Unit-IV

TRANSFORMERS-I
Introduction :

Transformer is a static machine which transformers electrical energy trough

magnetic field between two circuits which are at two different voltage levels with out
changing frequency.

Uses of transformers:
1. Transformer makes possible Generation at 11 KV, transmission at 765 KV and
Distribution at 11KV/33KV and utilization at 415V
2. Transformers are used to couple the cascaded systems like multi-stage amplifiers
2. It is used for electrical isolation between two circuits.
3. It is used to object the flow of DC while conducting AC.
Working principle :
Consider a coil connected to an Alternating
current as shown in figure. It produces an alternating flux or the
space around the coil is filled with alternating flux. If we place
another coil having N2 no.of turns, an emf E2 is induced in it due
to the rate of change of flux linkages with it. This is given by
d
E2 = N 2
dt

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 For a given flux produced by the first winding, the emf E2 can be increased by
increasing N2 or by decreasing the leakage flux or by providing a good magnetic
conductor between two windings. Hence, Iron core is placed between two windings as
shown below.

Transformer works based on ‘Electro-magnetic Mutual induction principle’ The

winding which is connected to source is called ‘Primary winding’ and the winding which
is connected to load is called ‘secondary winding’. E1 and E2 are the emfs induced in
primary and secondary winding respectively by the mutual flux Φ. If N2 > N1, then,
E2>E1, then the transformer is called ‘Step-Up transformer’. Similarly, if N2 < N1, then,
E2 < E1, then the transformer is called ‘Step-Down transformer’. If N2 = N1 , that
transformer is called ‘Unit transformer’ which is exclusively used for electrical isolation.
A Step-Up transformer can be used as a Step-down transformer or vice-versa. Hence, the
notation of primary and secondary no longer maintained it the operation changes from
step-up to step down or step down to step up. So, it is most appropriate to refer with High
voltage (H.V) winding and Low Voltage (L.V) winding.
Transformer does not work on DC supply as it does not produce alternating flux.

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Construction of Transformers:
The main parts of a transformer are 1. Primary and secondary windings and 2.
Common iron core. The construction must ensure efficient removal of heat produced in
windings and core due to both copper losses and iron losses so that the temperature rise in
the transformer is limited. Further to prevent insulation deterioration, moisture ingress
into it must not be allowed. These two purposes are simultaneously served by using in
transformer oil. The following fig gives an elementary idea of construction of a
transformer.

The primary and secondary winding are made with Copper to decrease the ohmic
losses. And generally these windings are concentrated windings.
The magnetic core is made up of silicon steel . The core is laminated to reduce
eddy current losses.
Generally low frequency (25 – 400 Hz) transformers are iron cored and high
frequency transformers are air cored. ( Bm = V/f , as frequency increases, the flux to be
handled will be reduced )

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 The purpose of radiators is to cool the oil by exposing it open atmosphere. The
container or tank is made up of mild steel.
The transformer oil as explained earlier serves two purposes ie., It is acting as a
coolant and as insulation between two windings and zero potential core. The transformer
oil is mineral oil and is flammable. Natural cooling is quite effective as the transformer
oil has large coefficient of expansion. For above 5 MVA transformers, forced cooling is
needed. Cooling process is some what difficult task in transformers than in rotating
machines.
The bushing are made up of porcelain and used to bring out live l.v and h.v
terminals out side.
Energized Transformers produce a noise called ‘Humming’. The reasons for
getting this humming are:
1.Magneto-Striction : This is the property by which the dimensions of Ferro-magnetic
materials change when they are subjected to magnetization.
2. Continuous circulation of oil in transformer tank with out using any pump due to
unequal densities of oil.
Types of Transformers
By the way of arranging windings on core, the transformers are classified into two
types. They are
1. Core type Transformers 2. Shell type transformers

1. Core Type Transformers:

In these transformers, windings
surround core as shown. Both LV and
HV windings are made into two equal
sections and placed on two limbs to
reduce the leakage flux. The LV
winding is placed nearer to core and HV
winding is placed over it to reduce

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insulation cost. The mean length of core is more and that of coil turn is low. In this type,
coils are visible and they are suitable for EHV requirements. This construction is most
commonly used.. It uses more iron and less copper.
2. Shell Type Transformers:
In this type, Core surrounds coils like
a shell, hence, the name. It uses sandwiched
winding to avoid leakage of flux. This
construction gives more mechanical support
and good provision for bracing. In this type,
the leakage of flux is very less due to the
usage of interleaving winding than core type
transformers.
Emf Equation:
The following fig shows an ideal transformer (a transformer with no winding
resistance, no leakage flux and no iron losses).

Let Ψ1 be the flux linkages with primary winding = N1 Φ

Let Ψ2 be the flux linkages with secondary winding = N2 Φ
d1 d
The instantaneous value of emf induced in primary winding = e1 = = N1 1
dt dt
Since, winding resistance and leakage flux are assumed to be zero, at every
instant, e1 = v1.

