An Acad Bras Cienc (2023) 95(Suppl. 3): e20220821 DOI 10.

1590/0001-3765202320220821
Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências | Annals of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences
Printed ISSN 0001-3765 I Online ISSN 1678-2690
www.scielo.br/aabc | www.fb.com/aabcjournal

GEOSCIENCES

Glaciological Mass balance of Znosko

Glacier, King George Island

WILSON SUAREZ, CINTHYA BELLO, ROLANDO CRUZ, JUAN ZEGARRA, SANDRO

ARIAS & FABIAN BRONDI

Abstract: The present article objective is to determine the net mass balance of the
glacier Znosko for periods 2018-2019 and 2019-2020. It is situated on King George Island
which belongs to the groups Shetland of the South, Antarctic Peninsula region. For this
objective, during February 2018 a net of 19 stakes (which were controlled once during
February 2019 and 2020) were installed on the glacier ablation zone, drilling in the
accumulation zone and about flights using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to control
the glacier zone and geomorphological changes. For the year 2020, it was determined a
glacier area of 1.71 ± 0.02 km2, moreover, using five different methods of interpolation, it
was obtained on average, as a result, a specific net balance of -590.7 ± 46.6 mm w.e (in
water equivalent) for 2018-2019 and -686.7 ± 28.2 mm w.e for 2019-2020, being the ELA
altitude 146.5 ± 18.2 m and 144.2 ± 8.3 m respectively. The two consecutive years represent
negative net mass balances which are in accordance with other similar studies on this
region, also glacier data were obtained on a zone that is characterized by its difficult
access.
Key words: Antarctic, King George Island, Admiralty Bay, Mass balance, Znosko Glacier.

INTRODUCTION snow pits in the accumulation zone. This

method is generally applied in small and safely
Glacier studies began in 1894 with the creation
accessible glaciers. On the other hand, the
of the International Glacier Commission whose
geodetic method calculates the volume change
work was later assumed by the World Glacier
in large and remote glaciers by using two or
Monitoring Service (WGMS). The WGMS is
more topographic data sets at different multi-
today co-responsible for the Global Terrestrial
annual time scales (Fischer 2010). Most glaciers
Network for Glaciers and the Global Land Ice
worldwide are sensitive to climate change;
Measurement from Space (GLIMS) project in
they either advance or retreat in response to
charge of the global inventory of glacier mass
changes in precipitation, temperature, and other
balance, volume, and fluctuation data based
variables.
on field and remote sensing measurements
The Randolph Glacier Inventory version 6
(Allison et al. 2019, Silva et al. 2020). The glacier
(RGI Consortium 2017) estimates the number
mass balance is generally determined using
of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic glaciers (2752)
glaciological (direct) and geodetic (indirect)
covering an area of 132,867 ± 6,643 km 2 ,
methods. The glaciological method determines
excluding the ice sheet. The Antarctic Peninsula
surface (annual) mass balance by installing a
has recorded significant warming since the
stake network in the ablation zone and digging

