Page 6

Important points of laterite soil

1. Formed due to leaching under topical monsoon type of climatic conditions leaching means due
to heavy rainfall and high temperature the minerals percolate from upper layer of the soil to the
lower layer making the topsoil infertile.
2. Found on summits of western and eastern ghats, patches in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
3. Red in color due to iron oxide.
4. Humus is removed due to bacteria that survives in high temperature.
5. Good for agriculture as it is coarse, soft and friable, responds to fertilizers, dry farming and
irrigation.
6. Unfit for agriculture as it is porous and cannot hold moisture. Leached acidic soil, and poor in
humans and nitrogen, Lime.
7. Crops grown are Tea, coffee, rubber (plantation crops), cashew and Topioca
8. Becomes hard when moisture is removed. Thus has a unique building quality that is why it is used
for construction purposes and it's called brick soil.
9. Leaching is also called Desilication, as lime and silica are leached away (percolate to the lower
layer) making the top soil infertile.

Page 7
soil erosion
The removal of the topsoil cover by water,wind and human activities.

A. Soil erosion by water can take place in the following ways:-

Sheet erosion, Pill erosion, Gully erosion, seashore erosion, stream bank erosion and Leaching.
1. Sheet erosion is common in gentle slopes of northern plains.
2. Pill erosion is common in northern planes, slopes up Shivalicks.
3. Gully erosion is common in Chambal valley region
4. Leeching is common in summits of western and eastern ghats
5. See rojan is common throughout the eastern and western coasts of India

B. Soil erosion by wind refers to the movement and deposition of soil particles by wind when soil is
devoid of vegetation exposed to high velocity wind
a. Wind erosion is common in Gujarat,Rajasthan,Rann Of Kuchh , Saurastra , due to scarcity
of vegetation and overgrazing.
C. Soil erosion by humans overgrazing, mining, faulty methods of farming, deforestation, shifting
cultivation

Causes of soil erosion in India

1. Heavy population pressure on land

2. Nature of rainfall
3. Overgrazing
4. Bad farming techniques
5. Topography
6. Deforestation
 Soil conservation
(methods to protect the soil from being eroded so as the quality of it is maintained)

a) Methods to check soil erosion by water: terrace farming, contour plaughing,aforestation

planting of trees
b) Methods to check soil erosion by wind: strip cropping shelter belts aforestation and planting
of trees

Effects of soil erosion

1. Loss of soil fertility and agricultural productivity

2. Lowering of underground water table
3. drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands
4. silting of river beds and canal beds

soil conservation schemes launched by the government

1. integrated watershed management
2. reclamation and development of ravine areas
3. control of shifting cultivation
4. use of biofertilizers
5. use of rainwater harvesting and in urban areas

name the type of method used to conserve soil in the following areas :

Area Method used to conserve soil

Himalayas hills of northeast, western ghats : terrace farming, Afforestation

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Saurastra: strip cropping, shelter belts , Afforestation

Chambal valley region: plugging of gullies

Upper course of the Rivers : construction of dams

Give the cause of soil erosion in the following regions

Area Causes of Soil Erosion

Himalayas, hills of northeast, western Ghats : heavy rainfall ,steep slope, deforestation

Northern plains : deforestation

Valleys in Himalayas : Deforestation

floodplains of Ganga, Yamuna stream bank erosion
Chambal valley region gulley erosion
Shivaliks steep slope, heavy rainfall common deforestation

Factors affecting soil formations : climate, nature of parent rock, topography

 Page 9

Term Definition
Pedeology : the study of soil formation

Pedogenesis The process of soil formation

Soil components Organic, inorganic, air
Organic components Humus (remains of the dead and decomposed
plants and animals)
Factors affecting soil formation Climate , nature of topography
Soil fertility Viability of the soil to support vegetation is known
as fertility of the soil
Loamy soil It is a mixture of sand , clay and silt together with
humus in good amount
Soil profile It is a vertical cross section showing the layers of
the soil which would appear if you cut straight
down the soil
Subsoil or regolith The sub layer of soil which contains materials
removed from the top layer of the soil by seepage
of water it is more compact and usually composed
of fine particles
Texture Size of the soil particle
Humus Dead and decayed plant and animal matter