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Since, v1 is sinusoidal emf, e1 must be also sinusoidal voltage which requires sinusoidal
flux in core. Hence, the core flux must be sinusoidal. There fore Φ = Φm Sin wt.
d1 d d (m Sinwt )
Or e1 = = N1 1 = N1 = w.N1mCoswt
dt dt dt
It is cleared from above equation that emf induced leads the flux by 90o. The rms
value of emf induced in Primary winding ( E1) is given by
1 1
E1 =  max .Value =  .N1 . m
2 2
1
=  2. . f .N 1 . m
2
= 4.44. m . f .N1 . ---------------- 1

Similarly, the rms value of emf induced in Secondary winding is given by

E2 = 4.44. m . f .N 2 . volts --------- 2

By dividing equation 1 with 2, we get

1 E1 4.44N1 m f N
= = = 1 =K
2 E 2 4.44N 2 m f N2
Where ‘K’ is called Transformation Ratio. And also from above equation, it is
cleared that
E1 N 1 E1 E 2
= or = (also E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 for ideal
E2 N 2 N1 N 2
transformer)
ie., Volt per Turn on primary is equal to Volt per Turn on secondary.
Consider the equation 1
V1 = 4.44 m fN1
V1
m =
(4.44 fN1 )
V 
= K . 1 
 f 
It means that the maximum value of flux in the core is decided by the ratio of
Supply voltage and frequency. Not alone voltage or frequency. To maintain the max.
value of flux in core constant, the V1/f ratio is to be maintained constant.

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Exercise 1: A 230/460 V transformer is excited by a 230 V, 50 Hz AC supply on primary
side. The secondary winding is having 240 number of turns. Find the number of
secondary winding turns and the maximum value of operating flux in the core
Solution :

Transformation Ratio

The number of secondary turns

The number of primary turns ?

Since, or

Since,

Exercise 2 : A 200 KVA, 11000/415 V, 50 Hz Single Phase Transformer has 2120 turns of
primary winding. Calculate the number of secondary turns, full load secondary current,
primary current and maximum value of core flux.
Solution:
Primary Voltage = V1 = 11000 V
Secondary Voltage = V2 = 415 V
Supply frequency = f = 50 Hz
Number of primary turns = N1 = 2120

Transformation Ratio

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Since, or

As the number of turn should be an integer, we take the number of secondary turns as

The capacity of the transformer = 200 KVA (kilo Volt Amperes)

The full load primary current

The full load secondary current

The primary voltage (or )

Or

The Øm value can also be obtained using secondary voltage

Exercise 3 : In a 220/3000 Volt, 50 Hz Single Phase transformer, the maximum flux

density is 2 wb/m2. The emf per turn is 10 V. Determine a) Number of primary and
secondary turns b) cross sectional area of the core.
Solution :
Primary Voltage V1 = 220 V
Secondary Voltage = V2 = 3000 V
a) Volt per turn on Primary = Volt per turn on secondary

or

And also, or

b)

or

Maximum Flux Density Bm = 2 wb/m2

Maximum flux Density

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 Or

Exercise 4 : A 20 KVA Transformer has 600 turns on the primary and 60 turns on the
secondary. The primary is connected to the 300 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate a) the emf
induced in the secondary winding b) the full load primary and secondary currents c) the
maximum flux in the core.
Solution:
Capacity of the transformer = 20 KVA (kilo Volt Amperes)
Number of primary turns = N1 = 600
Number of secondary turns = N2 = 60
Primary Voltage V1 = 300 V
Frequency = f = 50 Hz

a) Transformation ratio

Also, or

b) The full load primary current

The full load secondary current

c)

Transformer on No-load :
A transformer takes a minimum
current under no-load (even the secondary
winding is open circuited). This current is
called No-load current or Excitation current (
Io). The order of this current would be 3 to 5%
of its rated current. The purpose of this
current is to meet no load losses and to establish the working flux in core. If we assume
there is no hysteresis, no eddy currents and saturation in the core, the current Io must lag

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V1 by 90o . But in a practical transformer, there some hysteresis, saturation of core exists
along with eddy currents. Hence, the
no load current should consume some active
power. It is only possible if Io slightly lags
source voltage by 90o as shown in figure.
( otherwise the active power consumed V1 Io
Cos 90 o becomes zero).

The no load current Io has got two components.

1. Magnetizing component ( Im) ; It is quadrate component of Io and its purpose is to
produces flux in core. It does not consume any active power.
2. Loss Component ( Iw or Ic) : It is in phase with supply voltage V1 and its purpose is
to meet Hystereses loss.
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit of transformer under no-load
conditions.

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The effect of hysteresis and saturation on no load current
The following figure shows the excitation phenomenon in a transformer. The
figure shows the hysteresis loop of transformer core and the required sinusoidal flux
wave in it to produce sinusoidal emf in both primary and secondary windings. The No-
load current Io wave required for producing this sinusoidal flux is estimated as follows.

It is observed from above figure that Io wave gets advanced in its phase by angle
α and it is found to be non-sinusoidal. The phase advancement of Io is shown in following
phasor diagram.
The effect of hysteresis and saturation on no-load
current is
1, to introduce harmonics and make it no-sinusoidal
2. to advance its phase by an angle α.

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The effect of Eddy currents on no load current Io
The fig shows the paths traced by eddy currents in a core of a transformer. The
eddy currents are sinusoidal in
nature as they are produced by
sinusoidal flux. The reflection of
the equivalent eddy current on to
primary is I’e ( = Ii2). So, the final
no load current gets modified to
I 0 = io + I i 2 .

The current I i 2 is assumed to be in phase with V1 as the core is resistive so that V1 I i 2

represents eddy current loss. The final phasor diagram and equivalent circuit of
transformer under no load are shown below.

So, the effect of eddy currents on no-load current is

1. to advance its phase further by angle
2. to not introduce the harmonics as the eddy currents are pure sinusoidal currents.