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

mid-20th century (Siegert et al. 2019). The glaciers was estimated to be 0.15 ± 0.10 m w.e.
impacts of change on various components of and −0.09 ± 0.17 m w.e., respectively for 2002–2011
the cryosphere have resulted in a) the rise of (Navarro et al. 2013). This observation confirmed
sea level (Bamber et al. 2018), b) the collapse a reduction in the mass loss of these glaciers
of ice shelves (Rott et al. 2011, Berthier et al. during the observed 1957–2000 period that can
2012, Cook et al. 2014,), c) variations in the sea be attributed to a series of factors (Antarctic
ice extent and seasonality, d) acceleration of circumpolar current changes, reduced melting,
glacial retreat, e) changes in snowline altitude and low summer temperatures).
(Arigony-Neto et al. 2009), f ) increase in The Collins Glacier (also known as the
freshwater discharge into the ocean (Falk et al. Bellingshausen Ice Dome) in King George Island
2018), g) increase in ice-free areas, h) changes in has a record of mass balance for four (4) years
glacial morphology. However, there is evidence (2008–2011), with a total mass loss of −0.31 ± 0.76
that the northern part of the Antarctic Peninsula m w.e. It registered positive mass balances 2010
has experienced a cooling effect in the last two (0.37 ± 0.76 m w.e.) and 2011 (0.09 ± 0.76 m w.e.)
decades (Carrasco 2013, Oliva et al. 2016, Turner (Mavlyudov 2014) In addition, Simões et al. (2004)
et al. 2016, Bello et al. 2022), resulting in glacial analyzed four (4) small glaciers in the Keller
retreat deceleration and positive mass balances Peninsula (Admiralty Bay), determining that they
in some glaciers in the South Shetland Islands. have lost between 44% and 83% of their surface
Using satellite images (1956–2018), Da Rosa et al. from 1979 to 2000. Bello et al. (2020) combined
(2020) observed a decrease in the retreat rate of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data and digital
Ecology, Sphinx, Baranowski, Tower and Windy images from Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) to
glaciers (Warszawa Ice Field) from 2000 to 2018. create an ice thickness base map of the Znosko
This observation contrasts with that observed glacier (ZG). They also calculated a geodetic
in the period 1979–2000, demonstrating that mass balance for the same area for 2012–2020
glaciers with small areas respond to changes using UAV surveys, obtaining a negative mass
in annual air temperature on a decadal scale. balance of -18 m w.e. (Bello et al. 2023).
(Pȩtlicki et al. 2017) reported that the rate of Considering the different results observed
change in elevation of the Ecology Glacier front in this region, the main objective of the present
decreased between the analyzed periods (1979– study is to estimate the net mass balance of ZG
2001 and, 2012–2016), being more In the latter. In using the glaciological method for two years
addition, the Ecology and Sphinx glacier system (2019 and 2020).
lost 41% of its area from 1979–2012, indicating
a negative mass balance (Sobota et al. 2015)
however, it a mean mass balance of +17.8 cm w.e.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
for 2012-2013. Simões et al. (2015) reported that Study area
Wanda Glacier lost 0.71 km2 of its area (1979–2011).
King George Island (KGI) is the largest island of
The WGMS database has records exceeding 15
the South Shetland archipelago spanning an
years of continuous measurements of surface
area of 1250 km2, located about 100 km from the
mass balances (glaciological method) for only
Antarctic Peninsula (Lagger et al. 2018). It is a
two glaciers in the region (Hurd and Johnsons
glacial basin (marine or land-terminating) of ice
glaciers) in the South Shetland Islands. The
covering about 90% of the island (Simões et al.
surface mass balance of Hurd and Johnsons

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

1999). This ice cap has a maximum height of 720 (https://legacy.bas.ac.uk/met/READER/surface/

m above sea level (a.s.l.) (central part) (Rückamp Bellingshausen.All.temperature.txt), which the
et al. 2010). It is sensitive to variations in climate British Antarctic Survey manages.
due to the maritime climatic condition (Ferron
et al. 2004, Rückamp et al. 2010, Rückamp & Ice cores and ablation stakes
Blindow 2012). The snow line varies from 140 m to Shallow snow and ice cores zone were obtained
210 m a.s.l. (Birkenmajer 2002). The mean annual from the accumulation in the Austral summers
precipitation on the Bellingshausen station in from 2018 to 2020 (4 in 2018, 3 in 2019, and 4
Maxwell Bay was 701.3 mm from 1968 to 2011 in 2020). Nineteen stakes were installed in the
(Kejna et al. 2013). The mean air temperature ablation zone in 2018 (see Figure 2) to determine
was −2.8 °C (1947–1995) on the Fildes Peninsula the annual ablation. Nevertheless, only seven
(Simões et al.1999) and −2.5 °C (1948–2011) on were found in January 2019 due to the thick
KGI (Kejna et al. 2013). ZG is located in the KGI, to snow cover and 15 stakes in February 2020. The
the west of Admiralty Bay (Mackellar Inlet) and length of the stakes (10 m) allowed them to be
adjacent to the Peruvian Machu Picchu Scientific used for measurements in all years of the study.
Station (ECAMP) (62°05.5’S and 58°28.5’W). In Field visits were made during the last week of
2013, the National Service of Meteorology and January to the first week of February (once every
Hydrology of Peru (SENAMHI) and the National year) during the study period (2019 and 2020) at
Water Authority (ANA) participated in the 22nd the end of the summer season.
Peruvian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica Table I shows the position of the stakes
(ANTAR XXII) to examine the ZG and confirm installed in the year 2018.
whether the glacier met the technical and
safety conditions for the evaluation of its mass Satellite Images and Orthophotos
balance. A network of stakes was installed (19) The Antarctic Peninsula region and its
on the ZG during the 25th expedition (2018), surroundings are characterized by a significant
which was monitored during ANTAR XXVI (2019) cloud cover throughout the year, allowing only
and XXVII (2020). short periods during the summer months to
obtain an adequate image. We used passive
Data
satellite images and orthophotos obtained using
a UAV to measure glacier area and determine the
Meteorological data
snow line altitude. The first image corresponds
This study used the monthly precipitation and to a WorldView-2 type Peru’s Ministry of Foreign
surface air temperature data from March 2015 to Affairs provided. In addition, a Landsat 8 image
February 2021 from the Russian Bellingshausen of 2018 and Sentinel-2 of 2019 were downloaded
Scientific station (62.20°S, 58.97°W), on 16 m from the Glovis portal from the United States
a.s.l. (Figure 1). The precipitation data was Geological Service. The orthophotos were
downloaded from https://www.ncdc.noaa. generated using a UAV Phantom 4 Pro with a
gov/cdo-web/ of the National Centers for rotary wing (quadcopter) capable of withstanding
Environmental Information of the National winds up to 20 knots. It included an RGB camera
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (resolution of 20 megapixels and field of view
(USA). The surface air temperature data were 84°), and the images were processed with the
obtained from the Met Reader database Pix 4D software. The orthophotos were also used

