Introduction to International Relations

International relations (IR) or international affairs (IA) commonly also referred to

as international studies (IS), global studies (GS), or global affairs (GA) is the study
of interconnectedness of politics, economics and law on a global level.
International relations can be defined as political activities and other kinds and
aspects of interactions among two or more states. The academic field of
international relations is a branch of political science that is concerned with the
study of relations between states, the foreign policy of nation-states, and the
mechanisms and institutions (such as international organizations, inter-
governmental organizations, international and national non-governmental
organizations and multinational corporations) through which states interact. The
study of international relations involves many subjects such as international and
regional peace and security, international organizations, nuclear proliferation,
globalization, human rights, economic development, intervention, international
financial relations, and international trade relations.
International relations refer to the ways that states, groups of people,
organizations and individuals interact with and affect one another. It
could also be defined as the study of the political and social interaction of
state, non-state actors, and individuals. Traditionally, the scope of
international relations was limited to the ways states related and affected
one another.
However, in contemporary times, international relations (IR) as part of
its menu also examine the role of non-state actors on the global stage. At
its most fundamental level, IR deals with the interactions between the
countries of the world, which are the most basic building blocks of the
international system.
Concept of International Relations
The concept of international relations comprises two words; these are:
‘International’ and ‘Relations’. The prefix ‘Inter’ denotes between; from one
to the other. While ‘national’ is connected with a nation; or refers to share by a
whole nation. Therefore, the word international here indicates the involvement
of people from two or more countries or societies. In the other hand, the word
‘relation’ shows that the people do not just meet but as well interact or relate
among themselves. The ‘s’ at the end of the word relation connotes plurality of
these interactions. The concept of IR has two broad meanings. – IR as an
activity and as an academic discipline. IR as an activity can be viewed as
interactions among people of different nationalities in one side representing
states organizations, corporations and international personalities. In the other
side, IR as an academic field of study is about the study of these relations’
structures, processes and issues as they relate to the activities.
Indeed, no nation can live in isolation independent of other nations.
Whether big or small, rich or poor, powerful or weak, every nation depends
on other nations. This explains why all states in the international system live
in an atmosphere of interdependence and relationships. International
Relations (IR) is the study of these relationships and cooperation by
international actors. These relationships linked with other actors such as
international organizations (IOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
transnational corporations (TNCs) and notable individuals make them
interdependent. What is relevant in our attempt to understand the meaning
of IR is the fact that people from different countries or societies get in
contact and interact or relate with one another in search of one objective or
the other. These relations among people of different nations representing
governments, organizations, corporations, religious bodies, groups and
individuals are referred to as international relations.
Example of the practical meaning of IR can be seen by because Nigerian
businessmen and women travel to various countries in Europe, Asia, America
and Africa to buy different products and goods or work in offices or factories
as people of other nationalities. Others go to foreign universities to acquire
knowledge. Equally, representatives of governments, international
organizations, transnational corporations, leaders of terrorist, liberation,
human right groups and private individuals meeting conferences, seminars,
summits, ceremonies, wars, peace missions etc. with the view to achieving
one policy objective or the other. Recently, the outbreak of pandemic of
Coronavirus (Covid-19) in 2020 has made it possible for Nigeria to receive in
support materials and personnel for curtailment of the spread of the pandemic.
Indeed, the bulk of such contact, affairs and interactions constitutes the
practice of IR and has attracted volumes of literature within the global
scholarship.
Definition and Scope of International Relations
A. Definition of International Relations:
• Trevor Taylor (1979) defines international relations as: “A discipline, which tries to
explain political activities across state boundaries”. According to Ola, Joseph
(1999), “International relations is the study of all forms of interactions that exist
between members of separate entities or nations within the international
system”.
• Prof. Charles Schleicher defines international relations as the relation among
States.
• Hartman defines International Relations as a field of study which focuses upon the
"processes by which states adjust their national interest to those of other states."
Since national interests of different states are often in conflict, Morgenthau
concludes that international politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power.
Therefore, power is the means through which nations promote their national
interest.