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Ideal Transformer on Load :
Ideal Transformer
An Ideal Transformer is a transformer which has got
i) Zero primary and Secondary resistance ( hence, no copper losses)
ii) No leakage of flux so that all the flux produced is confined to the core and links with
both the windings. Or in other words, the leakage reactance is zero .
iii) The core losses are zero.
iv) The core has infinite permeability so that zero magnetizing current is needed to
produce required flux ( Io = 0)

Initially it is assumed that no load is connected so that I2 = 0. Hence, I1 must be

V2  E 2  N 2
also zero according to assumption no. (iv) and also = = =K
V1  E1  N 1

Now, connect a load across secondary winding so that I2 has got some value. So,
secondary winding establishes a mmf ( = N2 I2) which
opposes the core flux Φ. Since, the supply voltage V1
is maintained constant, according to the relation,
V1= E1 = 4.44 Φm.f. N1, the Φ value must be
maintained constant. Hence, primary winding must
produce some extra flux whose value is equal to N2 I2
by drawing some current I’2 from source. The mmf produced by this current cancels out
the secondary flux.
There fore, N 2 I 2 = N1 I 2'

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 N 
Or I 2! = I 2  2  = I 2 K = I 1 (since Io = zero)
 N1 
N 2 V2 I 1
Or = = =K
N1 V1 I 2

Or V1 I1 = V2 I 2

It means the KVA rating must be same on both Primary and Secondary sides.

A Real Transformer on Load:

A Real or a Practical Transformer has got finite resistances R1 and R2 and
finite leakage reactances X1 and X2 on its Primary and Secondary windings. Iron losses
are also not zero and it takes a minimum current under no load to establish working flux
as the permeability for a practical core is not infinity.

The load current I2 will be reflected to

primary as explained in last section, and its equivalent
value is I’2 . When this current is be added with no load
Io, we get primary current I1. Hence, there are two
components of Primary current I1. They are
1. No load component Io and
2. Load component I’2 whose value is equal to I2.
K
The voltage equations of both primary and secondary are given below.
V1 = E1 + I1R1+ j I1X1 and V2 = E2 – I2R2- j I2X2

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 The equivalent circuit diagram of single phase transformer is shown below.

Then, the emf equations become,

V1 − jI1 X 1 = E1 + I1 R1 or V1 = E1 + I1 R1 + jI1 X 1
Similarly V2 = E2 − jI 2 X 2 − I 2 R2 or V2 = E2 − I 2 R2 − jI 2 X 2
The following figures show the complete phasor diagrams of a transformer at different
loads.

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The Analyses of a transformer can be made simpler by shifting parameters of primary to
secondary or secondary to primary side.
For shifting resistances from one side to other side, the power losses are equated.
 I 22  R2
I R2 = I R
2
2 1
2 !
2 or R = R2  2
!
2
 = 2
 I1  K
 I 12 
And similarly, I R1 = I R
1
2 2
2
!
1 or R = R1  2
!
1
 = R1 K 2
 I2 
For shifting leakage reactances from one side to other, the equivalent voltage
drops are equated. If, I 2 X 2 is the voltage drop in secondary leakage reactance on

secondary side, its equivalent value on primary side is

(I 2 X 2 ) and its value should be
K
equal to I 1 X 1' . Where X 1' is the secondary leakage reactance referred to Primary side.

I2 X 2 I  1 X
There fore, I 1 X 2! = or X 2! = X 2  2  = 22 .Similarly, X 1! = X 1 K 2
K  I1  K K
The Primary Resistance R1 referred to Secondary side is R1' = R1 K 2

R2
The Secondary Resistance R2 referred to Primary side is R2' =
K2
The Primary Reactance X1 referred to Secondary side is X 1' = X 1 K 2

X2
The Secondary Reactance X2 referred to Primary side is X 2' =
K2
By shifting secondary resistance and reactance to primary side, we get the
following equivalent circuit diagram

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 By connecting shunt parameters across the supply as it does not give much
difference,

The above circuit can be further simplified by adding together the series parameters
as follows.

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 Where R01 is the total resistance of transformer referred to Primary side = R1 + R2'

X 01 is the total reactance of transformer referred to Primary side = X 1 + X 2'

Similarly, the total resistance of transformer referred to Secondary

side R02 = R2 + R1'
The total reactance of transformer referred to Secondary
side X 02 = X 2 + X 1'

Example : A 20 KVA, 50 Hz, 2000/200 V Transformer has leakage impedance of

0.42+j5.2 Ohm on H.V winding and 0.004 +j 0.05 Ohm on L.V winding. Find its
equivalent leakage impedance referred to i) H.V side and ii) L.V side.

Solution : Transformation ratio of transformer = K = 200 /2000 = 0.1

i) To find total leakage impedance ref. to H.V side;

The total resistance ref. to Primary side , ie., H.V side =

R01 = R1 + R’2 = R1+ R2/K2

= 0.42 + (0.004/0.01) = 0.82 Ohm

The total reactance ref. to Primary side, ie., H.V side =

X01 = X1+ X’2 = X1+ ( X2)/K2

= 5.2 + (0.05/0.01) = 10.2 Ohm

There fore, the total leakage impedance ref. to primary or H.V side =

= R01 +j X01 = 0.82 +j10.2 Ohm

ii) To find total leakage impedance ref. to L.V side;

The total resistance ref. to Secondary side , ie., L.V side =

R02 = R2 + R’1 = R2+ R1.K2

= 0.42 + (0.004 x0.01) = 0.0082 Ohm

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 The total reactance ref. to secondary side, ie., L.V side = X02 = X2+ X’1

= X2+ ( X1.K2) = 5.2 + (0.05x0.01) = 0.102 Ohm

There fore, the total leakage impedance ref. to Secondary or H.V side

= R02 +j X02 = 0.0082 +j0.102 Ohm

Alternative method :
Since, the absolute value of leakage impedance of H.V winding is always greater
than that of a L.V winding, ( Even though their percentage values or per unit values
are same ), the value must increase when the resistance or reactance is getting transferred
from L.V side to H.V side and the value must decrease when it is transferred from H.V to
L.V.