Page 10,11

Give reasons (soils in India)

1.Q Different regions in India have different kind of soil for agriculture
Ans Due to change in nature of parent rock , type of relief, climate

Q alluvial soil vary in texture

A As it is a transported soil from hills to plains

Q All crops grow well in riverine (Alluvial) soil

A As it is a renewed every year by fresh deposits of alluvium and is Loamy

Q Black soil is largely found in Deccan trap region

A And it is formed by weathering of basaltic igneous rocks

Q Deltaic alluvium is more fertile than coastal alluvium

A As it is rich in humus

Q Black soil is referred to as cotton or Regur soil

A As cotton is growing well in this soil

Q Laterite soil is useful for construction purpose

A As it has a unique drying property

Q Soils in western ghats are affected by wind erosion

A Due to heavy rainfall, steep slope and deforestation

Q Foothills of Himalayas are prone to excessive soil erosion

A Due to deforestation and steep slope and heavy rainfall

Q Red soil is red in colour

A Due to presence of Iron oxide

Q Shelter belts reduce soil erosion in arid areas

A Roots of the trees hold the soil particles together

Q Rural development will influence soil conservation

A Will lead to planting of more trees, afforestation and use of biofertilizers

Q Water harvesting aids in soil conservation

A As running water which otherwise would have gone waste and eroded, the soil would be stored
for future use

Q There is a need for conservation of soil as a natural resource

A Soil gives us food, shelter, clothing and takes millions of years to be formed

Q Khadar is superior to bhangar

A As it is renewed every year by fresh deposits of alluvium

Q Large areas of agricultural land in Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have been
transformed into ravines
A Due to stream bank erosion

Q Valleys in Himalayas are prone to soil erosion

A Due to overgrazing in the valleys

Q Heavy pressure on land is the main cause of soil erosion

A Do you two construction purposes

Q Overgrazing leads to soil erosion

A Cattle freely graze on open lands and making them bare of vegetation

Q Northeast part of India and South Indian Hills are affected by soil erosion
A Due to steep slope and heavy rainfall

Q Cutting down of trees leads to soil erosion

A No routes to hold the soil particles together
Q There is an acute need to prevent soil erosion
A to maintain the fertility of the soil , to maintain the underground water table

Q Red and laterite soil are not suitable for cultivation

A Poor in HUMUS, poor in nitrogen, acidic, porous and cannot hold moisture

Q Red soil requires irrigation

A as it is porous and cannot hold moisture

Q Black soil does not get leached

A As it is porous

Q Black soil needs to be tilled after first rain

A To conserve the water (moisture) as the soil is clayey in nature

Q Red soil is ideal for dry farming

A As it is porous and cannot hold moisture

Q Man is largely responsible for soil erosion

A Due to overgrazing, deforestation, mining , faulty methods of farming

Q Afforestation should be practiced on a large scale

A Roots can hold the soil particles together

Page 12
Natural vegetation of India

Word Definition
Silviculture Science for cultivation of trees for sustainable yield
Natural vegetation Refers to the plant cover that has not been disturbed for a long time and
has adjusted to the climate and soil condition
Forests A large tract of land, covered with trees and shrubs
Van mahotsava Movement in which thousands of trees have been planted along
roadsides and railway lines
Afforestation The scheme of plantation of new forests
Re-Afforestation Restoration of fires in which two saplings are planted to replace every
felled tree
Deforestation Indiscriminate cutting of trees on a large scale
Woodlands A large area of valuable timber wood forest 9
Flora Refers to plants of a particular region or period listed as a species and
considered as a group
Forest refers to a large tract of land covered by trees and shrubs

The use of forests

Direct use Indirect use

Major and minor products
1) Productive functions 2. Protective functions
Major : wood for timber, fire wood and pulp a. Forest control the flow of water
Minor : Lac, resins, KHUS , gums, herbs b. Thick layer of humus prevents the
evaporation of water
c. Humus act as a natural sponge to soak the
rainwater in the soil
d. Root system prevents soil erosion
e. He wants increases the fertility of soil
3) Regulatory functions
a. Regulates carbon cycle
b. Regulates water cycle
c. Brings rainfall
4) Accessory functions
a. Forests provide habitat for
wildlife
b. Provide aesthetics and recreation
to human beings through national
Parks and Wildlife centuries

