CHAPTER III Brief history of the manufacture of portland

CONCRETE AND OTHER CEMENTITIOUS cement

MATERIALS
Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer of Leeds,
Concrete England, describe a patented cementitious
product formed by heating a mixture of clay and
In a construction material, the mixture of limestone to a temperature
properties of which maybe predetermined by sufficiently high to drive off carbon dioxide. The
design, selection of constituent materials, and term portland was used because the appearance
quality control. of the mixed concrete resembled natural stones
The constituent materials are: in the Isle of Portland, Dorset County, England.
He calcined his raw materials only until the
 Cement; carbonic acid was removed entirely. David Sayler
 Aggregates; of Allentown, Pennsylvania, who was granted a
 Water; patent in US and credited with the manufacture
 Admixtures of cement in the United States. The first rotary
kiln for the manufacture of portland cement was
Cement erected in 1886 at Roundout, New York.
Is also called as hydraulic cement, is
finely pulverized material that develops its
binding property as a result of its reaction with Cement and Its Type
water. Portland cement was first manufactured
Hydrated lime [Ca(OH)₂] in the United States in the later part of 19th
century, is produced by heating a carefully
which is the product of reaction between controlled mixture of limestone and clay at a very
quicklime (CaO), and water, is not stable in water high temperature, and by grinding the resulting
and is nonhydraulic, but it can slowly carbonate product into powder. Most of the ingredients for
in air (reaction with CO₂) to form a stable the manufacture of cement are found in nature.
product, limestone [CaCo₃]. Like;
Is also called as hydraulic cement, is  Limestone;
finely pulverized material that develops its  Shale;
binding property as a result of its reaction with  Slate
water.  Clay;
 Chalk;
The product that results when quicklime
 Marl;
is finely crushed, slaked with a minimum amount
 Silica sand;
of water, and then ground to form a fine
 Iron ore
homogeneous powder;

Is white in color and has a specific Each manufacturing plant may use a
gravity of 2.08; different combination of raw materials, although
limestone and clay are the most common.
Is often added to portland cement
mortars in varying proportions to increase their The primary constituents of raw
plasticity and workability. materials in the manufacture of cement

Portland Cement  Lime;

 Silica;
Is used to described a hydraulic cement  Alumina
produced by pulverizing clinkers consisting
essentially of hydraulic silicates.
Lime cooled (to about 150ᴼF) and stored in clinker
silos.
is obtained from limestone and chalk.
When needed, the clinkers are mixed
Silica and Alumina with about 2% gypsum and then ground to a fine
are obtained from clays, shales, and powder (particles less than 75µm in dia.) in ball
bauxite. mills or a roller press.

Additional ingredients; The cement is then stored in storage

bins and bagged for shipment. In the United
 Iron oxide; States a bag of cement weighs 94lb (42.6kg) and
 Magnesia; has a volume of about 1 ft³ when packed. These
 Sulfur trioxide; bags should be stored in a dry place on pallets,
 Alkalies; preferably covered with tarpaulins or similar
 Carbon dioxide. water proof covering.

Lime (CaO) and silica (SiO₂), make up 60 About 75% of cement is composed of:
and 20% of the ingredients of cement,  Calcium silicates;
respectively.  Compounds of aluminum (Al₂O₃);
Iron oxide and aluminum oxide – 10% of  Iron (Fe₂O₃); and Gypsum (CaSO₄)
the raw materials.
The four major compounds of cement
Two basic processes in the manufacture of
portland cement  Tricalcium silicate (C₃S);
 Dicalcium silicate (C₂S);
Wet  Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A);
 Tetracalcium aluminum ferrite(C₄AF)
the mix in the form of a slurry containing
about 30 to 40% water is heated in horizontal
Table 1
revolving kilns to about 2750ᴼF at which
temperature oxides of calcium and silica are
Cement Types and Uses
combine to form clinkers. The rotation of the kiln
plus its shape allow the mix to flow down the kiln (Table 1)
and gradually increase in temperature.
The eight types of cements:
Dry
1. Type I cement (standard portland cement)
the mix is fed into the kiln and burned in
the dry state. This provides considerable savings is a general-purpose cement and the
in fuel consumption and water usage but is mostcommonly used portland cement. It is
dustier. employed when special properties of any other
types are not required. Contain more C3A.
In the kiln, water from the raw materials is
driven off and limestone is decomposed into lime 2. Type IA cement
and carbon dioxide. These products then is the air-entraining type I cement,
undergo a solid-state chemical reaction in the which is obtained by the addition of an
burning-zone portion of the kiln which produces interground air- entrainment admixture.
calcium silicate and other compounds. These
products are greenish black in color, are in the 3-Type II cement (modified portland cement)
form of pellets, called clinkers.
is a general-purpose cement used when
The cement clinkers are hard, irregular moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of
ball-shaped particles (about ¼ in. dia.). These are hydration is desired. Have better resistance to
the action of sulfates and is used where sulfate
concentration in groundwater is higher than resistant to the destructive action of organic
normal but is not severe. acids.