To find the total impedance ref. to H.V side ; Zo1 or ZHV = 0.42 + j5.2 + (0.004 + j
0.05) / 0.01 = 0.82 + j 10.2 Ohm

To find the total impedance ref. to L.V side : Z02 or ZLV = 0.004 + j 0.05 + (0.42
+j5.2 )x0.01 = 0.0082 + j 0.102 Ohm.

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Voltage Regulation of a Transformer:
Consider a
transformer whose equivalent
circuit referred to secondary side is
given below. It is cleared from eq.
Circuit diagram that the secondary
terminal voltage V2 will be equal
to secondary induced emf
E2 (= K .V2 ) under no load
conditions ie., when the I2 value is equal to zero. But, when the transformer is loaded, the
secondary terminal voltage will be subjected to variation as V2 = E2 − I 2 Z 2 . This
change in voltage from no load to full load will be E2 – V2. But, for an ideal transformer,
the change in terminal voltage against the change in load should be zero. This figure of
merit of a given transformer is measured in terms of ‘Voltage Regulation’.
Hence, Voltage Regulation is defined as
the percentage change in secondary terminal
voltage from no load to full load expressed in
terms of full load voltage.
% Voltage
E 2 − V2
Regulation = x100 The
V2
approximate phasor diagram of transformer ref. to secondary side is shown below. Since,
the angle δ is very small, the phasor E2 can be taken to be in phase with V2. Then, the
value of E2 = V2 + AB + BC
= V2 + I 2 R02 Cos + I 2 X 02 Sin

or E 2 − V2 = I 2 R02 Cos + I 2 X 02 Sin = Approximate voltage drop.

E 2 − V2 I (R Cos + X 02 Sin )
There fore, % Voltage Regulation = x100 = 2 02 x100
V2 V2

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 It is cleared from above equation that Voltage regulation of a transformer
varies as the load current varies at a given power factor. It is also observed that Voltage
regulation also changes as the load power factor changes at a constant load current I2.

Dependency of Regulation of power factor :

d (Re g )
Condition for maximum voltage regulation = =0
d
I2
= (− R02 Sin + X 02Cos ) = 0
V2

R02 Sin = X 02 Cos

Sin X
or = tan  = 02
Cos R02

R02
or Cos =
Z 02

The above equation shows that the voltage regulation becomes maximum with
inductive loads when the load power factor is equal to the power factor of transformer
equivalent circuit diagram.

Condition for zero voltage regulation:

Voltage Regulation becomes maximum when I 2 R02 Cos − I 2 X 02 Sin = 0

or I 2 R02 Cos = I 2 X 02 Sin

Sin R
or = tan  = 02
Cos X 02

Voltage Regulation value becomes zero with capacitive loads when the load
R 
power factor angle is  = tan −1  02  leading. The following figure shows the variations
 X 02 
in voltage regulation against change in power factor.

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Exercise 1: A 25 KVA, 6350/230 V, 50 Hz transformer is having 15 ohms resistance and
35 ohms leakage reactance on primary side. The corresponding value of secondary
winding are 20 mΩ and 45 mΩ respectively. Find the percentage voltage regulation of
the transformer when the transformer delivers a load current of a) 50 A at 0.8 pf lagging
b) 75 A at 0.6 pf leading on secondary side.
Solution:
Capacity of the transformer = 20 KVA
Primary Voltage V1 = 6350 V
Secondary Voltage V2 = 230 V
Supply frequency f = 50 Hz
The primary resistance = R1 = 15 ohm
The primary reactance = X1 = 35 ohm
The secondary resistance = R2 = 20 milli ohm
The secondary reactance = X2 = 45 milli ohm

Transformation ratio

The total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary side

The total reactance of the transformer referred to secondary side

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Total impedance of the transformer referred to secondary side

a) When the load current is 50 A, pf is 0.8 lagging

and , and

The Voltage Regulation

Since , the load power factor is lagging, + ve sign is considered

Voltage Regulation

b) When the load current is 75 A, pf is 0.6 leading

and , and

The Voltage Regulation

Since , the load power factor is leading, - ve sign is considered

Voltage Regulation

-ve Sign represents that the secondary voltage increases with load and it may
happen with leading power factors.
Alternative method:
The total resistance of the transformer referred to primary side

The total reactance of the transformer referred to primary side

Total impedance of the transformer referred to primary side

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 a) When the load current is 50 A, pf is 0.8 lagging
and , and
The corresponding primary current

The Voltage Regulation

Since , the load power factor is lagging, + ve sign is considered

Voltage Regulation

b) When the load current is 75 A, pf is 0.6 leading

and , and
The corresponding primary current

The Voltage Regulation

Since , the load power factor is leading, - ve sign is considered

Voltage Regulation

Exercise 2: A 15 KVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz transformer is having the leakage impedance of