Page 13

Types of natural vegetation

A) Tropical deciduous forests
i. Moist deciduous
ii. dry deciduous

Climatic conditions
Temperature From 23 degrees Celsius to 27 degrees
Celsius
Rainfall 100 to 200 centimeter
Humidity 50% to 80%

Distribution/ areas
a. Eastern side of western ghats
b. Northeastern part of peninsula
c. Shivalik sent chota Nagpur plateau
d. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Maharashtra

Characteristics
a. Trees shed their leaves for six to eight weeks during spring and early summer
due to shortage of water in the subsoil
b. Exist in pure stands
c. Hard and durable wood
d. Commercially most important and most widespread vegetation because trees
are found in single stand, wood is hard, durable and valuable

Trees grown
a. Sal, teak, sheesham Construction of furniture
b. Mulberry silk worm seed on Mulberry leaves
c. PALAS Shellac worms feed on Palas Leaves
d. Sandal Ornament, aromatic substances, perfumes,
soaps
e. Babool Medicines

B) Tropical Ever green forest

Climatic conditions
Temperature 25 degrees Celsius to 27 degrees Celsius
Rainfall More than 200 centimeters
Humidity Exceed 77%

Distribution/ areas
i. Western side or windward side of western Ghats (Kerala)
ii. Hills of northeast region (Meghalaya)
iii. Andaman and nicobar islands
 iv. Kerala and Coast of Tamil Nadu

Characteristics
i. Forests are dense
ii. Multilayered
iii. Variety of Species i.e. Not found in a single strand
iv. Dense under growth with climbersand epiphytes
v. Evergreen trees
vi. Tall trees with thick canopy which block the sunlight which makes the
forest look dark and gloomy and you stops carpet layers of herbs and
grasses
vii. Forests are difficult to exploit are commercially unimportant because
of mixed species of trees, dense and luxuriant growth, lack of
transport due to marshy lands

Trees grown
Ebony Ornamental carving and decoration
Rosewood Furniture
Gurjan and Sissoo House Construction
CHAPLAR Shipbuilding, furniture
Telsur Bridge and Boats

Important: trees in this vegetation are Evergreen that is they don’t have a fixed time
to share their leaves or to Floiva. That is why forests appear green all the year around.
They look Evergreen do too bright sunshine and heavy rainfall more than 250
centimetres throughout the year
 C ) tropical desert forest or tropical thorn forest
Climatic conditions
Temperature Between 25 to 27 degrees Celsius
Rainfall Less than 50 centimeters
Humidity Below 47%

Distribution/ areas
Kutch, saurashtra , Gujarat, southwest Punjab, Rajasthan

Characteristics
a. xerophytic vegetation due to paucity of rainfall
b. stunted growth of coarse grasses
c. Long routes to suck groundwater
d. Leaves have been modified into spines to reduce rate of
transpiration

Trees grown
Babul / Acacia Tanning leather and medicine
Ber Fruit turned into pickle and rich in vitamin C
Neem Medicinal value
Khair Dying and tanning
D) Littoral, tidal or mangrove forests
(means a longer shore submerged under tidal water)

Climatic conditions
Temperature 26 to 27 degrees Celsius
Rainfall More than 200 centimeters

Distribution/ areas
Ganga Brahmaputra delta, sundarban deltas of Godavari, Krishna and
kaveri , mahanadi

Characteristics
i. Evergreen trees with different density of heights
ii. Supported by stilt roots or Pneumatophores which act as respiratory organ
during submergence under tidal water
iii. Epiphytes
iv. Dense forests
v. Resistance to salty and fresh water

Trees grown
Sundari Used for construction and boat making
Gorjan
Hintal
 E) Mountain Forests
In the mountain region temperature decreases with altitude

Climatic conditions
Temperature 12 to 13 degrees Celsius
Rainfall 100 to 300 centimeters
Humidity 56 to 65%