Is used for mass concrete works, The sulfate-resistance of concrete can be

highway pavements, foundations, reservoirs improved by adding pozzolans such as fly ash
lining, high- rise buildings, piers, and massive with ordinary cement. The addition of pozzolans
structures. to cement will remove the excess calcium
hydroxide from the hydrated cement paste and
Type IIA cement provide a more stable environment against
is the air-entraining type II cement. deterioration.

5. Type III cement (high early strength Air-entraining cement in any type can be
cement) used to obtain air-entrained concrete.

is for use when high early strength is

desired. Is made use: (Table 2)
when the formwork is to be removed as Setting and Hydration
early as possible and the structure is to be
brought into service quickly; Setting

Used in cold weather operation to When cement is mixed with sufficient

decrease time needed to protect concrete from water, in the beginning the paste losses its
freezing; fluidity and within a few hours noticeable
stiffening results, this is called the initial set, and
Set and harden rapidly; this measured the ability of the paste to
The compressive strength in 24 hrs is withstand a certain arbitrary pressure.
equal to that of concrete made with type I cement Further buildup of hydration products is
after 3 days; followed by commencement of the hardening
contains more C3A. process, responsible for the strength of concrete ,
which is known as the final set.
6. Type IIIA cement
The time from the addition of water to the initial
is type III cement with an air-entraining and final set are known as the initial setting time
admixture. and the final setting time.
7. Type IV cement (low-heat cement) Hydration
is for use when low heat of hydration is A chemical reaction between compounds
desired. Is manufactured by limiting the amounts of cement and water yields products that achieve
of C3A and C3S to 7 and 35%, respectively. the binding property after hardening. This
Suitable for very large structures, -concrete dams. process of reaction is called hydration.
This type of cement is no longer manufactured in
the United States since its use has been A chemical reaction within a few hours
eliminated. of mixing the cement and water.

8. Type V cement (sulfate-resistant cement) Is the key for the strength development
of concrete.
is required when sulfate-resistant
concrete is needed. Is used where sulfate Portland cement
concentration is very high and in seawater. Is is a mixture of several compounds, all of
commonly chosen for concrete construction in which can hydrate with water. But all
seawater, for sewage disposal site, and for other compounds do not hydrate at the same rate, and
special uses. This type of cement is somewhat as a consequence, the rate of strength
development is a function of time and Thus, hydration can also be
temperature. conceptualized as a process during which the
space previously occupied by cement and water
Aluminate (C₃A) is being replaced more & more by the products of
is the most reactive compound in cement reaction between the two.
& hydrates at a much faster rate than do the Heat of hydration
silicates. The stiffening characteristics and
setting times are due largely to the hydration Hydration is always accompanied by
products involving aluminates. The addition of release of heat, in other words, the hydration
gypsum to clinkers is to slow down the hydration reaction of portland cement compounds are
of tricalcium aluminate. exothermic.

The silicates C₃A liberates the most heat; C₂S liberates the
least, causes flash set when mixed with water
play a dominant role in the hardening accompanied by the release of considerable heat.
process, which is responsible for the strength
development. C₃S releases twice as much heat as does C₂S.

The tricalcium silicate (C₃S) Type IV cement has low levels of C₃A & C₃S &
thus generates less heat of hydration.
hardens rapidly & is largely responsible
for the early strength development. In massive structures the heat evolved is
dissipated slowly that the temperature of the
Dicalcium silicate (C₂S) structure shows a marked increase followed by
hardens slowly & is responsible for thermal expansion.
strength increase beyond 1 week.

