UNIT I

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

SYLLABUS [B.E - OU]

L

Materials used in Machine Design and their Specifications According to Indian Standards,
Codes and Standards used in Design, Important Mechanical Properties of Materials used in
Design, Preferred Numbers, Manufacturing Considerations in Design, Review of Types of
Loads and Simple Stresses, Stresses due to Biaxal and Triaxal Loads, Factor of Safety,
Theories of Failures, Design of Components Subjected to Impact Loading.
1.2

1.1
MACHINE
Design Considerations of Machine
Elements [Unit - I]

A machine is defined as a combination of rigid and resistant bodies

having definite motion and capable of performing some useful work. The definition
of machine contains following important features,
(1) A machine must be capable of doing some useful work, otherwise it cannot be called
machine. For example, a car transports passengers, a pump raises water from well, a
washing machine cleans clothes while a drilling machine makes holes.
(2) A machine consists of a number of fixed and moving parts called 'links'. The moving"
parts of the machine must have controlled and constrained motion. For example,
when the handle of the screw jack is rotated through one revolution, the load is raised along the axis
of the screw, through a distance equal to the pitch of the screw with, single start threads.
(3) The various parts of the machine are interposed between the source of power and the work to
be done for the purpose of adapting one to another. This concept of machine is illustrated in Fig.
1.1.1. The source of power can be electric motor, engine or even manual power as in case of hand
operated machines. The output work can be turning in case of lathe or blanking in case of press.

Fig. 1.1.1 shows the concept of machines.

Input (Source of Power)

Kinematic Arrangement
of Links
Output (Useful
Work)

Fig. 11.1 Concept of Machines

(4) A machine transforms and transfers energy. A car converts chemical energy
of fuel into heat energy and finally into mechanical energy. An electric motor transforms electrical
energy into mechanical energy. A generator is hydraulic power station transforms potential energy of
water into electrical energy.

(5) The terms such as motion, power, force, torque and work are predominant
concepts
in study of machines.,

1.1.1 Building Blocks of a Machine

According to the functions of links building blocks of a machine are classified
into two types, they are,

(1) Mechanism: A mechanism is made of a set of moving parts or

 links. The moving parts would have certain constraints, which would
make their outcome predictable. A mechanism thus achieves
a specified motion and is generally a kinematic
arrangement.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL
PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

Examples of mechanisms are,

(i) Steering mechanism.

(ii) Slider crank mechanism.

(iii) Quick return mechanism.

1.3

(2) Structure: The fixed parts in case of a machine are typically referred to as structure. The fixed
parts should be property restrained or held. The structure assists the mechanism in carrying out useful
work and does not have relative motion between its various parts.

Examples of structure are,

(i) Machine tool columns.

(ii) Frames.

(iii) Machine tool beds.

1.2 CONCEPT OF MACHINE DESIGN

Design is nothing but a series of activities together all the information necessary to realize
the designer's idea as a real product is shown in Fig. 1.2.1.
 Designer's Idea
The Design
Process

Fig. 1.2.1
The Real
Product

The object of machine design is to create a machine or a structure economically

to satisfy the requirements of the customer. The design may be that of a complete machine, a
development of an existing machine or an attachment to provide special operation of an existing
machine. The designer uses his intellectual ability to apply scientific knowledge to the task of
creating designs, which enable the required products to be manufactured in the most economical
method and to satisfy all the stipulated conditions.
1.3
NEED OF DESIGN

Before going to manufacture any machine part or element the manufacturing unit
requires diagram with different analysis. The diagram is called the design of that part. So the design
part is need for manufacture any part.
Machine design establishes and defines solutions and pertinent structures for
problems not solved before and provides new solutions to problems that have been previously
been solved in a different way. Design should not be confused with the word 'discovery'.
Discovery means getting the first sight of or the first knowledge of something. For example,
Columbus discovered America. We can discover what has already existed but has not been
known before. On the other hand, machine design creates a machine that has not existed,
instead, It is created expressly to satisfy the need of the customer.
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
1.4

Design Considerations of Machine

Elements [Unit - 1]
1.4 BASIC PROCEDURE OF MACHINE DESIGN
 The entire design process can be summarized into different phases are
as shown in Fig. 1.4.1.

Recognition of Need

Definition of Problem

Synthesis

Analysis and Optimisation

Evaluation

Presentation

Fig. 1.4.1 The Design Process

From the Fig. 1.4.1, we can define as,

(1) Recognition of Need: Design begins with the recognition of a need. A design is made
either to formulate a plan or to satisfy a need. Once the need of design is recognized, then
only the designer can put his thought process into it and come up with solutions to satisfy
this need. Recognition and identification of need is a creative phase of design.