International Relations is the study of relationships and interactions
between countries, including the activities and policies of national
governments, international organizations (IGOs), nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It can be
both a theoretical subject and a practical or policy subject, and
academic approaches to it can be either empirical (Focuses on facts and
evidence) or normative (focuses on values and opinions) or both. It is
often considered a branch of political science, but it is also a subject
studied by historians (international or diplomatic history), and economists
(international economics). As well, it is a field of legal studies (public
international law) and an area of philosophy (international ethics). From
that broader perspective IR clearly is an interdisciplinary inquiry,
(Sørensen 2013).
International relations involve the study of power and influence in the
international system, analysing how countries use diplomacy, economic
tools (trade policies, foreign aid, sanctions), and military force to achieve
national interests and maintain global order. The field addresses global
issues such as war and peace, human rights, environmental sustainability,
economic development, and international trade, seeking solutions through
international cooperation and policy-making. It involves both historical
analysis of past events and contemporary analysis of current global affairs,
examining how historical events have shaped the present international
system and how contemporary issues will influence the future (Smith,
2013).
Quite often, some IR scholars view international relations as a mix of power
structure and cooperation in relationships among nations. Power is
germane to international politics. Indeed, power is the currency of the
international system. This explains why some scholars define international
relations in terms of power relations between states. For example, Stanley
Hoffman posits that “the discipline of international relations is concerned
with the factors and the activities which affect the external policies and
power of the basic units into which the world is divided.” Wright (1955)
defines IR as “the study of relations between and among powerful groups.”
Traditionally, the study of IR focused on questions of war and peace.
The movement of armies and diplomats, the creating of treaties and
alliances, the development and deployment of military capabilities-
these issues dominated the study of IR in the past, particularly in the
Cold War era.
One of the earlier scholars of international relations, Professor Alfred
Zimmern had written before the Second World War that: "International
Relations is clearly not a subject in the ordinary sense of the word. It
does not provide a single coherent body of teaching material. It is not a
single subject but a bundle of subjects of law, economics, political
science, geography, and so on”.
B. Scope of International Relations
As a subject of study, International Relations is relatively new and
developing subject. Its scope has continuously expanding and developing.
The scope of study of International Relations includes the following
major areas or topics:
1. Domestic Policy/Politics: Domestic policy is a subject matter of
public policy. It entails laws, administrative decisions, government
programs which are directly related to the internal issues and activity
of a nation. Domestic policy covers a wide range of areas: disaster
management, business, education, energy, health care, law
enforcement, money and taxes, natural resources, social welfare, and
personal rights and freedoms.
2. Relations in Conflict and Cooperation: International relations
studies relations between two or more states, which are very often
complex and influenced by a variety of geopolitical, historical, social,
religious, ideological, strategic and leadership factors. Broadly speaking,
these relationships have taken the form of cooperation and conflict.
Cooperation and conflict are two side of the same coin. Inspire of the
fact that they were more conflict in international history than
corporation Both Co-Existed throughout the various periods of history
International relations is primarily a study of both conflictual and
cooperative inter-state relations.
3. General and Diplomatic History: In the initial years of the beginning of
the discipline, its studies were mainly historical. International relations were
considered identical with international or diplomatic history for quite a long
time. Under this tradition, certain major events were taken up for analysis
against a historical perspective. After some time, historical approach was
replaced by many new and better approaches yet historical facts and events
have not lost their relevance to international relations. For example, to study
the recent indo-Pak relations one has to go back into the past to know their
historical background. The study of general and specially the diplomatic
history cannot be separate from International relations.
4. Power:
Power, as a concept, has great semantic amplitude, and is used for an
extremely diverse area of the social, economic, military etc. situations.
Most definitions have in common an actor’s ability to exercise influence
over another, and, in this respect, one of the most accurate definitions is
the one given by Robert A. Dahl, who sees the power as "the ability to
make others do what they otherwise would not do", but this can only
happen if that actor has the ability to do so, in other words if it has a
potential.
In the post Second World War period power became the central theme in
the study of international relations. According to Morgenthau
international politics is nothing else but power Politics and can be
realistically understood only if viewed as the concept of interest defined
in terms of power of a national state.