Distribution/ areas
Himalayan zone: arunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,

peninsula region: Vindhyas come on Nilgiri

Characteristics
i. Mixed with species of Evergreen and Conifer
ii. At foot hills of Himalayas deciduous trees are found
iii. At 2000 meter it is temperate forests (called sholas in nilgiri)

Trees grown : Laurel , Magholir , Cinchona ,Wattle, Chirpine

Correlation of the forest with environment

1. Forests are moderators of climate and they control precipitation
2. Play a dominant role in carbon cycle
3. Play a dominant role in controlling soil erosion
4. Forests help in water percolation and maintains underground water table
5. Decay of leaves provides humus and increases fertility of the soil

Causes of decline in shrinkage in forest causes of deforestation

1. Rapid population growth and converted forest into farm lands
2. Forests have been converted into pastures
3. Overgrazing in the forests
4. Ever increasing demand for timber
5. Construction of multi-purpose projects has led to destruction of forests

Effects of deforestation
1. Decline in forest productivity
2. Lead to soil erosion
3. Reduces precipitation
4. Increased greenhouse effect in the atmosphere
Conservation measures
1. Increasing the area under forests
2. Afforestation around industrial areas
3. Stopping indiscriminate felling of trees
4. Using alternate source of energy
5. Proper legislation and its implementation
6. People’s participation
7. Establishing corridor between different reserved forests

Environmental role /protective functions / Indirect uses of forests

1. Moderators of climate
2. Play a dominant role in carbon cycle
3. Control soil erosion
4. Maintains underground water table
5. Decayed plant life adds humus to the soil

Agro Forestry: combines the raising of trees along with animal rearing on a piece of land by local
participation with growing crops. Thus there is a simultaneous production of food, fodder,
fuel, timber I’m a fruit

Farm forestry a practice of growing trees on a farm land to produce sellable products like timber
and charcoal etc and provide shade and shelter for stock and crops

Objectives of agro and farm forestry

i. Reduce pressure on natural forests
ii. Check soil erosion
iii. Maintain psychological balance

Social Forestry : management and production of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the
purpose of helping in the environment, social and rural development

Objectives of social forestry

i. fulfilling the recreational needs of the people
ii. Providing fuel wood and timber to rural people
iii. Developing of local cottage industries by providing raw material
iv. Providing employment opportunities to local people
National Forest policy : lays emphasis on sustainable forest management in order to conserve and
expand forests reserve and to meet the needs of the local people

Objectives of National Forest Policy

i. Conserve natural heritage
ii. Check soil erosion in catchment areas
iii. check extension of sand dunes
iv. Increasing the productivity of forests
v. Meeting the requirement of fodder, timber call mark wood of rural and tribal people