(2) Definition of Problem : In this stage, the problem is clearly defined by its specifications.
Specifications are input and output quantities, characteristics and dimensions of the space
required, feed and speed to be given etc.
 (3) Synthesis: Synthesis is a creative process present in every design. Once all
the elements are defined for a particular problem, the relationship between them
has to be established. Synthesis is the process of taking the elements of
the concept and arranging them in proper order, sized and dimensioned in a proper
way.

PROFESSIONAL
PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - າງ
1.5

(4) Analysis and Optimisation Analysis refers to find out whether the system satisfies
the requirements.

By optimization, we see that the system performs in the best possible way. If the present
system is not giving 'optimised' performance, the synthesis part has to be again carried out till
the optimum performance is achieved.

(5) Evaluation : Evaluation is the stage where the design is verified. This usually involves making of
prototype and at this stage the model undergoes vigorous testing to ensure that it satisfies all
the requirements specified during definition of the problem. (6) Presentation: An important area of
this phase is the creation and finalising of engineering drawings. On these drawings, complete
specifications such as natural and geometrical tolerances, surface finishes, machining
symbols, assembly procedures etc., should be marked.

1.5
The presentation stage also prepares brochures and marketing documents to promote the
product. Presentation is also the communication of the design to others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A DESIGN ENGINEER

Creativity is one of the most important aspect which a successful designer should possess.
Creative thinkers are sensitive and are identified by their ability to synthesize new ideas and concepts into
meaningful and useful forms. Creative ideas are elusive and so one needs to be alert to capture and
record one's creative thoughts.
 Following are some positive steps, one can take to enhance one's creative thinking,

(1) Develop a creative attitude.

(2) Vivid imagination.

(3) Persistence and hardwork.

(4) Open mind and positive thinking.

(5) Suspend one's judgement.

(6) Set problem boundaries.

ABILITIES REQUIRED FOR A GOOD DESIGN ENGINEER

Besides a creative thought process, a good design engineer should also have the
following abilities,

(1) He should be able to communicate his design using all kinds of tools. A proper
presentation helps in selling a design to the peers as well as to the customers. (2) He
should be a team player and should be able to work in groups.
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.6

Design
Considerations of
Machine Elements
[Unit-1]
(3) He should have a good understanding of
fundamental and environmental sciences
and should also be aware of the manufacturing processes.
(4) He should be enthusiastic to changes and should keep
up with changing trends and
technology.

(5) He should have an efficient method of recording his

observations and should have
the ability to learn from his experiences.

(6) Besides all these, he should have some understanding of legal

processes like patents

1.6
and other related laws.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR MACHINE DESIGNING

(DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS)
Machine design, ultimately aims at designing a component or element which will work
satisfactorily under the imposed conditions. While designing many parameters or to be looked in
to and due consideration given to all the influencing factors.
Some of such factors are discussed here,

(1) Strength and Stiffness: Strength of a component depends on the material and the size or
dimensions of it. Stiffness represents how less a given element can deform under the application
of load. Stiffness is an important parameter in shafts and machine tool spindles. If the spindle
deforms too much, it will adversely affect the cutting conditions. By employing correct material and
size, strength and stiffness can be ensured.

(2) Surface Finish and Tolerances : For the smooth running of mating parts (e.g.,
bearings, bushes) a good surface finish is required. So, on the basis of the required running
conditions, suitable surface finish is decided.

Depending on how close the fitting between two mating parts is needed,
tolerances are decided. Incorrect tolerances will lead to either seizing of the parts or a
very loose and ineffective running both being undesirable.
(3) Manufacturability: A design should be easy to be worked on in the production
 stage. So, before designing it is to be ensured that sufficient capabilities are
there to make the design as a product.
(4) Ergonomics and Aesthetics: Ergonomics refers to the ease of handling
a part. Different handling or inconvenient access to a particular component in a
machine will not do. The more the operator of a machine has to strain to
work, the less ergonomic aspects it has. Aesthetics means making a
product "appealing". This may include modern styling, glossy finish
etc. These factors are to be given due weightage
while
designing.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL
PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
1.7

(5) Working Atmosphere: Depending on the working atmosphere, some special parameter
may also have to be considered. For example, a drilling shaft in an offshore oil rig is to be designed
keeping in view the corroding nature of sea water. Some special alloys or coatings may be
necessary in such cases. These aspects should be considered while designing.

(6) Wear and Hardness Requirement: Though hardness improves wear resistance, it
cannot be increased beyond a limit. For example, in the case of a high speed gear the
teeth are only case hardened. Through hardening will make the teeth more brittle. Such details are to be
looked into.

(7) Cooling and Lubrication: Like in the case of a worm-wheel set or a journal bearing, heat
developed inside should be dissipated. So, the bearing surface should be so designed that
cooling is proper. In case artificial, cooling is required provisions for the same should be given a
thought.

