DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL

PLANNING (URP)

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES

ND11- CIVIL ENGINEERING

Element of Geo- Informatics (GIT 201)

NOVEMBER 2024
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WHAT IS GIS:
The recent advancement in geographic theory has led to the development of
integrated system, while the need to appreciate the multi-dimensional nature
of geographic data importance factor in the renaissance of the relevance
geography to all disciplines

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

SCIENCE
There is a difference between Geographic information system and Geographic
information science. Geographic information system is built upon the
knowledge of geography, cartography, computer science, information system
and mathematics while Geographic Information Science is a relatively new
interdisciplinary field built out of the use and theory of GIS.
The ability of GIS technology to integrate database operation is a form of query
and statistical analysis with a unique regularization of geographical analysis
distinguishes from other information system and thus making it a valuable
assistant to a wide range of both public and private enterprises in their day-to-
day activities.
GIS

G I S
Geographic Information
System

Spatial Data Geo-reference Users Hardware Software

Information Representation

GIS Flow Chart

TERMS TO DEFINE
Geo-informatics is the body of knowledge (theory) that deals with the
acquisition (using different methods), processing and management of geo-
information. Thus, the understanding of concepts and use of various data
acquisition techniques such as land surveying/Geodesy, photogrammetry and
digital image processing/ Remote Sensing for acquiring spatial data as input
into a GIS database, the processing and management of such data and
production of information from such system. i.e science and technology of the
acquisition, storage, analysis, manipulation and dissemination of geo-
information.

MAP: Map making is an exacting activity because a huge amount of

information and detail must be superimposed on the map with great accuracy.
The databases for mapping are large and complex, and the main task of GIS
software in map production is to gather the relevant data from the databases
and convert them into the desired lines and shapes of the map. This is
achieved through interactive processing, which provides soft copy displays for
visual appreciation and editing purposes on screen. It is only when satisfactory
result is obtained that hard copy display (permanent record of the image) is
produced.

COMPUTER CARTOGRAPHY (OR DIGITAL MAPPING)

Computer cartography (or digital mapping) is concerned with automatic
method of producing maps, generally at medium to large scale. After acquiring
digital maps, they are coded and structured. They are then edited using an
interactive graphics editing software. Further processing, which includes the
following will proceed.
1. Merging of individual data sets acquired by different methods and
organizations, and at different times.
2. Selection of data so that only a limited part of the available data set or only
certain types or classes of map data will be displayed or plotted
3. Transformation of data into different map projections or grid systems or
into different formats so that they become compatible with specific
engineering design.

When a graphics image or any other type of documentation is created, it is

displayed on the screen or the graphics terminal. The display medium of
computer graphics generated pictures is widely diversified. Typical examples
are pen and ink plotters, dot matrix, electrostatic or laser printer or plotters,
storage tube, calligraphic refresh and raster scan, cathode ray tube (CRT)
display.

Although other display technologies are in use, the majority of computer

graphics systems utilize some form of CRT display.
The three most common types of CRT display technologies are:

Element of Geo - Informatics (GIT 201) 2

 Direct view storage tube (line drawing),
Calligraphic (line drawing) refresh, and
Raster scan (point plotting) refresh displays.
However, other systems have also been developed which incorporate more
than one technology (Rogers)

The refresh display type ensures the production of display image by

continuously refreshing the illumination after every 30 -60 second’s intervals.

The raster display uses raster-based scan pattern to generate the graphic
image on the display screen,

While the storage tube display, once displayed remain so far, a long time.

Database is an organized, integrated collection of non-redundant data stored

so as to be capable of use by relevant applications with the data being
accessed by different logical paths, it is theoretically application, independent
but rarely so in practice.