Dimensions of Power
a) Military Power: The capability of a nation to use military force. This
can include the size of the armed forces, technological advancement,
and nuclear capabilities.
b) Economic Power: The ability of a state to influence global economic
conditions. This includes control over resources, trade relationships,
and financial systems.
c) Political Power: The capacity to shape international norms, rules, and
institutions. States often use diplomatic channels to build alliances and
influence international policies.
d) Cultural Power: The influence a country has through culture, values,
and ideology. Media, education, and cultural exchanges play significant
roles in this dimension.
5. International Law and Organizations: According to Beckman & Butte
(2012), International law consists of the rules and principles of general
application dealing with the conduct of states and international
organisations in their international relations with one-another and with
private individuals, minority groups and transnational companies. Key areas
of international law include human rights law, which protects individual
freedoms; international humanitarian law, which governs armed conflict
conduct; international criminal law, addressing serious crimes like genocide;
and environmental law, which regulates global environmental responses.
An international Organisation, is a collection of countries that come together
for a particular purpose defining the mandate of the organization and investing
in it a legality that is agreed to by the participating countries. It is also known
as an intergovernmental Organisation or an international institution. It can
be established by a treaty, or under by international law. The best examples are
the United Nations, AU, NATO, Amnesty International, International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and etc.
6. War and Peace: War and peace in the international system are interconnected concepts that
define how states and actors engage in conflict and cooperation. War arises from disputes over
territory, political disagreements, resource competition, or ideological differences, leading to
armed conflict that disrupts global stability and creates humanitarian crises. Governed by laws
like the Geneva Conventions, warfare seeks to limit its impact on civilians and combatants.
Conversely, peace represents the absence of conflict, where states engage in diplomacy and
cooperation, facilitated by international organizations such as the United Nations. These
organizations promote peace through mediation and peacekeeping efforts, while treaties and
alliances help maintain stability. Ultimately, the dynamics between war and peace are
influenced by power relations, diplomacy, and adherence to international laws, as countries
strive to balance national interests and prevent escalation into war.
7. Foreign Policy: The sovereign states conduct their foreign relations and interact with each
other through their foreign policies and, thus foreign policies are international politics is like a
charter containing national interests showing the areas of agreement and disagreement. It
explains the ideals with which the state would exert its influence and the limit of its total
effectiveness. Though foreign policies are not the be-all and end-all of international relations
yet they constitute a significant part of its study.
8. National Interest: National interest refers to the essential goals and
priorities that a country considers vital for its survival, security, and
overall well-being. This concept encompasses factors such as
safeguarding the nation against external threats and ensuring sovereignty,
promoting economic growth and stability, supporting political stability,
and protecting the nation's cultural identity and values on the global stage.
Additionally, it involves increasing the country’s influence in international
relations to shape global issues to its advantage. National interest serves
as a guiding principle for a country’s foreign policy, impacting its
strategies in diplomacy, trade, and conflict resolution.
9. Alliances and Groupings: Alliances and groupings refer to partnerships
or agreements formed between countries or organizations to achieve
common goals, enhance security, or promote mutual interests. These can
take various forms, such as military alliances like NATO (North Atlantic
Treaty Organization), where member states commit to mutual defence;
economic alliances such as the European Union (EU), which facilitates
trade and economic cooperation among its members; and political
groupings like the G7 or G20, which focus on discussing and addressing
global economic policies. Overall, alliances and groupings illustrate how
nations collaborate to increase their influence and effectiveness in tackling
regional or global challenges.
10. International Politics: International politics is the study and practice of
interactions between countries and other global actors, focusing on how
they pursue their interests, manage conflicts, and cooperate on various
issues. It encompasses a range of elements, including diplomacy, power
dynamics, international law, global governance, security concerns, and
the influence of non-state actors, all aimed at understanding the
complexities of global relations and decision-making processes in the
international arena.
11. Strategic Studies: This deals with developments in military technology
and their impact in the conduct of war. It also focuses on the policies of
alliances, warfare, disarmament and arms control in the international
system.
History of International Relations
The history of international Relations can be approached practically and
theoretically. The practical international relations refer to the actual
interactions of actors across national boundaries; while theoretically, we mean
the historical development of international relations as a field of study.