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

Figure 1. Location map of the Znosko Glacier and nearby scientific stations.

to generate two digital elevation models for climatic and logistical aspects) to develop a
2019 and 2020 at sub-meter resolution (0.5 m). A net mass balance for monitoring glaciers in
description of the main technical characteristics Antarctica and processing the collected data, in
of the images and orthophotos used, and their this work, the glaciological method was used.
role in the present study are presented in Table
II. Field season
Fieldwork in the Antarctica region has a series
Methodology
of limitations and conditions that are different
There are different methods to calculate the from the other parts of the world, mainly due
glacier mass balance, such as glaciological to glacier extension, inaccessibility, extreme
(Paterson 1994), geodetic (Kaser et al. 2003, Hagg climatic conditions, and high logistical costs.
et al. 2004), hydrological (Kaser et al. 2003), For the study of ZG, ECAMP provides logistical
statistical (Ostrem & Stanley 1966, Lliboutry support for ground activities only during Austral
1974), methods to determine the equilibrium summers, mainly January and February each year.
line altitude (ELA) position (Ostrem & Stanley Therefore, any installed equipment does not
1966), and methods to determine the terminal have supervision or control until the following
position of the glacier (Paterson 1994). This Austral summer. The summer months have the
research work also aimed to provide essential best meteorological conditions for accessing
considerations for field campaigns (technical, the glaciers. However, these ideal conditions

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

Table I. Location of stakes installed in 2018. each year. A lightweight and easily portable
Altitud
Kovacs auger was used for accumulation
Name X Y measurements (Figure 4). In the ablation zone,
(m)
aluminum control stakes were installed at
Stake_01 423410 3114059 21
different altitudes of the glacier to measure the
Stake_02 423332 3114045 28
superficial mass loss. We established the first
Stake_03 423250 3114020 42
network along the main flow line of the glacier
Stake_04 423132 3113994 55 and others in parallel. The geographical position
Stake_05 423008 3113956 80 of each stake was recorded with the help of a
Stake_06 422911 3113923 84 portable GPS. The stakes were assembled by
Stake_07 422815 3113868 121 five rods of 2 m each (10 m in total), joined by
a pivoting or articulated structure to increase
Stake_08 422713 3113874 110
their flexibility and avoid damage in the absence
Stake_09 422571 3113872 109
of field visits until the following year (austral
Stake_10 422494 3113849 121
summer). These rods were installed at a depth
Stake_11 422367 3113786 143 of approximately 9 m. It is essential to correctly
Stake_12 422581 3113596 126 identify the ice and snow levels as they are
Stake_13 422862 3113671 99 prone to errors. Different authors have described
Stake_14 423016 3113717 81 the general methodology for using stakes and
Stake_15 423286 3113728 52 accumulation cores since the middle of the
last century (Ostrem & Stanley 1966, Ostrem
Stake_16 423161 3114131 39
& Brugman 1991, Kaser et al. 2003, Francou &
Stake_17 422955 3114080 64
Pouyaud 2004, Cogley et al. 2011, Rivera et al.
Stake_18 422746 3114065 91 2016). However, due to logistics constraints ZG
Stake_19 422577 3114043 116 was monitored only during the Austral summers.
Projected coordinate system: WGS 1984 UTM zone 21S. So, the measurements were as close as to the
end of the maximum melting (end of summer).
do not exceed 70% of those foreseen during
preparation of scientific expeditions, limiting the Laboratory analysis of the fieldwork data
work on the glacier. Regarding accessibility, most According to Haeberli (2011), glacier mass
of the glaciers in KGI are marine-terminating balance is the sum of all the processes that
(tidewater) and generally do not allow direct add mass to a glacier and take remove it. The
access to the frontal sector. Thus, this requires accumulation or addition of mass generally
complementing the monitoring process with occurs in the form of snowfall, the distribution
remote sensing tools. of which can be modified by snowdrifts and/
The accumulation season coincides with or avalanches. The melting of snow and ice
winter and the ablation season coincides with is the predominant form of ablation or mass
summer in glaciers characterized dominant removal. Still, the calving of tidewater glaciers,
accumulation during winter (Cogley et al. 2011). ice avalanches from steep hanging glaciers, or
The glaciological method was used based evacuation of wind-blown snow during cold or
on in situ measurement of accumulation and dry conditions can be important at the local
ablation to calculate the net mass balance for level. Different authors have handled the same

