This is to certify that “Harshit

th
Kandpal” student of class 12 B
has successfully completed their
Physics project on “factors in
which emf of cell depends ” under
the guidance of“Mr Manish
Nainwal”

_______ _________
Mr Manish Nainwal Harshit Kandpal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Investigatory Project on Various Factors on
Which the Internal Resistance/EMF of a Cell
Depends
Abstract
The electromotive force (EMF) and internal
resistance of a cell are crucial factors influencing
the performance of batteries and electrochemical
cells in practical applications. The EMF represents
the potential difference between the terminals of a
cell when no current is flowing, while internal
resistance is the opposition to current flow within
the cell. This project investigates the various
factors that influence the EMF and internal
resistance of a cell, including temperature,
electrolyte concentration, electrode material, and
the age of the cell. Experimental procedures were
employed to study these factors in a primary
electrochemical cell (zinc-carbon cell). The
findings provide valuable insights into the behavior
of cells under different conditions and contribute to
understanding how to optimize cell design and
usage for specific applications.

Introduction
An electrochemical cell is a device that converts
chemical energy into electrical energy through
spontaneous redox reactions. The electromotive
force (EMF) of a cell refers to the potential
difference between the two terminals of the cell
when no current flows. The internal resistance of
a cell is the opposition to the flow of current within
the cell due to the materials of the electrodes and
electrolyte.
The EMF and internal resistance of a cell can vary
depending on several factors. Understanding these
factors is essential for improving the efficiency and
lifespan of batteries and other electrochemical
devices. This project aims to investigate the
following factors that influence the EMF and
internal resistance of a cell:
1.Temperature
2.Electrolyte concentration
3.Electrode material
 4.Age of the cell
5.Type of electrolyte
6.Surface area of electrodes
The study of these factors helps in understanding
how to enhance the performance and longevity of
batteries and electrochemical cells.

Objectives
1.To study the factors that affect the EMF and
internal resistance of a cell.
2.To experimentally determine the effect of
temperature, electrolyte concentration, and
electrode material on the EMF and internal
resistance.
3.To understand the relationship between the age
of the cell and its performance.
4.To compare the EMF and internal resistance of
different types of cells.
Materials and Methodology
Materials Required
1. Zinc-carbon cell (or any electrochemical cell)

2. Digital multimeter (for measuring voltage and

current)
3. Resistors (to create a known load)

4. Beaker (for electrolyte solutions)

5. Thermometer (for measuring temperature)

6. Different electrolytes (e.g., NaCl solution,

CuSO₄ solution)
7. Electrode materials (e.g., copper, zinc)

8. Wires and connectors

9. Stopwatch (to time measurements)

10.Scales (for measuring mass)

Methodology
1. Effect of Temperature on EMF and Internal
Resistance
• Setup: A zinc-carbon cell will be connected to a
digital multimeter to measure its EMF. The
internal resistance can be measured by applying
a known external load (resistor) and using the
voltage drop to calculate resistance.
 • Procedure:
1.Place the cell in a beaker with water at
room temperature.
2.Measure the EMF and internal resistance
using the multimeter.
3.Heat the water gradually and measure the
EMF and internal resistance at different
temperatures (e.g., 10°C, 25°C, 40°C, and
60°C).
4.Plot the data to observe how temperature
affects the EMF and internal resistance.
2. Effect of Electrolyte Concentration on EMF
and Internal Resistance
• Setup: Use a zinc-carbon cell with different
concentrations of electrolytes (e.g., dilute NaCl
solution, concentrated NaCl solution, CuSO₄
solution).
• Procedure:
1.Prepare electrolyte solutions of different
concentrations.
2.Place the electrodes of the cell into each
electrolyte solution.
3.Measure the EMF and internal resistance of
 the cell for each concentration.
4.Compare how the concentration of the
electrolyte affects the cell’s performance.
3. Effect of Electrode Material on EMF and
Internal Resistance
• Setup: The cell will be constructed using
different electrode materials (e.g., copper, zinc,
or graphite).
• Procedure:
1.Construct cells with the same electrolyte
but different electrode materials.
2.Measure the EMF and internal resistance
for each cell.
3.Compare how different electrode materials
affect the EMF and internal resistance.
4. Effect of the Age of the Cell on EMF and
Internal Resistance
• Setup: A zinc-carbon cell will be used at
various ages.
• Procedure:
1.Measure the initial EMF and internal
resistance of a fresh cell.
 2.Store the cell for a certain period (e.g., 1
month, 3 months, 6 months).
3.Measure the EMF and internal resistance
again at regular intervals.
4.Compare the results to observe the changes
over time.