(8) Safety and Reliability: This represents how far the component will serve its intended
function. It again depends on how serious or critical the component is, for example, the turbine
blades of an air plane or some medical instruments. To ensure sufficient reliability, factors of safety to be
employed in higher or lower depending on the criticality. For example, the FOS in a drilling machine
spindles may be 4 or 5. But in the case of an airplane component it may be as high as 100.

(9) Noise Requirement: The design is to be such that it creates less or no noise. Using soft
materials capable of absorbing vibration, designing so as to operate at safe frequency range are
some ways of achieving this.

(10) Cost: The design process should aim at a cost effective way of production. Unwanted strictness in
terms of tolerances, unwise approaches for reliability calculation (with a result of unduly big
sizes) all will increase the cost of the product. Use of interchangeable manufacture and
correct reliability calculation are part of a good design procedure.

1.7
CODES AND STANDARDS FOR MACHINE DESIGN

Code can be defines as a list of specifications for the design, manufacture, analysis,
testing, construction or fabrication of parts or an assembly. It highlights all the
requirements which should be carried out to achieve a specified degree of safety. For example, IS
2825 Code for Design of Unfired Pressure Vessels.

A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials or processes, intended to

achieve uniformity, efficiency and specified quality. A standard places a limit on the number of
items in the specifications, so as to provide a reasonable inventory of tooling, sizes, shapes and
varieties.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.8
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
- 1]

When a part is set to confirm to a particular standard, it automatically assures the

user, that the part meets all the requirements and specifications as per the standards and therefore
indirectly guarantees performance.

REASONS FOR USING STANDARDS

Following points explains the use of standards in machine design,

(1) Interchangeability of Parts: An example of interchangeability can be easily understood if

we consider, a Hexagonal Bolt M10 x 40L of any company, which can easily be. interchanged with
that of the other, as both the companies manufacture to the same standards.

(2) Easy Replacements: As size relations are specified and limited, the components can
be stocked by dealers, thus resulting in easy replacements.

(3) Reduced Stock and Inventory: Easy replacement from dealers reduce in-house
inventory, which in turn reduce the inventory carrying costs.

(4) Better Efficiency and Specified Quality: The indirect guarantee and expertise of the standard
is passed to the user, thus reducing his design costs, with good assurance of required quality.

(5)
Mass Production of Components: With standardisation, mass production of
components is easier. Different components can also be manufactured at various plants and
assembled together without affecting the assembly.

SOME OF THE STANDARDS USING IN MECHANICAL FIELD

Some typical standards used in the field of mechanical engineering are,

(1) Drawing standards : SP 46: 1988.

(2) Standards for fits, tolerances and surface finish.

(3) Standards for materials, compositions and mechanical properties.

(4) Standards for screw threads, threaded fasteners and machine elements such as
keys, splines, bearings, belts, roller chains, modules for gears etc.
Various types of standards are drafted by reputed organizations and societies, with the
help of experts in those fields. Some of the important organizations are listed in Table 1.7.1.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit 1]

S.No.
·

Table 1.7.1 Different Standards

Standard
Abbreviation
 (1)
International Standards Organization
ISO

2
2
(2)
Bureau of Indian Standards
BIS

(3) Society of Automotive Engineers

SAE

(4) American Society of Mechanical

Engineers
ASME

(5) American Society for Metals

ASM

ཙེ།
(6) American Society of Testing and Materials
ASTM

(7)
Japan International Standards
JIS

(8) British Standards Institution

BSI

(9)
American Gear Manufacturing Association
AGMA

(10)
American Iron and Steel Institute
AISI
 (11) German National Standards
DIN

(12)
Bureau of International Weights and Measures
BIWM

(13)
Anti-friction Bearing Manufacturers Association
AFBMA
1.9

Besides these national and international standards, each company within itself may have its own
company standards, whose specifications and rulings hold true in each of their plants.

1.8
PREFERRED NUMBERS AND SERIES
 Preferred numbers are specially selected values recommended for use in all branches of the
national economy. They specify the proportions of items and structures, power load carrying
capacity, speed and all other parameters used in production and expressed numerically. An
international standard for preferred numbers has been recently approved.
This concept was floated by a French engineer Col. Charles Renard in the nineteenth
century. He established that when an item is produced in a number of sizes, a geometric
progression of sizes is better than an arithmetic progression, as it offers the following advantages,

(1) Each size is larger than the preceding size by a fixed percentage.
(2) Small sizes will differ from each other by small amounts and large sizes will differ
from each other by larger amounts.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.10
Design Considerations of Machine Elements
[Unit - I]

(3) If linear dimensions are chosen as a part of series, than areas, volumes and other
dimension related functions are also numbers of the same series.