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Table II. Characteristics of images and orthophotos used in the study.

Pixel Captor
Instrument Date Objective Reference
Resolution Resolution

snow line position https://www.aerospace-

WorldView 2 < 1m Pancromatic Mar 2012 and glacier technology.com/projects/
delimitation worldview-2/

https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Landsat 8 30 m OLI 9 Bands Feb 2018 snow line position
landsat-8/landsat-8-overview

https://sentinel.esa.int/web/
MSI (Band 2
Sentinel 2 10 m Apr 2019 snow line position sentinel/technical-guides/
to 4)
sentinel-2-msi/references

DEM and glacier

UAV orthophoto < 1m RGB Jan 2019 -
delimitation
DEM, snow line
UAV orthophoto < 1m RGB Feb 2020 position and glacier -
delimitation

type of definition under different approaches, of the samples to the total area of the glacier,
for example:, Kaser et al. (2003) Jansson et al. according to the expression:
(2003) and Cogley et al. (2011).
 ∑ ( bn1S1 + bn 2 S 2 + .…….. + bni Si ) 
Mathematically, the mass balance of the Bn = 
S
glacier can be described as (Lliboutry 1964,
Paterson 1994, Dyurgerov 2002): where, B n corresponds to the mass balance
of the total glacier, and S denotes the glacier
db dh dρ
= ρ +∫ dz surface, bn1, bn2, and bni are the area-weighted
dt dt dt balance sheet of Si.
where, ρ denotes the density of ice of thickness Considering the automation of processes
h, varying in time t. using raster formats and geographic information
A simplification of the above equation of systems, bn can be considered as the value of
mass balance at any point on the glacier can be a pixel, while Sn denotes the resolution of the
given as: pixels.
bi = ρ0 ∆h + ( ρ 2 h2 − ρ1h1) One of the main sources of error during
mass balance calculations is the treatment of
where, bi corresponds to the balance at any the information coming from the ground and its
point of the glacier, and ρ0 denotes the density subsequent extrapolation to the whole glacier
of glacier ice in 0.9 g.cm-3. The first component for the final calculation (Cuffey & Paterson
of the equation represents the ice balance, 2010). This last calculation method is the most
and the second component represents porous commonly used to interpolate ground data
material (snow and firn) that changes with time. following local geomorphological patterns
The accumulation cores and stakes placed on and altitude, which strongly depends on the
the glacier extend the balance to the entire criterion of the specialist. This study, used 05
glacier. The basic principle is to weigh the interpolation methods contained in ArcMap 10.8
balance measured by the extrapolated area software, as presented in Table III.