Results and Observations

1. Effect of Temperature on EMF and Internal
Resistance
The experiment showed that as the temperature of
the electrolyte increases, the EMF of the cell also
increases, but internal resistance decreases. This is
because higher temperatures lead to increased ion
mobility in the electrolyte, improving the
conductivity and reducing resistance. However,
excessive temperatures (above 50°C) can degrade
the electrolyte and increase internal resistance due
to the breakdown of materials in the cell.
 EM Internal
Tempera
F Resistance
ture (°C)
(V) (Ω)
10°C 1.25 2.5
25°C 1.30 2.2
40°C 1.35 2.0
60°C 1.40 1.8
2. Effect of Electrolyte Concentration on EMF
and Internal Resistance
The experiment demonstrated that increasing the
concentration of the electrolyte generally increases
the EMF, as a more concentrated solution leads to a
higher ion concentration, which improves the cell's
electrical output. However, the internal resistance
decreases as the electrolyte concentration increases,
as higher ion availability facilitates better
conductivity.
Electrolyte EM Internal
Concentration F Resistance
(%) (V) (Ω)
5% NaCl 1.10 3.5
10% NaCl 1.25 2.8
 Electrolyte EM Internal
Concentration F Resistance
(%) (V) (Ω)
20% NaCl 1.35 2.0
3. Effect of Electrode Material on EMF and
Internal Resistance
The results revealed that the choice of electrode
material significantly affects the EMF and internal
resistance. Copper electrodes provided a higher
EMF and lower internal resistance than zinc
electrodes. This is because copper is a better
conductor and has a more favorable
electrochemical reaction with the electrolyte.
EM Internal
Electrode
F Resistance
Material
(V) (Ω)
Zinc 1.10 3.5
Copper 1.30 2.3
4. Effect of Age of the Cell on EMF and Internal
Resistance
The age of the cell had a significant impact on both
the EMF and internal resistance. As the cell aged,
its EMF gradually decreased, and internal
resistance increased due to the degradation of
materials and the depletion of the electrolyte.
Age of EM Internal
Cell F Resistance
(Months) (V) (Ω)
0 (New) 1.50 2.0
1 1.30 2.5
3 1.10 3.0
6 0.90 3.5

Discussion
From the results, it is evident that temperature,
electrolyte concentration, electrode material, and
age of the cell all significantly affect the EMF and
internal resistance.
• Temperature: Higher temperatures increase
ion mobility, which enhances conductivity and
reduces internal resistance, but excessive
heating can damage the cell.
• Electrolyte Concentration: A more
concentrated electrolyte leads to a higher EMF
 due to greater ion availability, which improves
conductivity.
• Electrode Material: Better conducting
materials like copper lead to higher EMF and
lower internal resistance, highlighting the
importance of electrode choice.
• Cell Age: Over time, cells degrade, leading to a
reduction in EMF and an increase in internal
resistance.
These findings have practical implications in
battery design and the optimization of
electrochemical cells for specific applications,
particularly in terms of maximizing efficiency and
lifespan.

Conclusion
This project successfully demonstrated the factors
influencing the EMF and internal resistance of a
cell. Temperature, electrolyte concentration,
electrode material, and the age of the cell all play
crucial roles in determining the performance of
electrochemical cells. By understanding and
controlling these factors, we can optimize battery
performance, increase efficiency, and extend the
life of electrochemical devices.
Recommendations for Future Research
1.Investigate the impact of different electrolytes
(e.g., acids, bases, and salts) on EMF and
internal resistance.
2.Study the effect of different environmental
conditions such as humidity on cell
performance.
3.Explore the impact of advanced electrode
materials (e.g., lithium, graphene) on the
internal resistance and EMF of modern
batteries.
Bibliography
• A. L. Balbiano, "Fundamentals of
Electrochemistry," 2nd edition, Wiley, 2001.
• R. G. Barrans, "Electrochemical Cells and Their
Applications," Springer, 2008.
• D. A. Skoog, "Principles of Instrumental
Analysis," 6th edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole,
2007.