0.2+j0.6 ohms on primary side and 0.8+j2.6 ohms on secondary side. Find the % voltage
Regulation when transformer feeds half full load current to a resistive load on secondary
side.
Solution:
Full Load Capacity of the transformer = 15 KVA
Primary voltage = V1 = 200 V
Secondary Voltage = V2 = 400 V
Supply frequency = f = 50 Hz
Primary leakage impedance

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Secondary leakage impedance

Transformation Ratio

The total leakage impedance of the transformer referred to secondary side

and

Full load current on secondary side

Half Full load current

Since, the load is resistive, the power factor Cos Ø = 1 , Ø = 00 and Sin Ø = 0

The Voltage Regulation

Transformer Losses and Efficiency:

As the transformer transforms the electrical energy between two circuits through
magnetic link, it does not involve any mechanical rotation. Hence, transformer is having
electrical losses called copper losses and magnetic losses known as iron losses. There
will be no mechanical losses. The transformer losses are
1. Copper Losses or Electrical Losses (WCu) :
a. Primary Copper losses: These losses are due to the flow of current I 1 through
primary winding having the resistance R1 and are given by
b. Secondary Copper losses: These losses are due to the flow of current I2 through
secondary winding having the resistance R2 and are given by
Total Copper losses WCu

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 These losses are current dependent and change as the load on the transformer
changes. Hence, the copper losses are called ‘Variable Losses’ with respect to
load.
If are the copper losses at full load current, then the copper losses:

At Half full load are:

At ¾ full load are:

2. Iron Losses or Magnetic Losses (Wi) :

a. Hysteresis Losses (Wh) : These losses are due to magnetic reversals that take
place in the iron core. The empirical formula for Hysteresis losses is given by

b. Eddy Current Losses (We) : The alternating flux passing though the iron core
links with it and produces eddy currents. The eddy currents thus produced
causes for eddy current losses. The core is laminated to reduce the eddy
current losses. The empirical formula for eddy current losses is given by

Where K1 and K2 are constants. Bm is maximum flux density in iron core and
‘f’ is the supply frequency. The magnetic flux in iron core is maintained
constant with respect to load. Hence, Iron losses are considered as ‘Constant
Losses’.
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to input.

Efficiency η

Since, the output is less than input, the efficiency is less than 100%.

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 The input
Total Losses
The output

Efficiency η

Condition for maximum efficiency:

Or
Constant Losses = Variable Losses

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 Wi
Hence, the load current corresponding to maximum efficiency I1 =
R01

If the above equation is multiplied with V1/1000 on both sides,

Wi
1000  V1  I1 = 1000  V1
R01

Wi I
= 1000  V1  1FL
R01 I1FL

Wi
= 1000  V1  I1FL
R01  I12FL

Iron Losses
KVA corresponding to Maximum efficiency = Full Load KVA 
FL Cu. losses
Exercise 1: A 10 KVA Single Phase transformer has an iron losses of 100 W and Full load
copper losses of 200 W. the transformer feeds a load whose power factor is 0.8 lagging.
Find the efficiency of the transformer at a) Full load b) ¾ th Full load and c) Half Full load
Solution:
Full load capacity of the transformer = 10 KVA
Iron Losses = Wi = 100 W
Full load Copper losses = WCuf = 200 W
Load Power factor = 0.8 lagging
a) At Full load:
Output = WO = 1000 x KVA x Cos Ø

Iron losses
Full load Copper Losses
Total Losses
Input = Output + Total Losses

Efficiency

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 b) At ¾ th Full load:
Output = WO = ( ¾) x 1000 x KVA x Cos Ø

Iron losses (remain constant with respect to load)

Copper Losses at ¾ th Full load

Total Losses
Input = Output + Total Losses

Efficiency

c) At Half Full load:

Output = WO = ( ½ ) x 1000 x KVA x Cos Ø

Iron losses (remain constant with respect to load)

Copper Losses at Half Full load

Total Losses
Input = Output + Total Losses

Efficiency

Exercise 2: A 15 KVA 230/460 V Transformer has the primary and secondary leakage
impedances of 0.065 + j0.4 and 0.25 + j 1.0 respectively. The transformer takes a
power input of 225 watts on no-load. Find the secondary current when the transformer
offers maximum efficiency and the corresponding KVA rating.
Solution:
Full load Capacity : 15 KVA

Transformation Ratio

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
Primary Leakage Impedance
Secondary Leakage Impedance
The no-load input W0 = 225 W
Under no-load conditions, the secondary current is zero and the primary current is
negligible. Hence, copper losses are zero. The output power is also zero ( No-load output
= V2 I2 Cos Ø = V2 x 0 x Cos Ø = 0). So, no-load input is equal to the losses.
(since, Wcu are zero)
The iron losses Wi = 225 W
When transformer offers the maximum efficiency:
Constant losses = Variable losses or
Iron Losses = Copper losses

Where R02 is the total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary side.