Natural Vegetation Question and Answers

1. Why Evergreen forests are so named 1. They do not have a fixed time to shed
their leaves
2. Forests have a favorable effect on the 2. They lead to rainfall
climate of the region
3. Forests as a flood control measure 3. Roots absorb the rainwater, reduces
floods and maintain groundwater
4. Wind wand side of western charts have 4. Because of more than 250 centimeter
Evergreen forests of rainfall
5. Deccan plateau has thorn and shrub 5. Because of very low rainfall less than
vegetation 100 centimeter (rain shadow area of
western Ghats)
6. Leeward side of western hearts have 6. Because of 100 to 200 centimeter of
tropical deciduous vegetation rainfall
7. Tropical Evergreen forests are difficult 7. Mixed varieties of tree growth together
to exploit
8. Thorn and shrub vegetation is found in 8. Because of less than 50 of
eastern Rajasthan
9. Tidal forests are found in sundarban 9. Because of less than 50 centimeter of
rainfall as the land is covered with tidal
water all throughout the year
10. Forest are an important natural 10. They maintain water table, humus,
resource stops erosion, bring rainfall
11. Tropical desert forests adapt themselves 11. Long routes to draw groundwater,
to the dry climate leaves modified in two spines to reduce
transpiration
12. Mangrove forests have stilt roots 12. Actors breathing organ in tidal water
13. Forest cover in India is shrinking 13. Overgrazing, forest fires and
deforestation
14. Tropical deciduous forests are 14. Trees are found in single stand, wood is
commercially important hard, durable and valuable
15. Forest must be conserved 15. They give timber, pulp, maintain
humus, groundwater table, stop
erosion
16. There is a rapid depletion of forest 16. Overgrazing, forest fires and
resources in India deforestation
17. Tropical monsoon deciduous forests 17. Trees are found in single stand, wood is
have a great commercial value to India hard, durable and valuable
18. Tropical Evergreen forests appear green 18. No fixed leaf fall season , bright
all the year around sunshine and rainfall more than 250
centimeter annually
19. Tropical Evergreen forests look gloomy 19. Thick canopy blocks the sunlight
and have absence of carpet layer
20. Rainfall is an important factor which 20. For example windward side of the
decides the type of vegetation of a western ghats have tropical Evergreen
particular region forests because of more than 250
centimeter of rainfall
21. Forests are grown in and around the iron 21. To reduce pollution
and steel industries
22. Trees grow vigorously in tropical 22. Bright sunshine and more than 250
Evergreen forests centimeter of rainfall
23. Forest floor lack graser in tropical 23. Canopy blocks the sunlight
Evergreen forest
24. There is a great variety of natural 24. Due to different climatic conditions,
vegetation in India relief and soil
25. Man is responsible for shrinkage of 25. Deforestation, overgrazing and multi-
natural vegetation purpose projects(dams)
26. Dams are leading to destruction of 26. Dams caused loss of forests and wildlife
vegetation in the upper courses of the river in a
hilly region
 Water resources
a) Surface water water on land in the is the result of the precipitation or seepage
from underground which forms streams and rivers flowing on the land and
finally joining the sea

b) Groundwater some of the water sinks into the soil. The water which gets
collected under the surface of the land is groundwater which remains in the soil,
subsoil or bed rock

c) Irrigation refers to the process of watering of agricultural plants through

artificial means from wells, tanks, tubewells, canals etc.

Need for development of irrigation facilities is due to the following

i. Uneven distribution of rainfall

ii. Uncertainty of rainfall
iii. Seasonality of rainfall
iv. Nature of the soil
v. crop equirement
vi. Multiplicity of crops
vii. To maximize production of crops
viii. To utilize river water effectively

Favorable geographical factors for the development of irrigation

i. Perennial rivers
ii. Levelled cultivated land
iii. Sufficient underground water
iv. Suitable sites for constructing tanks
v. Suitable sites for constructing dams

There are three methods of irrigation in India : well , canal and the tanks:
about 50% of the area is irrigated by wells, another 40% by canals and
about 10% by tanks. Wells, in Inundation canals and tanks are conventional means of
irrigation

Surface well or ordinary well

Water from well is lifted by 4 ways(traditional ways)
i. Persian wheel
ii. Inclined plane method or Mhote
iii. Level method or Dekhli
iv. Bucket system
Wells are of two types : tube wells and surface or ordinary well
A tube well is a boring through which water is lifted from the ground with the help of
electricity

Well irrigation is widespread in northern India (northern plains) of UP, Punjab

,Haryana due to the following reasons
i. HIgh water table in Ganga plain
ii. Easier to dig due to soft Alluvial soil
iii. Adequate rainfall which constantly replenishes groundwater
iv. Cheap Hydel power for lifting water through pumps

Prerequisite for well irrigation

i. Water table should be high
ii. Soft soil easy to dig
iii. Clay bed that act as a reservoir
iv. Power and diesel should be easily available
v. Soil should be fertile and can produce enough to meet the cost of irrigation by
tube wells
( Point no. iv and v are for tube well)

Advantage of ordinary well

i. To operate and construct
ii. Cheap to operate and construct
iii. Oxen Kept for ploughing can be used to lift water from well

Drawbacks of Ordinary well

i. Traditional wells dry up due to lowering of water table
ii. Difficult to dig in hilly regions and rocky regions
iii. Uses animal and manual labor
iv. Irrigates small areas