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Table III. interpolation methods used. six years’ record) are presented in Table IV the
Method Reference
mean temperature was above 0 °C between
IDW Mitas & Mitasova (2005)
December and March, and February being
the warmest most (1.6 °C). For the remaining
Kriging Oliver & Webster (1990)
months, the mean temperature was below 0
Natural Neighbor Sibson (1981)
°C, and August was the coldest month (-5.8 °C).
Spline Johnston et al. (2001)
The highest total precipitation was recorded
Spline with barrier Smith & Wessel (1990)
in March (84.9 mm), and the lowest was in July
(34.3 mm). Figure 3a compares the seasonality
RESULTS of these two variables in different years. Figure
The analysis of satellite images and orthophotos 3b shows linear trends for precipitation and
of the ZG determined that the 2020 glacier area temperature variability for the 2015-2021 period,
was 1.71 ± 0.02 km2, considering part covered and where 2018-2019 registered the highest annual
not covered by debris. In comparison, the part of value of accumulated precipitation at 738.3 mm,
ZG not covered by debris (exposed part) in 2012, while 2016–2017 recorded the lowest annual one,
2019, and 2020 were, respectively, 1.65 ± 0.02 570.9 mm (Figure 3c). For the mean annual air
km2, 1.61 ± 0.02 km2, and 1.60 ± 0.02 km2. These temperature, 2015-2016 was the coldest (-3.19
findings indicate that the glacier lost 0.06 km2 °C), while 2016–2017 was the warmest (-1.67 °C).
area in these last eight years. Between 2019 and In addition, the years 2018–2019 and 2019–2020
2020, the glacier retreated at 0.02 km2 because of recorded temperatures of -1.75 °C and -1.97 °C,
a mass loss of the calving front. Figure 2 shows a respectively. The mean annual air temperature
gradual growth of the small lake at the front. This was below the surface melting temperature
figure also shows the hypsometry of the glacier during all years ( -1.8 °C), and the total mean
(bands every 30 m), which was constructed precipitation was 656.6 mm.
based on the 2020 digital elevation models. It To calculate the glacier net mass balance,
shows that changes in the area have occurred we first identify the last year’s ice layer the
only in the lowest 30 meters of altitude. Most of shallow cores, (see Figure 4a). The black dots
the glacier surface is between in the bands 90 m in this figure show the recorded measurements
to 120 m a.s.l. and between 120 m to 150 m a.s.l., (the deepest represents the last year’s ice
with a difference of 4300 m2. Figure 2 also shows layer), and the blue dots show the accumulated
that the glacier area increases in the upper part, content in mm w.e. for the previous year’s ice
between 240 m and 270 m.a.s.l., due to the shape layer of each study core. Last year ice layers
(widening) of the glacier. were found at a depth of less than 160 cm for
Both precipitation and surface air 2018-2019 and between 160 and 200 cm for 2019–
temperature are determining factors in the 2020, except for core 4, which did not exceed 80
ablation and mass gain of a glacier. In the ZG, these cm depth. A relevant factor to be considered in
variables (also the mass balance) were analyzed the sampling area is the deposition of material
by considering the beginning of the annual coming from the lateral mountains of the glacier.
period from March (n) to February (n + 1) because This deposition causes significant superficial
the stakes measurements and accumulation melting that accelerates the snow metamorphic
cores were taken once a year, mainly in February. process, creating high-density layers that can be
In addition, the air temperature data (based on mistaken as last year’s ice layers.

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

Figure 2. (a) Satellite images used in this study (the green line with black dashes indicates the snow line); (b)
hypsometry of the Znosko Glacier for the years 2012, 2019 and 2020.

Concerning the stakes in the ablation zone, period. The independent term establishes the
of the 19 stakes installed in January 2018, only 7 position of the ELA at 162 m a.s.l. Figure 4c
were located in February 2019 (thick snow layer compares all the stakes of the two study periods
during fieldwork) and 16 in February 2020 (stake in ascending order according to their altitude,
N°1 was lost due to glacier front detachment). where stake-07, stake-08, stake-19, and stake-11
Due to insufficient stakes in the 2018–2019 period, show a significant emergence (appearance)
it was necessary to reconstitute the missing unrelated to altitude. For 2018–2019, the highest
stakes based on the high linear correlation emergence of the stakes was found around the
between (r2 = 0.925) the stakes of the two study glacier front, specifically in the environment
periods. Figure 4b shows the measured stakes where ice detachments are observed due to the
(blue dots) and those reconstructed by linear calving effect. In this case, Stake-01 presented
regression (black dots) for 2018–2019. In addition, the highest ablation at 2,592 mm w.e, followed by
the independent term of the linear regression of stake-03 at -2,412 mm w.e, with the net ablation
the stakes (observed and reconstituted) shows recorded at stake-10 at -640 mm w.e. In 2019–
the position where the net mass balance is zero, 2020, the maximum ablation was observed in
i.e., the equilibrium line (158 m a.s.l.). Figure 4b stake-02 at -3,001 mm w.e., followed by stake-04
shows a significant correlation (r2 = 0.66) of the at -2,493 mm w.e. The lowest ablation was
linear regression for the stakes of the 2019–2020 registered in stake-10 at -776.6 mm w.e.