By substituting the value of R02 in above equation, we get

or

The KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Exercise 3: A 1000 VA, 300/150 V transformer having an iron losses of 25 W feeding a

load whose power factor is 0.707. Find the maximum efficiency. Consider the total
resistance of the transformer referred to secondary is 1 ohm.
Solution:
Full load Capacity = 1000 VA

Transformation Ratio

Iron Losses = Wi = 25 W
Load power factor = 0.707

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
At maximum efficiency, iron losses = Copper losses

or or

KVA rating corresponding to maximum efficiency

Output at maximum efficiency

Total losses at maximum efficiency

Input = output + losses

Maximum efficiency

Exercise 4 : A 15 KVA, 600/300 V, Transformer has an iron losses of 250 W and offers the
maximum efficiency at half-full load. Find the total resistance of the transformer refer to
a) primary side and b) secondary side
Solution:

Transformation Ratio

Maximum efficiency occurs at half-full load.

Secondary current at half-full load

At maximum efficiency,

or

Resistance of the transformer referred to primary side

Exercise 5: The maximum efficiency of 98 % of a 20 KVA, 50 Hz, 2000 /200 V

Distribution Transformer occurs at full load, unity pf. Calculate the efficiency of the
transformer at half full load, 0.8 pf lagging.
Solution:
Full load KVA = 20
Maximum Efficiency ηm = 98 %
Power factor at maximum efficiency = 1

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
Output at maximum efficiency =

Input at maximum efficiency

Total losses at maximum efficiency

We know that Iron losses = Copper losses at maximum efficiency

Therefore, Iron losses (Wi) = full load copper losses (WCuf)

To find Efficiency at Half Full Load, 0.8 PF

Half full load output

Iron losses Wi = 204 W ( maintained constant for different loads)

Copper losses at half full load

Total Losses at half full load = Wi + Wcu at Half full load

Input at Half Full load

Efficiency

Exercise 6: A 50 KVA transformer which feeds a unity power factor load gives a
maximum efficiency of 98 % at ¾ full load. Find a) Iron losses b) Full load copper losses
c) Full load efficiency.
Solution:
Full load KVA = 50
Maximum efficiency
The maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ th Full load

Output at ¾ th Full load

Input at ¾ th Full load

Total losses at maximum efficiency

a) At maximum efficiency, iron losses = copper losses

Iron losses

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 b) As the maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full load,
Copper losses at ¾ th Full load = 382.5 W

Copper losses at ¾ full load = Copper losses at Full load

Copper losses at full load

Copper losses at Full load

c) Full load output

Total losses
Full load Input

Full load Efficiency

Example :A 500KVA transformer has an efficiency of 95 % at full load and also at 60 %

of full load, both at unity power factor. Calculate the efficiency of transformer at ¾ full
load, Unity PF.
Solution :
At full load Efficiency of transformer = 95 %
Full load output = 500 x 1 = 500 KW
Full load Input = 500 / 0.95 = 526.31 KW
Total Losses = 526.31 – 500 = 26.31 KW
Let ‘x’ be the iron losses and ‘y’ be the full load Copper losses.
Then, x + y = 26.31 KW --------------- 1
At 60 % of full load
Efficiency = 95 %
Output = 0.6 x 500 x 1 = 300 KW
Input = 300 / 0.95 = 315.79 KW
Total losses = 315.79 – 300 = 15.79 KW
Iron losses at 60 % of full load = x watts (Constant )
Copper losses at 60 % of full load = (0.6)2 y = 0.36 y watts
There fore, x + 0.36 y = 15.79 ------------- 2
By solving equations 1 and 2 , x = 9.87 KW and y = 16.43 KW

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 To find efficiency at ¾ full load, UPF
Output = 0.75 x 500 x 1 = 375 KW
Total losses = Wi + Wcu = 9.87 + 16.43 x(3/4)2 = 19.11 KW
Input = 375 + 19.11 = 394.111 KW
Efficiency = (Output / Input ) x 100 = (375/394.11) x 100 = 95.15 %
Example :The maximum efficiency of 98 % of a 20 KVA, 50 Hz, 2000 /200 V
Distribution Transformer occurs at full load, unity pf. Calculate the efficiency of the
transformer at half full load, 0.8 pf lagging.
Solution: Full load KVA = 20
Maximum Efficiency = 98 %
Output at maximum efficiency = 20 x 1 = 20 KW
Input at maximum efficiency = 20 /0.98 = 20.408 KW
Total losses = 20.408 KW – 20 = 0.408 KW
Since, at maximum efficiency, Iron losses = Copper losses
There fore Iron losses = full load copper losses = 408 / 2 = 204 Watts
To find Efficiency at half full load, 0.8 PF
Half full load output = 0.5 x 20 x 0.8 = 8 KW
Losses at half full load = Wi + Wcu at Half full load
= 204 + 204 x (1/2)2
= 255 W
Half Full load input = 8000 + 255 = 8255 W
Efficiency = (8000 / 8255) x 100
= 96.91 %

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
Testing of Transformers :
The purpose of testing a transformer us to find its
i) parameters of equivalent circuit
ii) Voltage Regulation
iii) Efficiency at any desired load current and power factor.
Complete analysis of transformer can be carried out, once its complete equivalent
circuit is obtained.
There are two tests generally conducted on a transformer. They are
i) Open-Circuit Test (O.C Test)
ii) Short –circuit Test (S.C Test)

1) Open Circuit Test ( O.C Test) :

In this test, one winding ( Preferably, H.V winding ) is open circuited and other
winding is given its rated voltage at rated frequency. A Voltmeter, Ammeter and a
Watt-meter are connected on L.V side as shown in fig.