There are many definitions of GIS, which is reflection of the proliferation of

ideas and concepts in GIS therefore, some of the definitions are as follows
 A system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing and
displaying data which a spatially reference to the earth (DOE 198 pg. 132)
 Any manual or computer-based set of procedures used to store and
manipulate geographical referenced data (Ron of 1989 pg.38)
 An institution entity, reflecting an organization structure that integrates
technology with database expert and continuing financial support over
time (Carter, 1989 pg. 3)
 A special case of information system where the data consists of
observations on spatial distributed features activities of events which are
definable in space or points, lines and areas to retrieves data for ad hoc
queries and analyses (Ducker, 1979 pg. 106)
 Is a software package that is unified sets of tools and concepts for handling
and displaying spatial information in the computer.
 Defined also as the art, science or technology dealing with the acquisition,
storage, processing, presentation and dissemination of Geo-information.
 As a configuration of hardware, software, communication networks and
analytical procedures for the extraction of information from data to
support decision-making so as to achieve planning or managerial
objectives.

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 Is a computerized information system for capturing, storing, integrating,
manipulating, analyzing, checking and displaying data which are spatially
reference to the earth. It is normally considered to involve a spatially
referenced and structured digital database, and appropriate applications’
software.
A cursory look at the above definitions reflects different emphases of authors.
The answer to this different emphasis of definitions can be explained from the
observation of (COWEN 1989), that GIS is not a field itself, but rather, the
common ground between information processing and the many fields utilizing
spatial analysis techniques.
Before we go further, we will attempt a definition that captures the different
approaches itemized above.

GIS is a unique integration of computer hardware, software, peripherals,

procedural techniques, organizational structure, people and institution of
capturing, manipulating, storing, analyzing, modulating, modeling and
displaying of geographically reference data for solving complex human related
problems.

GIS has much to do with digital mapping ( (Kennie & Petrie,) , which has
graphical outputs as its vital components. However, there are significant
features which distinguish GIS from digital mapping. They include, databases to
store both graphical and attributes data about individual features or areas
present in the landscape, a database management system (DBMS), and the
requisite software or tools to process and analyze the data held in the system.
The degree of complexity of GIS operations compared with simple digital
mapping is designed to achieve greater flexibility and completeness in data
analysis and result presentation, just like any digital mapping techniques, GIS
techniques is widely used in thematic mapping for production of multi –
coloured topographic, soil and geological maps by government and private
mapping agencies.

COMPONENTS OF GIS
A GIS has 5 major components, namely
a. Hardware
b. Software
c. Spatial database
d. Procedures
e. Expertise

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 1. HARDWARE:
This comprises the physical equipment used for GIS operations, such as
computers, GPS devices, and data storage devices. This component is used to
acquire, store, process and display the content of the digital database. It
includes
a. The data acquisition hardware (e.g GPS, Total station, DIP, stereo plotter,
digitizer)
b. The host computer for the storage and manipulation of data and
c.The output hardware such as (graphic screen, printer and plotter)

2. SOFTWARE:
The software performs the GIS operations. It consists of a collection of four
interrelated software subsystems:
a. Data collection and input software
b. Data storage and retrieval
c. Data manipulation and analysis
 Topologic overlay
 Buffer generation
 Adhoc query
 Modeling
a. Visualization and reporting.
GIS software is essential for processing and manipulating geographic data.
Examples include ArcGIS, QGIS, and Google Earth.
3. SPATIAL DATABASE: This consists of structured spatial data, based on
vector, tessellation or object-oriented data model and implemented by
relational, network, hierarchic, object oriented or object relational data
structure. GIS relies on spatial data, which can be categorized into two
types: spatial (geographic features) and attribute data (information
about these features). Data sources include satellites, surveys, and GPS.
The components of a digital database include:
a. Positional data of object: X, Y, (and Z) coordinates or cells defining the
location of spatial objects being represented in the database eg. Road,
river, city etc.
b. Relationships among the objects: Spatial relationships are explicit
associations between two or more spatial objects. For example, road A
passes through city B, “passing through” thus defines a relationship
between the road A and the city B
 Attributes: observed facts about an object type or relationship

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 Conventions: set of rules and constraints that govern the creation, content,
structure and integrity of the database.
 Operations: computerized actions (program routines) that create,
manipulate, maintain and display the objects, attributes and relationships

4. Procedures: These are the algorithms and rules used for integrity checks,
transaction controls, database updating etc. they are usually
implemented as conventions and operations in the database.