Tricalcium aluminate Uses of Concrete

also contributes to the early strength is used in a wide variety of application,
development of concrete. ranging from piles to multistory buildings, and
The rate of hydration of any cement depends on: from railroad ties to dams;
Used in foundations, pavements,
 Relative proportions of silicates and walkways, storage tanks, and many other
aluminates; structures;
 Fineness of cement; Is one of the most economical materials
 Ambient temperature; of construction and is very versatile in nature
 Humidity. and its application.
The calcium silicates (tricalcium & dicalcium), Is used in building concrete dams,
constitute about 75% of the cement, react with aqueducts, pipes, canals, storage tanks, and
water to form two new compounds: foundation.
Freshly made concrete is used for; shells,
calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate.
folded plates, circular pipes, and arches.
The physical properties of the paste and
the mechanical properties of hardened concrete shell structure
depend primarily on calcium silicate hydrate. Is a thin-structural element used in a
This product occupies about 50 to 60% of the building composed of curved sheets of materials
volume of solids in a completely hydrated paste. dividing the interior space of the structure from
its exterior. The shell elements are typically
It is estimated that on complete curved and assembled into a large structure. It is
hydration, 1 cm³ of cement occupies a volume of made of reinforced concrete and serves both as a
2 cm³. (Note: the specific gravity of cement is structure and covering. Shell structures are self-
3.25). supporting and used to cover a large area of span
without any supports of beams, columns, and Properties of Fresh Concrete
walls.
Bleeding
Important Properties of Concrete is the movement and appearance of
 Strength; water at the surface of freshly placed concrete. It
 Durability (weather resistance) is the result of settlement of heavier particles and
 Wear resistance; can be looked upon as a form of segregation.
 Impermeability; Workability
 Abrasion resistance;
 Resistance to environmental attacks the ease with which a fresh concrete
mix can be handled from the mixer to the final
Not all of these properties are important for structure.
every applications, but most are.
The three primary characteristics of
For examples, the liquid-retaining workability:
structures such as storage tank or dam
1. Consistency
(impermeability, resistance to chemical attacks
from liquids, & weather resistance); for 2. mobility;
nonstructural applications, such as facades and
sign walls (thermal resistance, light weight, and 3. compactability.
pleasing appearance).
In a measure for some structures, such
Concrete derives its strength and as floor slabs, finishability is also a measure of
properties from those of aggregates , the type workability.
and quality of cement, and the mix proportions.
Consistency
It should be noted that the aggregates
is a measure of concrete wetness or
themselves are not transformed in the concrete
fluidity, which depends on the mix proportions
mixture, and that the reaction between cement
and properties of the ingredients. It is generally
and water produces compounds that harden with
measured with a slump test (ASTM C143)
time and bond the individual aggregate particles.
The test is also used to measure the
Properties of Concrete
characteristics of workability. The slump or
The aggregates make up about 60 to slump test can only be used to measure changes
75% by volume of concrete and the paste in workability or for relative comparison of
constitutes about 25 to 40%. Of the cement paste, workability between different mixtures.
the volume of cement occupies about 25 to 45%,
The slump test was developed by
and water makes up the balance.
Chapman in the United States in 1913. It consists
Fresh concrete also contains air, its of a metal slump cone having a bottom diameter
volume ranging from 2 to 8% of the volume of of 8 in. (200mm) and a top diameter of 4 in.
concrete. (100mm). The height of the cone is 12 in.
(300mm). The cone (whose inside surface is
The strength of the concrete depends on dampened) is placed on a smooth, flat,
the strength of the aggregate particles and the nonabsorbent surface and is filled with fresh
strength of the paste. concrete while it is held firmly in place by
standing on the foot pieces.
Fresh concrete does not possess any
strength. The slumps depends on the ingredients,
amount of mixing water, and addition of
Good concrete is concrete that has
admixtures. The value of slump also changes with
acceptable qualities in the mixing stage as well as
temperature and time after mixing (owing to the
in the solid state.
hydration process and the evaporation of water).
 A concrete mix that does not possess the
proper consistency is unable to hold the mixing
water, which is slowly displaced and then rises to
the top of the form. This water is either lost due
to evaporation or through joints and in the sides
of the form. This process of separation of water
from the mix is bleeding.