Since, secondary winding is not supplying any current ( ie., I2 = 0) , the primary
winding takes a no load current Io and it will be recorded by Ammeter.
The no load power input = W0 = V1Io Cos o
Since, no load power output is zero (V2I2 Cos = 0) , the power Wo is used to
meet different losses in transformer. There fore, Wo = I12 R1 + I22R2 + Iron losses (
Wi) = 0 + 0 + Wi = Wi ( since, I1 = I0 which is very small and I2 =0)

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 ( Since flux in the core is maintained at its rated value )
Hence, Watt meter under open circuit reads Wi .
And also, Wo = V1 I0 Cos o
Cos o = W0 /( V1 Io) ==➔ o is obtained.
The Phasor diagram under open circuit conditions are drawn as follows.

Magnetizing component = Im = Io Sin o

Iron loss component = Ii = Io Cos o
Magnetizing Reactance = Xo = V1/ Im
Iron loss Resistance = Ro = V1 / Ii
So, finally, O.C Test gives i) Iron losses of Transformer
ii) Shunt parameters of equivalent circuit diagram

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 2.Short - Circuit Test ( O.C Test) :
In this test, one winding (Preferably, L.V winding) is Short circuited and other
winding is given its rated current at rated frequency. A Voltmeter, Ammeter and a
Watt-meter are connected on H.V side as shown in fig.

The Power input given under short circuit = Wsc = VscIsc Cos sc
Since, the power output is zero , the power Wsc is used to meet different losses
in transformer.
There fore, Wsc = I12 R1 + I22R2 + Iron losses ( Wi)
= I12 R1 + I22R2 + 0 ( since, under short circuit, the flux in the core
is very small, so, Core losses can be neglected)
= I22R02
Since, I2 = Isc, Wsc = I22 R02
Hence, Watt meter under Short circuit reads copper losses.
And also, WSC = Isc2 R02 ==➔ R02 = WSC / Isc2
Since, LV voltage is zero, the voltage applied on H.V side ie., VSC must be
dropped in the transformer itself due to its impedance Z02.
There fore, VSC = ISC Z02 ➔ Z02 = VSC / ISC
And X02 =  ( Z022- R022)
The Phasor diagram under Short circuit conditions is drawn as follows.

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 So, finally, S.C Test gives i) Copper losses of Transformer
ii) Series Parameters of equivalent circuit diagram
Knowing Iron losses from OC test and Copper Losses from Sc Test, the efficiency
of transformer can be predetermined at any desired load current and power factor &
the complete equivalent circuit of the transformer can be drawn as follows.

Example ;
A 20 KVA, 2500/250 V, 50 Hz, Single phase Transformer gave the following test
results.
OC Test : 250 V, 1.4 A, 105 W -------- on L.V side
SC Test : 104 V, 8 A, 320 W ----------- on H.V side.
Calculate i) the parameters of the equivalent circuit referred to L.V side and H.V side
ii) Efficiency and % regulation at 0.8 pf lagging at a) full load b) half full
load
solution :
From OC Test:
V1 = 250 V, Io = 1.4 A, Wo = 105 W
Iron losses = Wi = Wo = 105 W (constant)

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 And V1I0 Cos o = Wo ➔ Cos o = Wo / (V1 I0) = 105 / ( 250x1.4) =
0.3
Then, Sino is equal to 0.954
Magnetizing component = Im = Io Sin o = 1.4 x 0.954 = 1.336 A
Iron loss component = Ii = Io Cos o = 1.4 x 0.3 = 0.42 A
Magnetizing Reactance = Xo = V1/ Im = 250/ 1.336 = 187 Ohm
Iron loss Resistance = Ro = V1 / Ii = 250 / 0.42 = 595 ohm
From SC Test :
Vsc = 104 V, Isc = 8 A, Wsc = 320 W
Full load current on h.v side = (20x103 )/ 2500 = 8 A
Full load copper losses = Wsc = Isc2 R02 ➔ R02 = 320 / 82 = 5 Ohm
The value of Z02 = Vsc/Isc = 104 /8 = 13 Ohm
And then, X02 =  ( Z022- R022) =  ( 132- 52) = 12 Ohm
i) Equivalent Circuit diagram of the Transformer is

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 Equivalent circuit referred to l.v side

Equivalent circuit referred to H.V side

ii) Efficiency :
a) At full load, 0.8 pf lagging.
Output = 20 x 0.8 =16 KW
Total Losses = Wi + Wcu = 105 + 320 = 425 W
Efficiency = (Output / input) x 100 = ( 16000 /( 16000 + 425))x100 =
97.41 %
b) At kalf-full load, 0.8 pf lagging
Output = 0.5 x20 x 0.8 =8 KW
Total Losses = Wi + Wcu = 105 + (1/2)2 320 = 185 W
Efficiency = (Output / input) x 100 = ( 8000 /( 8000 + 185))x100 = 97.74
%

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 iii) Finding % Voltage Regulation :
a) At full load, 0.8 pf lagging,
I2 = 8 A, Cos  = 0.8 , Sin  = 0.6
Voltage drop = I2 ( R02 Cos  + X02 Sin)
= 8 ( 5 x0.8 + 12 x0.6) = 89.6 V
% voltage Regulation = (89.6 / 2500) x100 = 3.58 %
b) At half full load, 0.8 pf lagging,
I2 = 4 A, Cos  = 0.8 , Sin  = 0.6
Voltage drop = I2 ( R02 Cos  + X02 Sin)
= 4 ( 5 x0.8 + 12 x0.6) = 44.8 V
% voltage Regulation = (44.8 / 2500) x100 = 1.79 %

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
Sumpner’s Test or Back to Back Test:
This test is also called ‘Back to back Test’. It is useful for conducting ‘Heat Run
Test’. (Heat Run Test conducted on a transformer to find its temperature rise. It
requires both iron losses and Copper losses to be produced simultaneously and it is not
possible with OC and SC tests). Sumpener’s test can also be used for calculating
efficiency of a transformer.
This Test requires two identical transformers. The two primary windings are
connected in parallel across their rated voltage at rated frequency. The two secondary
windings are connected in phase opposition as shown below.