(4) Using preferred numbers increases the probability that other designers will make exactly
the same choice. This is useful where the chosen dimension affects compatibility. For example, if
the distances between screws in wall fixtures are chosen from a series of preferred numbers, then it
will be more likely that old wall-plug holes can be reused when the original product is
replaced..

Thus, the number of sizes in a series should be standardised at the smallest number that will
permit the product to take care of its intended range. Series of numbers have been standardised in
order that the various sizes of a series can be determined in an orderly fashion and these are called as
preferred numbers.

The preferred numbers are classified into 5 principle series, i.e., R5, R10, R20, R40,
R80. Each series has its own series factor which are determined as follows,

R5 → 5/10
=

1.58

R10 → 1010 = 1.26

R20 → 2010 = 1.12

R40 → 40/10 = 1.06

 R80 → 80/10
= 1.03

A series is established by multiplying the first number with the series factor to get the
second size. On similar lines the third size will be determined by multiplying the second size by the same
series factor. The procedure is continued until the complete series is built up. Necessary rounding
as per international standards may be done to generate various numbers. As an example,
consider the R10 series. The series factor for this is 1.26. The generation of the rest of the numbers
of the series is highlighted as, Starting 'number
= 1

= 1 x 1.26 = 1.26 24 1.25

= 1.25 x 1.26 = 1.58 1.60

2

= 1.6 x 1.26 2.01 ≈ 2.00

= 2 x 1.26
=

2.52 2.50

2.5 x 1.26 = 3.15 ≈ 3.15

2

= 3.15 x 1.26 = 3.97≈ 4.00

= 4 × 1.26 = 5.04≈ 5.00

= 5 × 1.26 = 6.30
6.30 ≈ 6.30
22

= 6.3 × 1.26 7.94≈ 8.00

=

= 8 × 1.26 = 10.08≈ 10.00

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit 1]

The preferred numbers for the first four series are as given in Table 1.8.1.

Table 1.8.1 Preferred Numbers

1.11
 R5
R10
R20
R40

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

1.06

1.12
1.12

1.18

1.25
1.25
1.25

1.32

1.40
1.40

1.50

1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60

1.70

1.80
1.80

1.90

2.00
2.00
2.00

2.12

2.24
2.24

2.36

2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50

2.65

2.80
2.80

3.00

3.15
3.15
3.15

3.35
 3.55
3.55

3.75

4.00.
4.00
4.00
4.00

4.25

4.50
4.50

4.75

5.00
5.00
5.00

5.30

5.60
5.60

6.00

6.30
6.30
6.30 6.30
6.70

7.10
7.10

7.50

8.00
8.00
8.00

8.50

9.00
9.00

9.50

10.00 10.00 10.00

10.00

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.12
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.8.1 Importance of Preferred Numbers in Machine Design

Following points explains the importance of preferred numbers in machine design,

(1) The number of different sizes that need to be kept in stock can be reduce by using
 preferred numbers.

(2) By using preferred numbers product line simplification can be achieved while planning
model sizes with respect to speed, capacity, power rating etc.

(3) Using of preferred numbers reduces the designer work.

1.9
MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Material properties can be classified into two types, they are,

(1) Physical properties.

(2) Mechanical properties.

1.9.1 Physical Properties

The most important physical properties are,

(1). Density.

(3) Thermal conductivity.

(2) Melting point.

(4) Electrical conductivity.

(5) Coefficient of thermal expansion.

(7) Size.

(9) Color. etc.

1.9.2 Mechanical Properties

(6) Homogeneity.

(8) Shape.
 The proper and efficient use of materials construction requires considerable
knowledge of their mechanical properties. The mechanical properties of materials are those
properties which describe the behaviour of the material under mechanical usage.

The most important mechanical properties are,

(1) Strength: Strength is the ability of the material to resist stress without failure. The internal
resistance offered by the part against force per unit area is called stress. Several materials such as,
structural steel, copper, aluminium, etc., have equal strength in tension or compression, but
their strength in shear is about two-thirds of the strength in tension, while in grey cast iron the strength
in tension and shear is a fraction of the strength in compression. The measure of the strength is the
ultimate stress. Ultimate strength refers to the force, needed to fracture the material.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
1.13

(2) Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of regaining original shape after deformation. All the
materials of construction are elastic but the degree of elasticity varies with different materials.
This property is exceedingly important in precision tools and machines. Steel is highly elastic
material.
(3) Plasticity: Plasticity is the property that enables the formation of permanent
deformation in a material.