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Table IV. Mean temperature and precipitation for the 2015–2021.

variable Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Annual
T (°C) 0.8 -1.3 -2.5 -4.3 -4.7 -5.8 -4.2 -2.5 -0.9 0.3 1.4 1.6 -1.8
PP (mm) 84.9 55 54.5 53.2 34.3 58.6 56.1 45.3 46 47.7 61.5 59.5 656.6

Figure 3. (a) precipitation and air temperature seasonality; (b) series of monthly air temperature and precipitation
series (c) comparison between air temperature and precipitation at the sampling year level.

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

Figure 4. (a) Density

profile and equivalent
water content for the
accumulation area snow
cores, (b) on the left:
stakes measured for the
period from 2018-19,
the blue color indicates
stakes that were measured
directly, and on the right
stakes measured for
the period from 2019-20
(c) comparison of the
emergence of the stakes
used in this study.

We used the data from the stakes and equilibrium of the snowmelt concerning the air
shallow cores and the position of the snow temperature, indirectly marking the beginning of
line (Figure 2) as a reference for the position the glacier accumulation zone. Thus, this led to
of the ELA to determine glacier mass balance the generation of interpolation support points,
for the study periods. Generally, the snow assuming a 0.0 mm w.e. value on the snow line.
line’s position marks the ELA’s approximate Table V shows the net mass balance for derived
position at the end of summer. However, it is from five interpolation methods used for the
assumed here that the snow line marks the period 2018–2019, resulting in a mean glacier

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

net mass balance of -591 ± 47 mm w.e., where method shows the smallest area at 0.52 km2. In
the accumulation represents 193 ± 57 mm w.e. the accumulation zone, the IDW method gives
with an area of 1.07 ± 0.07 km2 and the ablation the largest area at 1.09 km2, and Spline has the
-783 ± 44 mm w.e. with an area of 1.07 ± 0.07 km2. smallest area at 1.03 km2. The maximum value
The most conservative method is the Natural of ARR is observed with the Spline method at
Neighbor with -570 mm w.e., and the IDW method 0.36 for 2018–2019, and the lowest corresponds
exhibited the most negative net balance with to the IDW at 0.32. Figure 5b shows that the
-625 mm w.e. The mean Accumulation Area Ratio Spline and Spline with barrier methods better
(AAR) is 0.34, with the lowest value of 0.3 (IDW) represents snow line for 2018–2019. Considering
and the highest of 0.36 (Spline). The graphical the average of all methods, the accumulation is
analysis in Figure 5a shows that the Spline and above 1,200 mm w.e., reaching up to 1,550 mm
Spline with barrier methods better represent w.e., while there are values above -3,000 mm w.e.
the shape of the snow line. The average of all in the ablation zone (glacier front), reaching the
methods, the ablation at the front of the glacier maximum of -3,130 mm w.e.
is above 2,400 mm w.e., reaching the maximum Table VII shows the results of ELA analysis
of -2,622 mm w.e. The accumulation at the top for the two study periods, located at a mean
of the glacier is above 900 mm w.e., reaching a altitude of 146.5 ± 9.2 m a.s.l. for the period 2018–
maximum of 1,188 mm w.e. 2019 (does not consider the staking method),
Table VI shows that the mean glacier net with an elevation interval between 154.4 and 143
mass balance is -687 ± 28 mm w.e. for the period m a.s.l. When averaged over the five methods
2019–2020, with an average gain (accumulation) under study, IDW exhibited the highest average
and loss (ablation) of 271 ± 65 mm w.e. (0.55 ± position at 154.4 m a.s.l., and Spline displayed
0.04 km2) and -958 ± 51 mm w.e. (1.06 ± 0.04 km2), the lowest average position at 143 m a.s.l. The
respectively. The net mass balance calculated stakes method (independent term of the stakes
by the IDW method presents the lowest value at regression equation) showed an altitude of
-707 mm w.e. The most conservative corresponds 158.3 m a.s.l.; the highest position recorded for
to the Kriging method with -674 mm w.e. In terms ELA was by the IDW method with 184.9 m a.s.l
of areas, the Spline method presents the largest and the lowest by the Spline method with 106.4
accumulation area at 0.58 km 2, and the IDW m a.s.l. For 2019–2020, the mean ELA position

Table V. Znosko glacier mass balance for the period 2018-19.