Advantages of tube wells

i. Irrigates large areas
ii. Less chances of drying or perennial means of irrigation
iii. They are more reliable during periods of drought
iv. Easier to bring up water in a short period of time

Drawbacks of tube well

i. Leads to depletion of groundwater
ii. Useless if water is brackish
iii. Expensive as it loses complex machinery and power
iv. Leads to pollution
Comparisons
Surface well tube well
Dries in dry season Less chances of drawing as it
takes out water from
permanent water table
irrigates small areas irrigates large areas
Uses manual and animal Uses electricity
labor
cheap Expensive
Simple Complex machinery
Eco friendly Leads to pollution
Tube wells are today most popular source of irrigation in India. Well and
tubewell have contributed to the success of green revolution in
India.(UP,Punjab,Haryana)

Canal irrigation northern plains ,Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana

Is more widespread in northern India where rivers are perennial, soft soil to dig
and flat land to construct canals
Two types of canals
i. Perineal canals flows throughout the year as it takes water from a
perennial river. It irrigates large areas
ii. Inundation canals flows only during monsoon season how’s it takes
water from a seasonal river. the area covered is small

North India (UP, Punjab, Haryana) are better suited for canal irrigation as
compared to South South India

i. Perennial rivers in north India

ii. Flat land in northern India to construct canals
iii. Soft soil to dig canals in northern India
iv. Construction of canals in economically more beneficial in northern India
since agriculture is the main of main occupation of majority of the
people

Advantages of Canal Irrigation

i. Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation
ii. In arid regions of Rajasthan they have proved to be a boom
iii. Have you enabled Punjab and Haryana to be called granary of India

Disadvantages of canal irrigation

i. Unlined canals lead to water logging in nearby areas.
 ii. Excessive flow of water in the fields raises the level of groundwater.
Alkaline salts come to the surface, mixed with soil and make it
unproductive often called problem of Reh
iii. Waterlogging may ruin the standing crops
iv. Water logging may become a breeding ground for mosquitoes

Important canals in India

Punjab SirHind canal, bhakra canal, upper barbari doab canal
Uttar Pradesh Sharda, upper Ganga, lower Ganga
Haryana Western Yamuna, bhakra canal
Maharashtra Tapi, Warna, pravara canal
Tamil Nadu Mettur, aliyar canal
Bihar Son, kosi and gandak canal
Karnataka Vishweshwaraya, Malprabha Canal
Rajasthan Indira Gandhi Canal(Asias longest canal), Takes water
from Beas,Sutluj and Ravi. Irrigates gangaNagar,
Bikaner, Jaiselmer

Tank irrigation
Prerequisite for tank irrigation
i. Presence of rocky strata which prevents seepage of water
ii. Adequate rainfall to fill up the dry tank

Tank Irrigtion is more widespread in peninsula India (Andhra Pradesh and

Tamil Nadu)
i. Rivers are not snow fed, depend on rain water
ii. Seasonal streams, cannot supply water to canals
iii. Non porous hard rocks which don’t suck up water
iv. Terrain of deccan is uneven with many natural depressions
v. Hard Rock make it difficult to dig canals and wells

Advantages of tank irrigation

i. Tanks are natural and don’t involve high cost of construction
ii. Beneficial for storing abundant rainwater that otherwise would have
gone wasted
iii. It is easier to construct tanks on rocky lands than digging canals and wells
iv. In uneven rocky plateau of South where rainfall is seasonal tank
regulation is useful

Disadvantage of tank irrigation

i. Get Silted up soon and regular the desilting is required
ii. When monsoon failed there tanks go dry
 iii. Huge quantity of water gets evaporated as sinks underground
iv. Tanks occupy large fertile areas which otherwise would have been used
for growing crops
v. Lifting up water is difficult and costly affair

Conventional methods of irrigation : wells, canals, tanks

Modern:- spray, sprinkler, Furrow, drip irrigation
Comparison
Conventional Modern
i. Wastage of water i. Conserve water
ii. Leads to evaporation ii. Reduces evaporation and
and seepage of water seepage
iii. wastage of iii. No wastage of agricultural land
agricultural land
iv. Most of the time iv. Most of the time complex and
simple and cheap expensive
v. Irrigates large area v. Irrigates a small area

Drawbacks of conventional means of irrigation

i. Large quantities of water is not properly used
ii. Crops are subjected to cyclic changes of flooding
iii. Low lying fields are subjected to water logging
iv. Lot of waste of agricultural land
v. Large cultivable lands have subjected to accumulation of………..