(4) Stiffness: Stiffness is the property by virtue of which a material can resist deformation.
Measure of stiffness is the modulus of elasticity. This property is desirable in materials used in
machines, columns, beams and machine tools.
(5) Ductility: Ductility is the property of material that enables is to be drawn out or elongated to an
appreciable extent before rupture occurs. The percentage elongation and the percentage of
reduction occurs. The percentage elongation and the percentage of reduction of area
before rupture of a test specimen are measures of ductility of the material.
(6) Brittleness: Brittleness is opposite to ductility. It shows lack of ductility. Brittle
materials show little deformation before rupturing.
(7)

(8)
Materials with more than 15% elongation are usually considered ductile. Those with
less 15% elongation are considered brittle. Those between 5 and 15% elongation are of
intermediate ductility. Mild steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium are ductile materials.
Cast iron is brittle material. Property of ductility is desirable in machine parts which may be subjected
to sudden and severe loads. Malleability: Malleability is the property of a material that enables it
to undergo great change in shape under compressive stress without rupture. Malleable materials may
be hammered or rolled into any desires shape without rupture. Soft steel, wrought iron, copper,
aluminium are malleable metals.
Hardness: Hardness is that property of a material that enables it to resist penetration, indentation,
abrasion of plastic deformation. In selecting a metal to withstand wear or erosion, mainly three
properties are considered, ductility, toughness and hardness. However, the most important
from wear resistance point in hardness. Wear may be either due to friction or erosion by steam, oil
and water and it is resisted by materials having higher hardness. This property is decreased by
heating.
(9) Resilience: Resilience is that property of a material which enables it to store energy and resist
shock and impact. The measure of resilience is the amount of energy that can be stored per unit volume
after being stressed to elastic limit. This property is desirable in materials for springs.
(10) Toughness: Toughness is the property which enables a material to be twisted, bend or
stretched under a sudden impact or under a high stress before rupture. It is measured by the Izod
test or Charpey test. The measure of toughness is the amount of energy that a unit volume of material
has absorbed after being stressed upto the point of fracture. This property is decreased by
heating.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.14
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

(11) Shear Strength: Shear strength is the force per unit area produced to fracture a specimen
 when it is impressed along the cross-section of material. The material may be subjected to single
shear or double shear. The shear strength of steels compared to their ultimate tensile strength
ranges from about 50 to 80 percent, the lower values for the harder materials.

(12) Creep Creep is expressed as the plastic behaviour of the metals or plastics under constant load
and at constant temperature. Under the above condition the material deforms slowly but
progressively over a period of time. There are three stages of creep. In the first stage the material
elongates rapidly but at a decreasing rate. In the second stage which is ordinarily of long
duration the rate of elongation is constant. In the third stage of elongation increases rapidly
until the material fails. Design engineer is most concerned with second stage of creep, where
elongation takes place at a constant specific rate.

1.9.3 Selection of Materials for Machine Design

The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult
problem for the designer. The best material is one which serve the desired objective at the
minimum cost.
The following factors should be considered while selecting the material,
(1) Availability of the materials.
(2) Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service.
(3) The cost of the materials.

1.10
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Engineering materials can be classified into two types and they subdivided into
different types as they are shown in Fig. 1.10.1.

Ferrous
Metals
Engineering Materials

Non-metals
 Non-ferrous
Timber
Rubber
Plastic

Cast
Steel
Wrought
Iron
Iron
Copper and
its Alloys
Aluminium and its
Alloys

Carbon Steels
Alloy Steel

Fig. 1.10.1 Classification of Engineering Materials

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.10.1 Metals
1.15

Metals are classified into two types and they are again sub classified into different
types as shown in Fig. 1.10.1 and they are explained in following sections.

1.10.1.1 Ferrous Metals

The metals which are of iron as main constituent is called ferrous metals. Following sections
gives the classification of ferrous metals.

1.10.1.1.1 Cast Iron

Cast iron is a generic term which refers to a family of materials that differ widely in
their mechanical properties. By definition, cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon, containing
more than 2 percent of carbon. In addition to carbon, cast iron contains other elements like silicon,
manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. There is a basic difference between steels and cast iron.
Steels usually contain less than 1 percent carbon while cast iron normally contains 2 to 4 percent
carbon.

Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is given in Table 1.10.1.

Table 1101 Composition of Ordinary Cast Iron

Carbon
3.0-4.0%

Silicon
1.0-3.0%

Manganese
0.5-1.0%

Sulphur
Up to 0.1%

Phosphorus
Up to 0.1%

Iron
Remainder

Cast iron has a higher compressive strength. Compared with steel, its compressive
strength is three to five times more, which can be used to advantage in certain
applications.