Causes:
The measured slump maybe used to
✓ Formation of fine cracks;
estimate the change in water content necessary ✓Over vibration, over troweling, and lean mixes
to maintain uniformity from batch to batch. It increase the potential of bleeding;
may also be used to indicate the changes in the ✔Premature finishing.
grading or proportioning of aggregates. But
slump test (or measured slump) should not be Results:
used to judge the quality or strength of concrete. ■ Movement of water and finer particles to the
top of the form and produces non homogeneous
Another method of measuring mix.
consistency is Ball Penetration Test (ASTM C360). ☐ Loss of some entrained air and making the
concrete vulnerable to scaling.
Factors Affecting Consistency and
Workability SCALING - comprises the surface cracks and the
removal of surface layer in concrete produced by
Workability is relatively insensitive to
the pressure generated when the water in
changes in cement content, but is heavily
concrete pores freezes.
dependent with water content.

Workability decreases with increase in Control:

- Air-entrainment;
the surface area of aggregates.
-Increase in the fineness of cement and/or
Workability also depends on the rate of decrease in the water/cement ratio decreases in
hydration and the rate of loss of water through bleeding.
evaporation.
Beneficial:
-In finishing concrete;
-Helps in bringing soft materials to the surface of
Segregation concrete.
Defined as the tendency for separation of
large and fine particles in a fresh concrete mix. MIXING
Purpose:
Results in a non homogeneous mix that
>To ensure that in the fresh concrete, each
affects the strength and durability of hardened particle of aggregate will be coated with the
concrete. cement paste.
The mixing will be carried out by:
Is one of the causes or pores or pockets
-Hand mixing,
and a honey combed surface.
-Machine mixing.
mixture that are very wet and deficient
in finer particles tend to segregate. Batching:
■ The process in mixing which involves
Air-entrainment decreases the tendency weighing out or measuring out all the ingredients
to segregate for a batch of
concrete.

Bleeding & Scaling

Most concrete is now conveyed to the job site in When placing concrete in tall forms,
mixer. Concrete is sometimes mixed at the job bleeding can be prevented by placing it slowly.
site in a stationary mixer or a paving mixer.
Concrete that is thoroughly mixed in a stationary The free vertical drop of concrete at any
mixer, called ready-mixed concrete or ready- point during conveying should not exceed 3 ft.
mixed, is delivered to the actual construction site
either in a truck agitator or a nonagitating truck. In general, concrete should be placed in
horizontal layers of uniform thickness (of 6 to 20
A truck agitator - is a special truck mixer in.), and each layer should be completely
operating at agitating speeds and is used to consolidated before placement of the next layer.
transport concrete for all uses, such as
pavements, buildings, and foundations. TOOLS
1. Ordinary square-pointed shovels -
A nonagitating truck- is used for short hauls. 2. Wheelbarrow-
3. Tamper -
A truck mixer or transit mixer - is a special . Strike board -
truck used for both mixing and transporting 5. Wood float -
concrete to a job site over short and long hauls. 6. Steel (hand) float or trowel -
7. Darby & a bullfloat-
When proper mixing is employed there is no 8. Groover -
difference between hand-mixed concrete and 9. Edger -
machine-mixed concrete. But when the volume of 10. Knee board -
concrete is large, hand mixing does not produce a
uniform or homogeneous mixture. Types of finishes
1. Smooth finish –
2. Swirl float or trowel finish -
Pumping and Placing 3. Broom finish
Concrete is conveyed to the construction 4. Rock salt finish
site in wheelbarrow, carts, belt conveyors, cranes, 5. Brush hammering
or chutes. 6. Exposed aggregate finish

Concrete pump
can be used to push the concrete to its CURING
final position. The process of maintaining enough
moisture in concrete to maintain the rate of
Concrete pumping hydration during its early stages.
is the standard method of placement in
high-rise construction. Unless the concrete is cured properly, it
will not achieve the desired properties, such as
Today's pump have the capacity for a compressive strength, water tightness, and
maximum vertical reach (in single lift) of 1400ft durability.
or more and a volume of 170 yd³ per hour.
Is a process in which evaporation loss
Concrete should be placed as near as from newer concrete is minimized or
possible to its final position. compensated.

