source
of all reality. This text provides a systematic understanding of the dependence of all beings
on the One, emphasizing the One’s eternal presence and its role as the foundation for
guidance and well-being of the soul.

§1: The One as the Source of All Being

●​ Plotinus begins by asserting that all beings derive their existence from the One. This
foundational principle establishes the One as the ultimate origin of all multiplicity
and differentiation in the universe.
●​ While the Soul provides unity to the living being and the Intellect organizes reality
through Forms, neither of these can be identified as the One.
○​ Soul: A unifying principle, but one that operates within the realm of
multiplicity.
 ○​ Intellect: The seat of rationality and the Forms, but it operates through
division and understanding, which implies duality.

The One, by contrast, is absolutely simple and undivided, transcending all categories of
being and thought. It is not a being but the source of all being.

§2-3: The Soul’s Journey Towards the One

●​ Habituation of the Soul:

○​ For the soul to align with the One, it must abandon its attachment to
multiplicity and variety. This process requires a reformation of character,
cultivating habits that direct the soul towards unity and away from
distraction.
○​ Intellect serves as a guide in this process, but even Intellect must eventually
be transcended, as the One itself is beyond all determinations.
●​ Direct Vision of the One:
○​ The One cannot be grasped through discursive reasoning or taught as
knowledge. Its presence is encountered through direct vision—a mystical
insight beyond the mediation of concepts or words.
○​ This direct vision is an immediate experience of the One’s presence,
described as a profound unity that cannot be fully articulated.

§4-5: The Ascent to the One

●​ Stages of Ascent:
○​ Plotinus outlines a gradual ascent to the One:
1.​ Awareness of the Body: Recognizing the limitations and distractions
of the material world.
2.​ Reason and Virtue: Cultivating a life of rationality and moral
excellence.
 3.​ Science and Intellect: Engaging with the intelligible world of Forms.
4.​ Transcendence of Intellect: Moving beyond even the highest
intellectual apprehensions to encounter the One directly.
●​ The Nature of the One:
○​ The One is described as prior to Intellect because it is without parts and
utterly simple.
○​ It is not like a monad or point within space because it is not contained within
anything. Instead, it is infinite in power and self-sufficient, requiring nothing
outside itself.

The One’s simplicity and lack of differentiation make it distinct from all other entities. It
has no thought, will, or being as these imply distinction within itself, which would
contradict its absolute unity.

§6: The Presence of the One

●​ The One and Knowledge:

○​ The One is not known through intellectual knowledge but through an inner
awareness and a process of unknowing—a stripping away of all concepts and
determinations.
○​ The presence of the One is found within oneself, as it is the source of all being
and the center around which all things revolve.
●​ Union with the One:
○​ Plotinus uses the metaphor of aligning one’s inner center with the center of
all things to describe the soul’s union with the One.
○​ This union is experienced as an eternal presence, but it is not a presence of
something external. Rather, it is the realization of the One’s presence as the
very ground of being.
§7: The Soul’s Desire for the One

●​ Turning Towards the One:

○​ In turning towards the One, the soul receives both being and well-being.
○​ The innate love of the Good within the soul drives it toward this ultimate
unity, even to the point of desiring death, as this represents the final release
from multiplicity and full union with the One.
●​ Contemplation and Virtue:
○​ True contemplation of the One, while possible in life, is often interrupted by
the distractions of the material world. However, this contemplation offers a
foretaste of the soul’s ultimate destiny.
○​ Plotinus reassures that the soul need not fear annihilation in its approach to
the One. Rather, it becomes more fully itself, realizing its true nature in unity
with its source.

Key Themes and Implications

1.​ The One as Transcendent and Immanent:

○​ The One is beyond all being and thought, yet it is the source and sustainer of
all reality. Its immanence is experienced as an eternal presence within the
soul.
2.​ The Ascent as a Process of Purification:
○​ The soul’s journey to the One involves a progressive purification, moving
from bodily awareness to intellectual contemplation and ultimately to
mystical union.
3.​ Union Through Love and Desire:
○​ The soul’s innate love for the Good is the driving force behind its ascent. This
love reflects the deep connection between the soul and its origin.
4.​ The Paradox of Knowing the One:
 ○​ While the One is unknowable in conventional terms, it can be experienced
directly. This experience transcends knowledge and involves aligning the soul
with the very principle of unity.
5.​ The Role of Contemplation and Virtue:
○​ Contemplation is the highest activity of the soul, allowing it to glimpse the
One. Virtue serves as a preparatory stage, aligning the soul with the order of
the Good.

Conclusion

6.9 (9): On the Good or the One presents a vision of the One as the ultimate reality,
transcending all being and thought. The soul’s journey to the One is a process of
purification, contemplation, and love, culminating in an experience of unity that is beyond
description. Plotinus’ exploration challenges readers to rethink the nature of reality,
freedom, and the self, inviting them to participate in the eternal presence of the Good
through inner transformation and mystical insight.