Cast iron has certain drawbacks too. It has a poor tensile strength compared to
steel. Cast iron parts are section-sensitive. Even with the same chemical composition, the
tensile strength of cast iron part decreases as the thickness of the section increases.
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.16

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
 Cast irons are classified on the basis of distribution of carbon content in their

microstructure. There are three popular types of cast iron, they are,

(1) Grey Cast Iron: Grey cast iron is the unpurified form of iron and is the most widely

used material in engineering. The raw materials for making grey iron, namely pig iron, cast
iron scrap, steel scrap, coke and air are cheap and it can be melted in a simple equipment
such as cupola. Hence it is cheaper than other materials. Besides, it has greater
compressive strength, can be cast into desired shapes and the strength and hardness
can be varied. It also has good machineability. Cast iron contains carbon from 2 to 4% and it
is not malleable at any temperature. It contains many impurities such as silicon, manganese,
phosphorus and sulphur. Besides the melting point of cast iron is 1150°C to 1300°C as
compared to 1500°C for steels. This property along with good fluidity make it suitable for
casting. Grey iron is brittle and weak in tension and these factors limit its uses.

(2) Malleable Cast Iron: Malleable iron is a form of cast iron, in which malleability is
achieved by proper chemical control and heat treatment. These are made in electric furnaces or air
furnaces, where temperature and constituents can be controlled. Because of better ductility and
machineability this is preferred to steel. Number of automobile components are manufactured by
malleable iron.

(3) Ductile Cast Iron: It has been found that small amount of magnesium added to cast iron
converts flake graphite to spherical or nodular graphite. The conversion results in a greater increase
of strength, elastic limit, hardness and elongation. Because of its ductility it is called ductile iron.
Ductile iron is not single material, but is rather a group of materials. This is also called spheroidal or
nodular graphite cast iron. This is classified according to its tensile strength and percentage
elongation. For example, SG 60/2 refers to spheroidal graphite iron and minimum tensile strength 60
kg/sq.mm and minimum percentage elongation of 2%.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit 1]
WO

1.17

Physical and mechanical properties of grey, malleable and ductile (spheroidal) cast
iron are given in Table 1.10.2.
 Table 1.10.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Cast Irons

S.No.
Designation
Chemical
Composition
Min. tensile Strength

N/mm2
0.5% Proof Stress
N/mm2
Elongation %
BHN
Uses

(1)
Grey cast iron Grade 15
130-190
-

Grade 20
170-240
-

179-223

Grade 25 C3.2-2.5%
220-280

Grade 30 Si2.6-1.2%
270-310

Grade 35
320-350
207-241

Grade 40
370-400
149-197 Beds, frames of

wheel, pulleys,
197-241 light duty gears,
rollers and
207-241 machine
members where
stress is low and
241-320 shape is
complicated.
machinery, fly-

(2)
Malleable cast iron
C2.0-2.65%
350
 210
14
149 max
Bearing caps, steering
Black heart Grade A
Si0.9-1.65%
320
190
10
149 max
knuckles,
Grade B
300
6
163 max
steering gear
housings, spring
Grade C
360-420
200-260
10-4
217 max
hangers,
White heart Grade A
280-350
7-3
217 max

Grade B
700
550
2

Pearlitic
Grade A
650
430
3

Grade B
550
360
4
192-241
universal joint
yokes, rocker
241-285 arms, wheel hubs
and other
212-248 automobile parts
which require
ductility and
Grade C
300
320
5
170-229 good
machinability.
Grade D
450
280
7
149-201

Grade E

(3) Spheroidal graphite

 C-3.2-4.0%
800
480*
2
260-330
Used where

toughness and
Cast iron SG 80/2
Si-1.8-2.8%
700
-450*
2
230-300
thermal

SG 70/2
600
400*
2
210-280
resistance are

required,
SG 60/2
500
350*
7.
170-240 shafting,

SG 50/7
420
280*
12
187 max
centrifugal pump
casting, valves,
SG 42/12
380
240*
17
171 max

SG 38/17
industrial fan hubs, coke oven doors etc.

1.10.1.12 Steel

Steel normally contains not over 0.45% of carbon and usually poured from a melt made in an
open hearth or electric furnace. It is more difficult to pour than cast iron, because of its higher
pouring temperature, greater shrinkage and greater susceptibility to blow holes from gases. Addition
of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium and manganese improve the properties. Steel
castings should be annealed to remove internal stresses. Steel is more resistant to shock than
cast iron and is frequently used in place of steel forgings.
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS

1.18

CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
 Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit -
I]