Mass Bilan Acumulation Ablation Acumulation Ablation Area

Method AAR
(mm.w.e.) (mm.w.e.) (mm.w.e.) Area (km2) (km2)

Kriging -580.6 190.7 -771.3 0.557 1.065 0.34

Spline -573.5 233.5 -807.0 0.576 1.046 0.36
IDW -625.3 150.7 -775.9 0.493 1.129 0.30
Natural Neighbor -570.4 186.2 -756.7 0.560 1.056 0.35
Spline with barrier -603.5 201.3 -804.7 0.556 1.066 0.34
Mean -590.7 192.5 -783.1 0.55 1.07 0.34
Error ± 46.6 ± 59.6 ± 43.9 ± 0.06 ± 0.07 ± 0.05

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

Figure 5. Mass balance

for the Znosko Glacier
(a) 2018-19 and (b)
2019-20.

based on the five methods was 144.2 ± 8.3 m a.s.l. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
with an elevation interval between 140.1 to 151.2
In the Austral summer of 2018 on the ZG,
m a.s.l. The mean ELA position at 113.2 m a.s.l.
a network of 19 stakes was installed and
determined by the Spline method represents
monitored in parallel with accumulation cores
the lowest position and that defined by IDW at
during 2019 and 2020. Accordingly, this glacier’s
175.2 m a.s.l. represents the lowest. Moreover,
net mass balances were negative (-591 ± 47 mm
according to the stakes regression curve, the ELA
w.e.,2018–2019) with the ELA at 146.5 ± 9.2 m a.s.l.
is at 161.9 m a.s.l.
and -687 ± 28. mm w.e. (2019–2020) with the ELA

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

Table VI. Znosko glacier mass balance for the period 2019-20.

Mass Bilan Acumulation Ablation Acumulation Ablation Area

Method AAR
(mm.w.e.) (mm.w.e.) (mm.w.e.) Area (km2) (km2)

Kriging -674.0 274.4 -948.3 0.56 1.05 0.35

Spline -680.3 320.5 -1000.8 0.58 1.03 0.36
IDW -707.3 229.5 -936.8 0.52 1.09 0.32
Natural Neighbor -677.0 265.8 -942.8 0.56 1.05 0.35
Spline with barrier -695.2 263.0 -959.0 0.56 1.05 0.34
Mean -686.7 270.7 -957.5 0.55 1.06 0.34
Error ± 28.2 ± 65.4 ± 51.2 ± 0.04 ± 0.04 ± 0.03

Table VII. ELA position for Znosko Glacier for the periods 2018-19 and 2019-20.
ELA Position to 2018-19 (m) ELA Position to 2019 - 20 (m)
Method
min Mean max Ecart min Mean max Ecart
Kriging 114.0 145.8 173.5 14.4 127.4 143.1 158.8 9.6
Spline 106.4 143.0 175.0 18.0 113.2 140.1 163.8 12.8
IDW 130.9 154.4 184.9 15.9 130.8 151.2 175.2 11.7
Natural Neighbor 115.4 143.5 170.0 13.2 126.9 143.0 155.9 8.3
Spline with barrier 112.5 145.7 176.2 16.1 124.7 143.6 157.8 9.8
Stakes 158 - 162 - -
Mean 115.9 146.5 175.9 15.5 124.6 144.2 162.3 10.5
Error ± 18.2 ± 9.2 ± 11.0 - ± 13.4 ± 8.3 ± 15.6 -