5. Expertise: Human expertise is crucial for GIS. Professionals in this field

analyze data, interpret results, and make informed decisions. They also
design and manage GIS systems. People who provide the intelligent to
use the system. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a technology
that helps analyze, interpret, and visualize spatial data.
GEO - SPATIAL DATA
Types of Geospatial Data:
a. Vector Data: Represents geographic features as points, lines, and polygons.
Ideal for discrete data like roads, buildings, and administrative boundaries.
b. Raster Data: Organized into a grid of cells, where each cell holds a value.
Suited for continuous data such as satellite imagery, elevation models, and
land cover maps.
Data Sources:
 GPS (Global Positioning System): Utilizes a network of satellites to provide
accurate location information. Widely used for mapping, navigation, and
tracking.
 Remote Sensing: Involve s gathering information about the Earth's surface
using sensors on satellites or aircraft. Provides data on land cover,
vegetation, and environmental changes.
 Surveys: Ground-based data collection through methods like
questionnaires, interviews, or direct measurements. Surveys contribute
information on demographics, land use, and socio-economic factors.
 Geospatial data, sourced from these technologies, enables comprehensive
mapping and analysis, supporting diverse applications across industries.
SPATIAL ANALYSIS:
a) Overlay operations
b) Buffering and proximity analysis

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c) Spatial querying and geo - processing
SPATIAL ANALYSIS IN GIS INVOLVES
 Overlay Operations: Combining multiple layers of spatial data to reveal
relationships or intersections. This helps identify areas where different
features coincide, facilitating in-depth analysis.
 Buffering: Creating a zone or buffer around a specific geographic feature,
measured in distance. Commonly used to assess proximity and
relationships between features, such as finding areas within a certain
distance of a point or a buffer around a road.
 Proximity Analysis: Examining the relationships between features based on
their distances. This can involve measuring distances between points,
determining the nearest features, or analyzing spatial patterns.
 Spatial Querying: Selecting and retrieving data based on its spatial
characteristics. For example, querying to find all points within a specific
area or polygons intersecting with a given feature.
 Geoprocessing: Operations that manipulate and analyze spatial data. This
includes tasks like spatial joins, where information from different layers is
combined based on their spatial relationship.
 These spatial analysis techniques provide valuable insights into geographic
patterns, relationships, and trends, aiding decision-making in various fields
such as urban planning, environmental science, and emergency
management.
GIS SOFTWARE:
Hands-on experience with popular GIS software (e.g., ArcGIS, QGIS)
Data input, manipulation, and visualization
ARCGIS:
 Data Input: Import various data formats such as shapefiles, geodatabases,
CSV files, and raster datasets. Use tools to digitize or input spatial features
directly into the software.
 Data Manipulation: Perform spatial analysis using a wide range of tools,
including overlays, buffers, and geoprocessing functions. Edit attribute
data, update features, and modify geometries.
 Visualization: Create maps with a variety of symbology options to
represent data visually. Customize map layouts, labels, and legends for
effective communication.