Steel can be classified into mainly two types, they are,

(1) Plain Carbon Steels: These steels are classified into three types, they are,
(1) Low Carbon Steel: Carbon less than 0.27%. It is marked by high ductility, low strength,
good machinability and formability. They are weldable but not respond to heat treatment.
(ii) Medium Carbon Steel : Carbon varies between 0.27 to 0.57%. This steel is heat treatable and
good strength is achievable after treatment. The steel is stronger and tougher than low carbon
steel and machines well, better than low carbon steel.
(iii) High Carbon Steel : They contain more than 0.57% C. The high C steel responds readily
to heat treatment. In heat-treated stated they develop very high strength and hardness and thus
become less machinable. They also lose ductility and in the high carbon range may become
very brittle. The higher C content makes these steel difficult to weld.
(2) Alloy Steel: When steel contains any element other than carbon, it is called alloy steel. The
common materials added as alloying elements are Nickel, Chromium, Silicon, Vanadium, Tungsten,
Manganese, Copper etc. The alloying elements affect the amount of carbon in solid solution, vary
grain size, change critical point, retard the rate of formation of Martensite, a structure obtained in rapid
cooling of steel, etc. Alloying Elements and their Effects: Effect of individual alloying elements on
properties of steel,
(i) Sulfur (s): Sulfur is not a desirable element in steel because it interferes with hot rolling
and forging resulting in hot-shortness or hot embitterment. S, however, is helpful in
developing free cutting nature. S upto 0.33% is added in free cutting steel. If steel is not free
cutting S is restricted to 0:05% in open hearth or converter steel and to 0.025% in electric furnace steel.
(ii) Phosphorous (P): P produces cold shortness, which reduces impact strength at low
temperature. So its % age is generally restricted to level of S. It is helpful in free cutting steels
and is added upto 0.12%. It also improves resistance to corrosion.
(ill) Silicon (Si): Si is present in all steels but in added upto 5% in steels and used as laminates
in transformers, motors and generators. For providing toughness it is an important constituent in steel
used for spring, chisels and punches. It has a good effect in steel that it combines with free O,
forming S,O, increasing strength and soundness of steel castings (up to 0.5%).

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
1.19
 (iv) Manganese (Mn): 12 to 14% of Mn produces extremely tough, water resistant and
non-magnetic steel called Hatfield Steel. It is important ingredient of free cutting steel upto
1.6%. Mn combines with S, forming MnS. For this purpose Mn must be 3 to 8 times the S.
Mn is effective in increasing hardness and hardenability.

(v) Nickel (Ni): Ni is good in increasing hardness, strength and toughness while maintaining
ductility. 0.5% of Ni is good for parts subjected to impact loads at room and very low
temperature. Higher amounts of Ni help improve the corrosion resistance in presence of Cr as
in stainless steel. Nickel in steel results in good mechanical properties after annealing and
normalising and hence large forgings, castings and structural parts are made in Ni-steel,

(vi) Chromium (Cr): Cr is common alloying element in tool steels, stainless steels and
corrosion resistant steel (4% Cr). It forms carbide and generally improves hardness, wear
and oxidation resistance at elevated temperature. It improves hardenability of thicker sections.

(vii) Molybdenum (Mo): Mo is commonly present in high-speed tool steel, carburising steel
and heat resisting steel. It forms carbide having high wear resistance and retaining strength at high
temperatures. Mo generally increases hardenability and helps improve the effects of other alloying
elements like Mn, Ni and Cr.

(viii) Tungsten (W): W is important ingredient of tool and heat resisting steel and generally
has same effects as Mo but 2 to 3% W has same effect as 1% of Mo.

(ix) Vanadium (V): Like Mo, V has inhibiting influence on grain growth at high temperature.
V carbide possesses highest hardness and wear resistance. It improves fatigue resistance.
It is important constituent of tool steel and may be added to carburising steel. Hardenability is
markedly increased due to V.

1.10.1.1.21 Designation of Steels

A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine components.

Steels are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any one of the following
three
properties,

(1) Designation of Steels Based on Tensile Strength: Steels which are standardised on the
basis of their tensile strength without detailed chemical composition, are specified by two ways,
symbol Fe followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 or symbol FEE followed by the
yield stress in N/mm2. For example, Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of
360 N/mm2.

Similarly FeE 250 indicates a steel with minimum yield stress of 250 N/mm2.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.20
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit-1]

Table 1.10.3 lists the designation of steels with the Indian standard IS: 1570 (Part-I) 1978.

Table 1.10.3
Indian Standard Designation of Steel as Per IS: 1570 (Part-I) 1978
Reaffirmed 1993)

S.No. IS Designation
(N/mm2)
Tensile Strength (Minimum) Yield Stress (Minimum) Minimum Percentage
Elongation
S (N/mm2)

(1) Fe 290
290
170
27

(2)
Fe E 220
290
220
27

(3) Fe 310
310
180
26

(4) Fe 330
330
200
26

(5)
Fe E 250
330
250
26
 (6)
Fe 360
360
220
25

(7)
Fe E 270
360
270
25

(8)
Fe 410
410
250
23

(9)
Fe E 310
410
310
23

(10) Fe 490
490
-

290
21

(11) Fe E 370
490
370
21

(12)
Fe 540
540
320
20

(13) Fe E 400
540
400
20

(14)
Fe 620
620
380
15

(15)
Fe 460
 620
460
15

(16)
Fe 690
690
410
12

(17)
Fe E 520
690
520
12

(18) Fe 770
770
460
10

(19) Fe E 580
770
580
10

(20)
Fe 870
870
520
8

(21)
Fe E 650
870
650
-8

(2) Designation of Steels Based on Carbon Content: The designation of plain carbon steel
consists of the following three quantities,
(1) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.
(ii) A letter C.