Modern methods of irrigation

Furrow :- water is given to the fields by making narrow channels dig between
rows of crops, instead of distributing water evenly throughout the whole field,
useful where water is cheap

Spray irrigation water is released through spray guns to the field from water
source. Expensive, complex machinery, but he utilizes the water more
efficiently. Water is lost through evaporation and plants catch diseases due to
excessive moisture

Drip irrigation water is passed through perforated pipes that are placed
between rows of crops so that it gives water directly to the crops. As a result
evaporation is reduced and water is conserved

Sprinkler irrigation a pipe fitted with a nozzle on the top used two throw water
directly to the required plant. As a result there is no loss of water by seepage or
by evaporation. It is expensive , helpful for small areas used for crops which
require less water
Need to conserve water / water crisis in India
i. Over exploitation of underground water often results in lowering of
water table
ii. Increase in population leads to water scarcity
iii. Water resources like ponds, lakes and river are polluted
iv. Irrigation utilizes more than 90% of freshwater
v. Water demand for industrial use will increase more than two times by
year 2025

Suggestions for conservation of water resources

i. Curbing reckless use of water resource and minimizing their wastage
ii. Promoting to recycling and reuse of water
iii. Controlling water pollution and purifying water for other uses
iv. Diverting floodwater to dry and drought prone areas
v. Creation of more water storage reservoirs
vi. Adopt modern methods of irrigation
vii. Rainwater harvesting
viii. Develop techniques for recharging underground water
 Rainwater harvesting on roof top rainwater harvesting (practiced in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu)
Collecting and storing rainwater from a rooftop this roof rain water harvesting
rainwater. rainwater collected from the catchment area (rooftop) can be stored
for direct use or can be recharged into groundwater in the form of recharge pits,
recharge trenches, dug wells and percolation pits via conduit( pipeline). it can
be stored in tanks, PVC tanks, vessels on the ground for direct use.

Watershed management
Refers to efficient management and conservation of both surface and
groundwater resources. It includes prevention of runoff water and storage and
recharge of groundwater by various methods like recharge pits, recharge
trenches, dug wells, percolation pits and permeable surfaces .

Objective of rainwater harvesting and watershed management

1. To meet the increasing demand of water
2. to reduce runoff which chokes the drain
3. to avoid flooding of roads
4. to save underground water table
5. to reduce groundwater pollution
6. to reduce soil erosion
7. to supplement domestic water needs

Methods of water harvesting

There are two methods or mechanism of water harvesting
I. Rainwater harvesting for example stored in container for ready use
II. Recharge of groundwater for example charged into soil 4 withdrawal
later for example recharge pits, for collision pits, recharge trenches, dug
wells, permeable surfaces

Components are elements of rainwater harvesting system

Catchment area surface that directly receives the rainwater for example
rooftop, terrace, courtyard or a garden
Conduits are pipelines to transfer the rainwater to harvesting system like tank
or percolation pit
Storage facility rainwater can be stored in containers PVC tanks RCC tanks on
the surface
Recharge facility rainwater can be charged into groundwater by making
structures like percolation pits Calvary charge trenches, Doug wells and
recharge fits

Modern days of rainwater harvesting

Recharge pits, Recharge trenches, percolation pits , dugwells and permeable
surfaces
Ancient methods of rainwater harvesting
Tanks,Johads,Zingr,Kundr,Baolos and Khadims( all spelling check from book)

Recharging groundwater aquifers

i. Recharge pit excavated into the ground, lined with a brick wall with
openings at regular intervals
ii. Percolation pits is a bored up to 30-centimeter diameter drill into the
ground to a depth of three to 10 meters
iii. Recharge trenches are activated on the ground and refilled with porous
media like pebbles and boulders to harvest the surface run of water
iv. Permeable Surface Like a patch of grass to retain the rain water