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QGIS:
 Data Input: Import shapefiles, Geo TIFFs, GPS data, and various other
spatial formats. Add data from online sources like WMS or WFS.
 Data Manipulation: Conduct spatial analysis using the Processing Toolbox,
which includes a wide array of geoprocessing tools. Edit and update
attribute data using the attribute table.
 Visualization: Customize map styling with a range of symbols, colors, and
labeling options. Design print layouts for creating maps and reports.
Both ArcGIS and QGIS offer a user-friendly interface for spatial data
exploration, analysis, and visualization, making them powerful tools in the field
of Geographic Information Systems.
REMOTE SENSING
Remote Sensing involves collecting information about the Earth's surface
without direct physical contact, typically from satellites or aircraft.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum: Remote sensors capture data across the
electromagnetic spectrum, from visible light to infrared and microwave
wavelengths. Different bands provide information about various features
on Earth
 Platforms: Sensors are mounted on satellites, aircraft, drones, or other
platforms to capture data from different altitudes and resolutions.
 Image Interpretation and Analysis:
 Visual Interpretation: Involves examining images to identify and
understand features based on their visual characteristics. Color, shape,
size, and texture help in recognizing objects.
 Digital Image Processing: Enhances and manipulates digital images to
extract useful information. Techniques include contrast enhancement,
filtering, and image classification.
 Image Classification: Categorizes pixels within an image into distinct
classes or categories. This is vital for land cover mapping, identifying
vegetation types, and monitoring changes over time.
 Change Detection: Compares different images of the same area over time
to identify changes, such as urban expansion, deforestation, or natural
disasters.

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Remote sensing technology plays a crucial role in monitoring and managing the
Earth's surface, providing valuable data for applications in agriculture,
environmental monitoring, disaster response, and more.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) PRINCIPLES
 Satellite Network: GPS relies on a constellation of satellites orbiting Earth,
transmitting signals that GPS receivers on the ground use to calculate
precise locations.
 Trilateration: GPS receivers determine their position by measuring the
distance from at least three satellites. Trilateration involves intersecting
spheres to pinpoint the receiver's location.
 Accuracy and Precision: GPS accuracy is influenced by factors like satellite
geometry, signal interference, and atmospheric conditions. Differential GPS
(DGPS) correction improves accuracy.
INTEGRATION OF GPS DATA INTO GIS:
 Data Collection: Use GPS receivers to collect spatial data in the field. This
can include points, lines, and polygons representing features like
infrastructure, land boundaries, or ecological observations.
 Data Transfer: Transfer GPS data from field devices to GIS software.
Common formats include GPX (GPS Exchange Format) or directly importing
data into GIS databases.
 Geo-referencing: Align GPS data with existing geographic datasets by
assigning coordinate systems. This ensures accurate spatial integration.
 Attribute Assignment: Associate attribute information with GPS data,
providing additional details about each location. This enhances the
informational value of the spatial data.
 Visualization: Display GPS data within GIS software, allowing users to
visualize and analyze spatial relationships. This integration is essential for
mapping, spatial analysis, and decision-making.
 Integrating GPS data into GIS enhances the accuracy and richness of
geographic information, enabling a wide range of applications in fields like
environmental monitoring, asset management, and urban planning.
THE HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE FOR REQUIREMENTS FOR GEO –
INFORMATICS
A GIS is concerned with data management and analysis of large volumes of
geographically related data. It is a decision support system as well. Basically,
the components of a GIS include Hardware and software. The system can be
designed to function as stand – alone or in a network environment.

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The advances in the hardware and software technology in the 1990s have
brought about such new instrumentation as: pen computers for rapid update
of cadastral databases and CD ROM for map data storage.

MINIMUM CONFIGURATION OF HARDWARE

For efficient GIS performance in the case of a stand-alone unit the hardware
platform requires, say:
 16 megabyte of RAM
 600 megabyte of hard disk
 100MHZ clock speed.
There are several hardware platforms which meet such requirements: e.g SUN,
HP, IBM and Compaq, etc
Types of hardware stand-alone
There two types of hardware platforms currently in use. They are:
 Stand alone and
 Network hardware platforms
Stand alone (PCs) hardware platform
This consists of a single computer with attached peripherals such as printers,
scanners or digitizers