In slab construction, concrete should

first be placed around the perimeter at one end Methods of Curing
with each batch dumped again previously placed The best method for curing is either by
concrete. ponding, fog spraying, or sprinkling with or
without the use of a cover such as burlap, and
In wall and beam construction, first plastic sheet.
batch should be placed at both ends of the
section, and the concreting should progress
toward the center.
1. Ponding Full 28-day compressive strength can be
is accomplished by building earth or achieved by steam curing for 24 hours.
sand dikes around the perimeter of the slab to
retain a pond of water within the enclosed area. Two methods of steam curing are employed
for early strength development:
2. Fog spraying or sprinkling 1. Curing in live steam at atmospheric
should be in place to prevent the pressure
concrete from drying out between applications of is used for enclosed cast-in-place
water. structures, in a steam chamber or other
enclosures, such as tarpaulins to minimize
3. Wet covering moisture and heat loss. The steam is applied at
such as burlap & cotton mats are use least 2 hours after final placement of
extensively for curing concrete. Moist so that a concrete.
film of water remains on the surface throughout
the curing period. 2. High-pressure steam curing in autoclave
Concrete cured using the above is utilized for small manufactured units.
techniques is called moist-cured or water- cured High temperature in the range 325 to 375°F.
concrete.
Proper curing of concrete will improve
4. Water curing its quality and performance. Apart from being
watering should be done 2-3 times a day. stronger and more durable, the concrete is also
more resistant to traffic wear and less permeable.
Waterproof paper In winter months no curing may be necessary
(or plastic film, impervious sheeting) since the rate of evaporation is very low in a cold,
should be applied as soon as the concrete has moist atmosphere.
hardened and after the concrete has been
thoroughly wetted. The sheeting should lay Effects of Temperature
directly on the concrete surface and overlapping -Atmospheric conditions - relative humidity and
edges should be a minimum of 12 in. This temperature;
method of curing has the important advantage -Type of work;
that periodic additions of water are not required -Characteristics of concrete;
-Expected strength.
5. Liquid curing compounds or liquid
membrane The longer the curing period, the greater
forming compounds (also called seal is its final strength. Concrete kept moist under
coats) - are used most often because of their normal curing conditions will develop about 75%
versatility, ease of application, convenience, and of its final strength in about 28 days. In the
economy. These compounds are relatively majority of construction, concrete is kept
inexpensive and provide an effective means of continuously moist for a minimum of 7 days after
preventing evaporation from flat slabs and casting.
pavements, assuming that they are applied as
soon as the concrete is finished. Properties of Hardened Concrete
The curing compounds are generally -Strength;
applied by either brushing, rolling, or spraying. -Modulus of elasticity;
-Durability;
6. Steam curing -Creep;
hydration rate is increased by supplying -Shrinkage;
steam, generally under pressure. -Watertightness or impermeability.