1. The History of International Relations as a Practice
Nations have been interacting from the ancient period when kings and other
traditional rulers exchanged emissaries and gifts, negotiated treaties, engaged
in commercial activities, waged wars, formed alliances, settled political
disputes, conducted sporting festivals such as the Olympic games etc. This
was most manifest in the ancient Christian World and the Papacy. There were
also some forms of international relations in Africa, Asians, and Europe
between and among the different kingdoms, Empires and even individuals
located in various societies.
These international contacts became more pronounced and defined after
the formation of the modern nation-state system during the Westphalia
treaty of 1648. The new nation-states with their sovereignty intensified
their interaction with one another resulting in more trade links, foreign aid,
colonialism imperialism, conferences, wars and forms of diplomacy.
2. The Historical development of International Relations as a Field of Study
The Development of international Relations as a field of study has a long
history of growth and development. This is another important factor that
proves, International Relations has indeed developed a distinct academic
discipline. Between 1900-1939, the study of international relations gradually
progressed and as an academic discipline it received a wider recognition
during the inter-war period (1919-1939). Its development was further aided
by the many universities, research bodies, and organizations that showed a
great interest in International Relations at the time. The league of Nations
also had a considerable role to play in the development of International
Relations as a distinct discipline, as it encouraged the study by its work as a
forum for international discussions and by sponsoring many international
conferences.
The development of international relations as an academic discipline can be divided into
few phases such as the prenatal, organizational, cold war and scientific phases, Kenneth
Thompson has summed it up in the following stages.
1. The period of 1900-1918 -up to the end of the First World War, the study of
International Relations was dominated by diplomatic historians who prioritized
historical narratives over political analysis. Their main focus was on describing past
events and the diplomatic relationships between nations rather than analyzing
contemporary political dynamics.
2. The period of 1918-1930 - starting after the end of the First World War, it was focused
only on the study of current affairs as a reaction to the excessive concentration on the
past, done during the period of 1900- 1918.
3. The period after 1945 -This was the period following the Second World War During
this era people had lost faith in the power and authority of international organizations and
international law as a tool of maintaining peace, because of the failure of the League of
Nations to prevent another world war. Therefore, the emphasis of this period shifted
towards a scientific analysis of the developments of international politics. Scientific
studies were conducted on what causes war, how to avoid war, what influences the
behaviour of states, etc.
 Previous session questions
Q1: What are the phases in the development of international relations as an academic discipline,
as summarized by Kenneth Thompson?

Q2: Distinguish between national interest, foreign policy, and diplomacy?

Q3: What are the key areas of international law, and how do
international organizations function?
 Answers
An1:
According summarized by Kenneth Thompson the study of International Relations evolved through three periods:
1. 1900-1918: Historians focused on past events and diplomatic relationships, rather than current political issues.
2. 1918-1930: It was mainly focused only on the study of the current affairs.
3. Post-1945: After World War II, people doubted international organizations, leading to a focus on scientific analysis
of war and state behaviour.
An2:
National Interest defines what a country seeks to achieve. Foreign Policy outlines the strategies to reach those goals.
Diplomacy is the method of engaging with other countries to implement foreign policy and negotiate agreements.
An3:
 Human Rights Law: Protects individual freedoms and rights.
 International Humanitarian Law: Governs conduct during armed conflicts, protecting non-combatants and limiting
warfare methods.
 International Criminal Law: Addresses serious crimes like genocide and war crimes, holding individuals accountable.
 Environmental Law: Regulates global responses to environmental issues, promoting sustainability and protecting the
planet.
An international organization is a group of countries that come together for a specific purpose. It has a mandate that outlines
its goals and operates under agreed-upon legal rules. These organizations work to promote cooperation and address global
issues like peace and security.
International Politics and International Relations

International relations and international politics also differ in their aim.

The ultimate aim of International Relations is the establishment of
‘International peace’ through cooperation & agreement among
different nations promoting mutual interests. In comparison to it,
International politics is ‘struggle for power’ through conflicts, wars,
political maneuvers among different nations.
International politics and international relations are often used
interchangeably. At times there is a semantic Confusion created by some
scholars in the use of the two terms. But a brief distinction between the two
will suffice at this point, even though we can consciously or unconsciously
use the two terms here. International politics is the study of the international
community in a rather narrow sense, which centres on diplomacy and the
relations among states and other political units, whereas, international
relations is a term Properly embracing the totality of the relations among
peoples and groups in the world society. From this simple distinction, it can
be simply recognized that international relations are broader in meaning and
scope than international politics.