Network hardware platform

The principle of this network hardware platform consists of two or more
computers connected together to exchange data and /or share resources (D.).
The connection may be through phone line or cable.
The resources include:
 Hard disk
 Programs (software)
 Printers
 Other devices
Types of network
There are two types of network system they are:
a) Local area network (LAN)
b) Wide area network (WAN)
Local area network (LAN): This consists of desktop computers connected to
share resources within a small area.
Wide area network (WAN): This consists of desktop computers connected to
share resources within a wide area.
Categories of computers
This network computers environment includes:

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1. Server: A computer providing resources to be shared on a network (multi
server)
2. Host: (may be server) manages the network
3. Desktop computer: A computer in a network environment
4. Workstation: A desktop computer that is connected to a network. This
indicates that additional resources are now available to the desktop
computer.
A workstation may be:
 Server
 Client
Software appraisal
Software refers to the programmes which work in the computer hardware. It
makes computer do something useful (Dangermond pp. 70 - 91). Software can
exist in:
1. A stand – alone computer for one user
2. A network to multi-users

Software is of two types:

a. Operating system software
b. Application software.

Operating system software

This makes the computers do what is required. The common operating
systems are: MS DOS and UNIX
In the 1990s, the common standard for operating systems includes:
 Motif user interface
 Open look interface
 Window (’95, ’97) interface
 Window NT

Application software
This is used by analysts and programmers to handle specific tasks. GIS
packages form part of the applications software. Presently, there are many GIS
packages in the market that perform various spatial analyses.
GIS software: This includes:
 Proprietary GIS software
 Data acquisition software
Proprietary GIS software basic function and capabilities (Shyllon, Dangermond,
Parker et al)
a) An interface to a standard electronic data recorder

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b) Data input and edit function (manual from keyboard or data files)
c) Data manipulation function, which includes:
 The reduction of angles and distances
 The application of correction
a. Display facility on the screen and hard-copy in 2 –D or 3-D or multiple
scales.
b. Data analysis as obtained in statistical application, which may include:
 smoothing,
 filtering,
 prediction,
 location and allocation modeling,
 building topology ,
 map generalization
c. Data integration for data captured from different sources such as:
 COGO data ,
 GPS survey data ,
 Aerial triangulation data,
 remotely sensed data,
 data files such as DXF, ASCII, etc
d. Command language for developing user customization and interface in:
 4th generation language,
 C, C ++ etc,
 macros, etc
e. Data management which may include module for managing:
 spatial database,
 attribute database

Classification and examples

GIS software may be PC or workstation based. Examples of GIS software
include:
 ARC/INFO (PC and workstation – based)
 SLIMPAC (PC-Based)
 ER MAPPER (PC and workstation-based)
 ATLAS GIS (PC-based)
 MGE (PC & workstation-based) etc.
Limitations
GIS software capabilities may be limited in the sense that they may possess
only:
 Raster capabilities
 Vector capabilities

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 Modular structure
 CAD based functions
 Object based functions
 High-cost components

Data acquisition software

For every digital data acquisition system, there is a software module resident
inside the system for purposes of data handling.

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 REFERENCES
D., Derrick. Network Know - How: Concepts, Cards and Cablel. MC Graw - Hill:
Osborul,, 1992.

Dangermond, J. A classification of software components commonly used in

Geographic Information System. Proceeding U.S. Australia Workshop on
the design and implementation of computer baded Geographic
Information System. Honolulu, Hawaii, 1993.

Kennie & Petrie,. Engineering Surveying Technoly,. New York: JOhn Willey and
Son, 1990.

Rogers, D.F. Procedural Elements for Computer Graphics, Mc Graw - Hill, n.d.

Shyllon, Dangermond, Parker et al. Mapping information system: Spatial Data

Management for Offshore Oilfield Services "Mphil Thesis", A
classification of software components commonly used in Geographic
Information System. Proceeding U.S. Australia Workshop on the design
and implementation, . 1993, 1983, 1991.

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