Precast concrete sections and concrete An increase in the quantity of cement will
masonry blocks can reach 70% of their normal increase the compressive strength.
28-day strength when subjected to properly
controlled wet steam curing (at about 150°F or
65.5°C) for about 15 hours.
Properties of hardened concrete depend on:
-Mix proportion;
-Curing conditions;
- Environment.
Where P is the failure load and d is the
1. Compressive strength - concrete have a diameter of the cylinder.
compressive strength as high as 12,000 psi
(82.7MPa). In ordinary construction, a strength The compressive strength thus
range 3000 to 6000 psi 920.7 to 41.4 MPa). determined is found to depend on the size of the
specimen, the shape of the specimen, and the
The following affects the compressive moisture condition. The greater the ratio of
strength: ■ height to diameter, the lower is the measured
-Amount of cement; compressive strength.
-Amount of water;
-Types of ingredients A 4 in. dia. Cylinder (8 in. in height))
-Mix proportions; exhibits approximately 5% higher strength than
- Curing; does a 6 in. dia. Cylinder (12 in. in height).
-Temperature;
-Age; The moisture content of specimens
affects the compressive strength. Air-dried
specimens (at the time of testing) are shown to
possess more compressive strength than that of
Size and shape of specimen;
saturated specimens, on the order of 20 to 25%.
-Test conditions.
-Types and size of coarse aggregate.
The strength is also affected by the
speed of testing-a slower rate will show a lower
Water/Cement ratio
strength. In the laboratory the rate of loading is
is the important property in the design
adjusted so that failure takes place within 2 to 3
of concrete mixture, means that when the cement
minutes.
content is maintained constant and the amount
of mixing water is increased the strength
TENSILE STRENGTH
decreases.
Is important to resist cracking from
shrinkage and temperature changes.
Voids
increase in water content increases the
Direct tensile strength measurement are
voids in concrete, which decreases the durability,
difficult and are not usually done. It is common
watertightness, and of course the compressive
practice to assess tensile strength using either
strength.
the flexural or split cylinder test.
Curing & air entrainment
strength of concrete increases with age
and curing.
1313
Split cylinder test (ASTM C496), the
Compression test
cylindrical specimen (placed with its axis
in the United States, the compressive
horizontal) is subjected to a line load (uniform)
strength of concrete is determined from
along the length of the specimen. Using the load
compression tests on cylindrical specimens
at which the specimen splits into two, P, the
(uniaxial compression test, ASTM C469). After 24
tensile strength ft
hours the specimen are taken out of the molds
and moist cured for 28 days.

At the end of the curing period they are capped

and tested in a moist condition. The failure load
divided by the cross-sectional area is called 28-
Where I is the length of the cylinder and d is the
day cylinder compressive strength (f'.).
diameter of the cylinder.
Flexural strength Plastic shrinkage is more common in
is the most common procedure used to slabs and pavements, as the large surface area
measure the tensile strength of concrete. In this contributes to high evaporation loss. Hot weather
test a beam with span equal to three times its conditions increase the plastic shrinkage due to
depth is subjected to third-point loading (ASTM excessive evaporation loss.
C78). This results in tensile stresses at the
bottom and compressive stresses at the top of A large amount of plastic shrinkage will
the beam. Since concrete is weaker in tension, result in premature cracking (before the surface
the specimen fails with a flexural crack near the hardens) and will affect concrete durability.
section of maximum moment. The failure load is
used to determine the tensile strength, called the The amount of plastic shrinkage depends on:
modulus of rupture (MOR), with the help of the - Type of cement;
bending equation. -Water/cement ratio;
-Quantity and size of coarse aggregate;
Bending stress = Mc/I -Consistency of the mix.

Where M is the maximum moment. I the Dry shrinkage

moment of inertia, and the distance from the is attributed to the loss of water from
neutral axis to the extreme fiber in tension. cement gel, and can be large as 1500 x 10-6.

For a rectangular sections of width b and is gradual, the rate of shrinkage

depth d. the bending stress or modulus of decreases with time. About 40 to 80% of 20-year
rupture in a third-point loading specimen, is shrinkage occurs within 3 months. At the end one
Modulus of rupture (MOR)=Pl/bd2 year, the rate of shrinkage drops down to nearly
one-half the initial value.
where I is the span length & P is the
failure Load. Depends on type of cement, amount of
cement, mix proportions, size & shape of
The modulus of rupture is affected by structure, curing, environmental conditions, and
the water/cement ratio, the age at test, and the reinforcements.
curing.
Can be minimized by keeping the water
SHRINKAGE per unit volume of concrete as low as possible
Concrete has the greatest volume at the (or by keeping the aggregate content as high as
time of mixing or when it is placed in forms. possible).
Following the setting, the concrete slowly
decreases in volume or shrinks. Curing lowers the shrinkage. High-
pressure steam-cured samples are found to
Shrinkage or volume reduction in concrete shrink less than normally cured samples.
is the result of settlement of solids and
the loss of water. CONTRACTION and CONSTRUCTION JOINTS

When concrete is still plastic, aggregate Most structures have restraint to

particles settle down, displacing water and air to shrinkage from reinforcement, soil, foundations,
the top. With help from the environment, the or other members which will lead to cracking.
water on the surface gets evaporated. Both of
these processes - settlement of solids and Construction joints
evaporation of water from the fresh mix - result shrinkage cracks generally
in shrinkage of wet concrete. This reduction in accommodated in large structures by forming
volume in plastic concrete (before the concrete surface grooves every 10 ft or less.
sets) is called plastic shrinkage.
These joints (also called dummy joints or
Shrinkage that is due to drying of control joints) are meant to direct cracks to the
hardened concrete is called drying shrinkage. location of grooves.
 with time, which is the creep component of net
deformation.
The time-dependent increase in strain
resulting from stresses.
Is the component of deformation that
follows the elastic deformation.