Importance of International Relations
International relations are an exceptionally important aspect of citizenship in a
global society. As our world becomes smaller and smaller through
communication technology, rapid air transportation and a complex
international economy, the value of peaceful and cooperative relationships
between nations is increasingly important.
1. Peace
Historically, one of the oldest expressions of international relations was the
establishment of treaties and agreements between nations. Maintenance of
these treaties ensured that ordinary people could go about their everyday
tasks of earning a living and raising their families rather than dedicating
themselves to armed conflict with neighbours. This function of
international relations remains just as relevant today.
2. Economy
Positive international relations also promotes effective trade policies
between nations, both in terms of importing natural resources and
finished products not available in one country and in terms of gaining
access to the larger market afforded by exports to foreign countries.
International relations define the requirements and limitations of cross-
border trade.
3. Immigration
Besides the transport of goods over international borders, people also
frequently migrate between countries, looking for opportunities to
enhance their lives. This travel may be temporary or permanent, but in
either case it must be regulated to ensure the rule of law--criminals must
be kept out of the country while legitimate business, tourist and
immigrant travel is preserved. International relations plays a key role in
determining border control policies.
4. Global Concerns
Nations often face global issues that are larger than any specific country or
even continent, such as concerns over the environment, pandemics and
terrorism. Sound international relations are required for nations to
cooperate effectively to meet these challenges, allowing nations to share
relevant information quickly and pool resources.
5. Culture
International relations are not only about regulating and controlling the
flow of goods and information, they are also advantageous for promoting
the advancement of human culture in a general way. The diversity of world
cultures can be promoted and shared through enlightened international
relations policies, allowing programs such as student exchanges and
cultural exhibitions to enhance our understanding of the variety of human
expression worldwide.
Purpose of International Relations
There are four purposes of a discipline as dynamic as international
relations cannot be overlooked:
1. Understanding Variations Between Nation-States: The study of
international relations arises from the variations that exist between
nation- states that make up the international system. For instance, in the
study of national power, there are variations such as size, population,
natural resources, industrial capacity, military strength, climatic
factors, technological development, and so on. It is the study of
international relations that will enable us to know the various indices of
national power and how to measure the strength and weakness of a
nation in the international system.
2. Addressing Global Problems: Today, there are many problems that affect
mankind which have attracted international attention such as poverty,
hunger, disease, infant mortality, ignorance, and the abuse of human
rights, to mention but a few. It is through the study of international relations
that these problems can be understood and solutions sought to them by the
world community. Although these problems may appear to be individual
problems of a particular country or region, they may directly or indirectly
affect the rest of the world.
3. Fostering International Cooperation: The fostering of international
cooperation appeals to many people today more than ever before. Thus, the
desire to know more about the impact of international events on our lives is
central to the study of international relations. The possible threat of nuclear
war is most disturbing to the international environment. There is need to
discover alternatives to end the threats of nuclear war, and international
action against political violence and terrorism.
4. Ensuring Human Survival in an Interdependent World:
Furthermore, in our interdependent world, the study of international
relations is essential for human survival; for, without an objective and
pragmatic approach to human problems, international life would be
meaningless. At best, we can say that the study affords the human race a
more objective and systematic approach to those problems that have
confronted mankind for long.
 End Chapter
Any Questions?
Q1. How do alliances and groupings impact Somalia's foreign policy and national interest?
An. Alliances and groupings influence Somalia's foreign policy and national interest by enhancing
security, fostering economic cooperation, and increasing political influence. Partnerships with
organizations like the African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development provide
military support and facilitate trade, directly contributing to national stability and economic growth.
Additionally, strategic alliances with countries like the U.S. and Turkey shape Somalia's diplomatic
efforts, allowing it to better protect its sovereignty and pursue its national interests on the global stage.
Do you have any suggestions or recommendations?
I recommend listening actively, participating in discussions, communicating
respectfully, attending classes regularly, and setting personal goals. These steps
will enhance your classroom experience and improve the learning environment.

Thank you for your attention.