at 144.2 ± 8.3 m a.s.l. This negative balance is reduce the source of error, their, mean is the
primarily explained by local climatic conditions, net balance. In addition, the position of the
where the mean precipitation amounted to 738 snow line (obtained from satellite images and
mm (2018–2019) and 627 mm (2019–2020). The orthophotos) was used as a visual adjustment
annual mean air temperature for the last 6 years element, considering the hypothesis that this is a
was above 0 °C between December to March, so proxy of the ELA position, albeit a small difference
glacial melting prevailed. The methodology used due to the formation of superimposed ice. The
for calculating the net mass balance relies on five methods of this study can also be used as
ground samples. Even though we only recovered an indirect method. Spline best represented the
seven stakes for 2018-2019, it was possible to shape of the snow line. It is necessary to assume
correlate the existing ones with those of 2019– support points on the snow line irrespective of
2020, allowing us to estimate the position of the the method used to reduce, interpolation errors.
remaining ones. Other determining factors in the loss of glacier
Five data interpolation methods were used mass are as follows: a) material deposition
to calculate the annual mass balance and (observed in a zone next to ELA) that accelerates

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WILSON SUAREZ et al. MASS BALANCE OF ZNOSKO GLACIER

melting process cannot be ignored, b) the retreat Maxwell Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Int J Climatol
of the glacier front by calving process causes the 42(14): 7426-7442.

detachment of ice masses (before the year 2018 BELLO C, SANTILLAN N, COCHACHIN A, ARIAS S & SUAREZ W.
2020. Ice thickness using ground penetrating radar at
was not observed), possibly because the bed
Znosko Glacier on King George Island. 2020 IEEE Latin
of the glacier front is below sea level and the American GRSS & ISPRS Remote Sensing Conference
intrusion of water from the sea is undermining (LAGIRS): 539-541.
the lower part of this glacier (Bello et al. 2020). BERTHIER E, SCAMBOS TA & SHUMAN CA. 2012. Mass loss
The observed meteorological data show that, on of Larsen B tributary glaciers (Antarctic Peninsula)
average, the air temperature was below 0° C and unabated since 2002. Geophys Res Lett 39(13): 1-6.

the precipitation in 656 mm, the latter (added BIRKENMAJER K. 2002. Retreat of Ecology Glacier, Admiralty

to air temperature conditions) allowed a mass Bay, King George Island (South Shetland Islands, West
Antarctica) 1956-2001. Bull Polish Acad Sci 50: 15-29.
gain, but not enough to counteract the losses
CARRASCO J. 2013. Decadal changes in the near-surface
by ablation (mainly summer) and collapse by
air temperature in the Western Side of the Antarctic
calving processes in this glacier. Peninsula. Atmosph Climate Sci 03(03): 275-281.
COGLEY J ET AL. 2011. Glossary of glacier mass balance and
Acknowledgments
related terms (Technical Documents in Hydrology), Paris:
We thank the Peruvian Antarctic Program-Ministry of
UNESCO-IHP, 115 p.
Foreign Affairs for providing logistical support in the
framework of the XXVI (2018–2019) and XXVII (2019–2020) COOK A J, VAUGHAN DG, LUCKMAN A J & MURRAY T. 2014. A
Peruvian Expeditions to Antarctica, and as well as the new Antarctic Peninsula glacier basin inventory and
personnel of the Antarctic Operations Company of the observed area changes since the 1940s. Antarct Sci 26(6):
Peruvian Army for the continuous support during our 614-624.
fieldwork. Special thanks to the Editor and anonymous CUFFEY K & PATERSON WS. 2010. The Physics of Glaciers, 4
th

reviewers for their comments, suggestions and ed., Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann/Elsevier, p. 704.
corrections that helped to improve the manuscript.
DA ROSA K, PERONDI C, VEETTIL B, AUGER J & SIMÕES J. 2020.
Contrasting responses of land-terminating glaciers
to recent climate variations in King George Island,
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How to cite
SUAREZ W, BELLO C, CRUZ R, ZEGARRA J, ARIAS S & BRONDI F. 2023.
Glaciological Mass balance of Znosko Glacier, King George Island. An Correspondence to: Wilson Suarez Alayza
Acad Bras Cienc 95: e20220821. DOI 10.1590/0001-3765202320220821. E-mail: [email protected]

Manuscript received on September 21, 2022;

accepted for publication on October 13, 2022

WILSON SUAREZ1,2
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3409-790X

CINTHYA BELLO3
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4154-6379

An Acad Bras Cienc (2023) 95(Suppl. 3) e20220821 16 | 16