Generally, aggregates do not creep, and

creep in concrete can be attributed to the cement
paste. However, aggregate particles restrain
creep deformation and result in creep stresses.

Creep occurs under all types of loading:

compression, tension, or torsion. About 50% of 1
year creep occurs within 3 to 4 weeks after
loading.
Without these joints the concrete will crack.
Creep deformation is proportional to the
Control joints applied stress level. It is made up of two
are provided in large structures such as components.
sidewalks, floor slabs, driveways, and walls. Reversible creep
- in walls, may be spaced every 20ft. part of creep deformation can be
recovered.
They can be made by:
Tooling, forming, scoring, or sawing. Irreversible creep
part that has become permanent.
Forming
can be accomplished by placing wood CARBONATION
strips or premolded joints material at the joint Is the term used to explain the reaction
location which acts to separate the element on between concrete and carbon dioxide from the
two sides of the joint. air (which is heavier than air and concentrates
on the surface) to create calcium carbonates.
In reinforced concrete slab construction, The chemical reaction reduces the
half the horizontal bars (alternatively) should be concrete quality and the ability of concrete to
cut at the joints. protect reinforcement from corrosion and results
in additional shrinkage.
Construction joints
(also called isolation joints, expansion
joints, or bonded joints) Dare joints provided to 1.3 1.3
separate a slab from other parts of a structure 128
(such as beams and columns) so as to prevent the >Starts at the surface and slowly penetrates the
bonding & permit horizontal & vertical concrete. Poor quality concrete suffers
movement. carbonation earlier and deeper.
>Causes no serious problem but results in a soft
Are also used at stopping places (when surface, dusting, and color change.
two successive placements of lifts of concrete
meet) when concreting large areas. DURABILITY
Concrete can deteriorate primarily for three
CREEP causes:
The increase in strain or deformation -Alkali-aggregate reaction;
with time. -Freeze-thaw cycle;
When subjected to an external load, -Sulfate attack.
concrete deforms elastically, but when this
loading continues, the deformation increases
 All three factors may occur Divided into two groups:
simultaneously in a concrete structure, leading to Chemical admixture
expansion and development of cracks. number of chemicals available in the
market, added in very small quantities to the
Freeze-thaw mixture to develop special properties in fresh or
the process by which water that is hardened concrete.
stored in voids in concrete expands as a result of
freezing temperature, consequently the concrete Types of concrete
cracks and deteriorates. Entrained air and a low Ordinary concrete possesses good
water/cement ratio will improve the freeze-thaw compressive strength but exhibits weaker
resistance of concrete. characteristics when subjected to tension, flexure,
or shear. In addition, concrete suffers from
Sulfate attack shrinkage, creep, and thermal expansion and
sulfates in the soil and seawater react contraction, which produce cracks that are
with aluminates in cement to produce detrimental to its performance. To impart
compounds that has greater volume. ductility to the structure, concrete is very
commonly used in combination with materials
Causes expansion and cracking in that possess high tensile or flexural strength.
concrete. Can be minimized by using cement that
is low in tricalcium aluminate. Plain concrete is rarely used for
structural purposes.
Mix Design
The objective of the mix design is to
determine the proportions of ingredients to Structural concrete
produce concrete that is durable and of required made ductile through coalition with
strength properties at minimum cost. high-moduli materials.