Since two secondaries are connected in phase opposition, it is equivalent ot open

circuited transformers. Hence, W0 reads the iron losses of two transformers and A1 reads
the no load currents of two transformers.

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 Now, a voltage is injected in to the secondary circuit by a separate source so that
rated current flows through the secondary windings of two transformers. By transformer
action, primary windings also carry rated currents whose path is represented by dotted
lines. Since, this current is not coming on to the lines of primary circuit, this current will
not disturb the readings of Io and W0
The watt – meter W2 and Voltmeter V2 read the copper losses and voltage drop of
two transformers respectively.
Copper losses of each Transformer = W2 / 2
Iron losses of each Transformer = W1 / 2
No load current of each Transformer = I0 = I1 / 2
Voltage drop across each Transformer = V2 / 2
By knowing the above values, the efficiency can be predetermined.

Energy Efficiency or All-Day Efficiency:

The load on Distribution transformers varies over wide range
during a 24 hours day. Most of the time these transformers are operated at light loads or
no load and very small times like evenings, these transformers are used at their rated
capacities. These transformers are energized always, the iron losses take place
continuously. If the distribution transformers are designed to obtain its maximum
efficiency at its full load i.e., by having iron losses equal to their full load copper losses,
the system economy gets effected by high iron losses during light load periods. If the
transformers are designed to have low iron losses, the efficiency becomes maximum at
about one half of its rated capacity. Hence, a Distribution transformer cannot be judged
by its Power efficiency. An Energy Efficiency or All day efficiency is used.
Energy Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of total energy
output for a certain period to the total energy input for the same period.
The energy efficiency can be computed for any length of load cycle,
provided its load variations are known. When Energy efficiency is computed for a day of
24 hours, it is called ‘All-day Efficiency’.
All-Day efficiency =( ( Daily energy output) / (Daily energy Input) )x 100

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 Consider a transformer which is subjected to the changes in load in a day as
shown below.

There fore, All-day Efficiency = (Total energy output/ Total energy input)
Total output energy = ( x. pf . t1 ) + ( y. pf . t2 ) + 0
Total Input energy = ( x. pf . t1 / 1) + ( y. pf . t2 / / 2 ) + ( z . t3)
Energy efficiency can be increased by operating the transformer most of
the time at its maximum efficiency. (All day efficiency can not be predicted on
the basis of its load factor)
There is no significance for energy efficiency in power transformers as
they will be operated at full load always. For power transformers, both energy
efficiency and energy efficiency are same.

Example : A 20 KVA Distribution transformer has maximum efficiency of 98 % at 15

KVA, Upf. Find its All day efficiency for the following load cycles.
i) Full load - 12 hours/ day and no-load rest of the day
iii) Full load - 4 hours/ day, 0.4 Full load rest of the day
Assume Unity power factor .
Solution :
Maximum efficiency = 0.98
Output at maximum efficiency = 15 x 1 = 15 KW
Input at maximum efficiency = 15 /0.98 = 15.306 KW
Total losses = 15.306 – 15 = 0.306 KW

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 Iron Losses = Wi = Cu. Losses at 15 KVA = 0.306 /2 = 153 W
To find efficiency at full load :
Full load out put = 20 x1 = 20 KW
Losses at full load = 153 + 153 x (20/15)2 = 153 + 272 = 425 W
Full load input = 20 + 0.425 = 20.425 KW
Efficiency = (20/ 20.425) x 100 = 97.92 %
To find efficiency at 0.4 x full load :
Out put at 0.4 full load =0.4 x 20 x1 = 8 KW
Losses at 0.4full load = 153 + 272 x ( 0.4)2 = 196.52 W
Full load input = 8 + 0.19652 = 8.19652 KW
Efficiency = (8/ 8.19652) x 100 = 97.6 %
Case 1 :

Output energy = (20 x 12) +( 0 x 12) = 240 KWH

Input energy = (20 x 12 / 0.9792) +( 0 x 12) + ( 0.153 x 12 ) = 246.984 KWH
All-Day Efficiency = (240/ 246.984) x 100 = 97.17 %
Case 2 :

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd
 Total energy output =( 20 x 4 )+( 8 x 20) = 80 + 160 = 240 KWH
Total energy Input =( 20 x 4 /0.979)+( 8 x 20/0.976) = 245.65 KWH
There fore All-Day Efficiency = (240 /245.65) x 100 = 97.7 %

Even though the load factor is same in each case (Ave. KVA in case 1 = (20 x 12 +
0 )/24 ) = 10 and LF = 10/20 =0.5 & Ave. KVA in case 2 = (20 x 4 +8 x 20 )/24 )
= 10 and LF is again = 10/20 =0.5 ), the energy efficiencies still different because
of difference in load cycles. Hence, Energy efficiency can not be predicted from
load factors.

Dr.V.Ramesh Babu/Assoc.Prof/EEE/VNRVJIET/Hyd