Admixtures Common types of structural concrete:

Is a material added to plastic concrete 1. Reinforced concrete
or mortar, other that water, aggregates, cement, is a composite material made by
and fiber, to change one or more properties of combining concrete and reinforcing steel.
fresh or hardened concrete.
Today reinforcing steel is manufactured to meet
Mineral admixture the requirements of four ASTM standards:
natural pozzolanic materials and -A615 (deformed and plain billet steel bars)
industrial by-products such as fly ash, and slag. -A616(rail steel, deformed and plain bars
-A617 ( axle steel, plain and deformed bars)
Factors which depends on the effectiveness of an -A706 (low-alloy steel bars)
admixture:
-Mix proportions;
-Type & size of aggregates; 2. Prestressed and precast concrete
-Ambient temperature; Prestressing refers to applying a preload
-Type; on a structure or structural element before the
-Brand & amount of admixtures; application of design loads.
-Type of cement.
Prestressed concrete
It is introduced into the mixture immediately is a structural composite material made
before or after the mixing. with ordinary concrete and high strength steel
( prestressing steel) subjected to a pretensile
Functions: force.
-Increase the plasticity of the mix; Is used in various types of construction,
-accelerate the strength development; such as bridges, parking garages, foundation
-Reduce the heat of hydration. slabs, liquid storage tanks, and high-rise building.
2. Fiber-reinforced concrete
is concrete containing discontinuous 2. Mortar (or masonry mortar)
discrete fibers. Ordinary concrete contains is a mixture of cement, lime, fine
numerous microcracks, which are responsible for aggregate, and water.
its low tensile strength. Fiber- reinforced
concrete offers a solution to this problem of Two types of masonry mortar:
cracking by making concrete tougher and more -Lime mortar
durable. -Portland cement-lime mortar

Steel fibers 3. Grout

are being used since their development is a mixture of cement (or cement plus
in the 1960s to increase the toughness, impact lime), fine aggregate, pea gravel (or finer coarse
resistance, and flexural strength of concrete. aggregate, 10mm maximum), and water and
having consistency for pouring without
Steel-fiber reinforced concrete segregation.
is employed in airport pavements,
bridge decks, industrial floors, hydraulic The term grout is derived from the
structures, and shotcrete application. Swedish term groot, which means porridge.

Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) 4. Shotcrete

is concrete made primarily of hydraulic (also called gunite or pneumatically
cements, aggregates, and discrete reinforcing applied mortar or concrete) refers to mortar or
fibers. Fibers suitable for reinforcing concrete concrete shot into place using compressed air.
have been produced from steel, glass, and The procedure is carried out using one of two
organic polymers (synthetic fibers). methods;
-Dry mix process
-Wet mix process
3. Lightweight concrete
a) is concrete with an air- dried unit 5. Soil cement
weight not exceeding 115 pcf. Cement is also used to stabilize
foundation soil (in pavement, buildings, slopes,
OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS etc.)
A number of construction materials,
including concrete, are manufactured using Cement stabilized soil (also called soil
portland cement as a basic ingredient. Plaster stabilization, cement treated aggregates, rammed
(stucco), grout, and shotcrete are made using earth, and soil cement) is produced by mixing
cement and various types of aggregates. and compacting a mixture of water, soil, and
portland cement. The mixture is then allowed to
Properties: cure for a time period.
1. Stucco - is a common construction material
used as plaster on wood and masonry walls. This 6. Pervious concrete and cement-bonded
finish material, which is a mixture of cement, particle board
sand, and water, serves two functions. is made with little or no fine aggregates,
is used for pavement to allow rain penetration
through the pavement.
7. Cement-bonded particleboard
-Appearances is a panel material manufactured with
- Protection cement, wood fibers, and very little water
 Compound Chemical Formula Industry Percent Rate of
code Amount reaction
(Abrev.) (range) with water

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO₂ C₃S 35-65 Medium

Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO₂ C₂S 15-40 Slow

Tricalcium aluminate 3Cao.Al₂O₃ C₃A 0-15 Fast

Tetracalcium 1C₂O.Al₂O₃.Fe₂O₃ C₄AF 6-20 Medium

aluminum ferrite

Standard chemical requirements

Cement types C₃S C₂S C₃A C₄AF+2CA Uses

(max.) (min.) (max.) (max.)

I and IA General use: when special

properties are not
required

II and IIA 8 General use: has moderate

sulfate resistance and heat
of hydration

III and IIIA 15 When high early strength

is required

IV 35 40 - When low heat of

hydration is required

V 5 25 When high sulfate

resistance is required