(iii) A figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese.

As an example, 55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55% carbon and 0.4%
manganese. A steel with 0.35-0.45% carbon and 0.6-0.9% manganese is designated as 40C8.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
 1.21

Table 1.10.4 lists the designation of steels with Indian Standard IS: 1570 (Part- II/Sec-I)
1979.

Table 1.10.4
Indian Standard Designation of Carbon Steel as Per IS: 1570
(Part-II/Sec-1) 1979 (Reaffirmed 1991)

Composition In Percentages
S.No.
IS Designation
Carbon (C) Manganese (Mn)

(1)
4C2
0.08 Max
0.40 Max

ཆེ།ཧཱུཾ། ཆུ། ཕྱི

(2) |
5C4
(3)
0.10 Max
0.50 Max

7C4
0.12 Max
0.50 Max

(4) 10C4
0.15 Max
0.30-0.60

(5)
10C4
0.15 Max
0.30-0.60

(6) 14C6
0.10-0.18
0.40-0.70

() |
15C4
0.20 Max
0.30-0.60

(8) 1508
0.10-0.20
0.60-0.90

(9) 2008
0.15-0.25
0.60-0.90
(10) | 25C4
0.20-0.30
0.30-0.60

(11) 2508
0.20-0.30
0.60-0.90

(12) 30C8
0.25-0.35
0.60-0.90

(13) 35C4
0.30-0.40
0.30-0.60

(14) 35C8
0.30-0.40
0.60-0.90

(15) 40C8
0.35-0.45
0.60-0.90

(16) 4508
0.40-0.50
0.60-0.90

(17) 50C4
0.45-0.55
0.30-0.60

(18) 50C12
0.45-0.55
1-.1-1.50

(19)
55C4
0.50-0.60
0.30-0.60

(20) 55C8
0.50-0.60
0.60-0.90

(21) 60C4
0.55-0.65
0.30-0.60

(22) 65C9
0.60-0.70
0.50-0.80

(23) 70C6
0.65-0.75
0.50-0.80

(24) 75C6
0.70-0.80
0.50-0.80

(25) 80C6
 0.75-0.85
0.50-0.80

(26) 85C6
0.80-0,90
0.50-0.80

(27)
98C6
0.90-1.05
0.50-0.80

(28) 113C6
1.05-1.20
0.50-0.80

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.22
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
- I]

(3) Designation of Steels Based on Composition of Alloying Elements: The term alloy
steel is used for low and medium alloy steels containing total alloying elements not
exceeding 10 percent. The designation of alloy steels consists of following quantities,

(1) A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.

(ii) Chemical symbols for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its average
percentage content multiplied by a factor. The multiplying factor depends upon
the alloying element.

Table 1.10.5 lists the designation of alloy steels (i.e., multiplying factors for alloying
elements in steel) with Indian Standard IS: 1762.

Table 1.10.5 Multiplying Factors for Alloying Elements in Steel As Per IS: 1762

Elements
Multiplying Factor

Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, Si and W

4

Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr and Mo

10

P, S, N
 100

In alloy steels, symbol 'Mn' for manganese is included only if the content of manganese
is equal to or greater than 1 percent. The chemical symbols and their figures are arranged
in descending order for their percentage content.
As an example, 25Cr4Mo2 is an alloy steel having average 0.25% carbon, 1% chromium
and 0.2% molybdenum. Similarly, 40Ni8Cr8V2 is an alloy steel containing average 0.4%
carbon, 2% nickel, 2% chromium and 0.2% vanadium.
Consider an alloy steel with the following composition,

Carbon
0.12 to 0.18%

Silicon
0.15 to 0.35%

Manganese 0.40 to 0.60%

Chromium
0.50 to 0.80%

The average percentage of carbon is 0.15%, which is denoted by the number (0.15 x
100) or 15. Percentage content of silicon and manganese is negligible and they are
deleted from the designation. The significant element is chromium and its average
percentage is 0.65. The multiplying factor for chromium is 4 and (0.65 × 4) is 2.6,
which is rounded to 3. Therefore, the complete designation of steel is 15Cr3.
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.10.1.13 Wrought Iron

1.23

Wrought iron is a mechanical mixture of pig iron and uniformly distributed

silicate slag. It posses the important properties of ductility, malleability and toughness. It is
suitable for machine parts to be shaped by forging. It has also got excellent welding properties.
With the introduction of steel the use of wrought iron has decreased although it is still used
extensively for chains and crane hooks, for bolts subjected to shock loads, for pipes, pipe fittings
and culvert plates. The ultimate strength is about three quarters of that of structural steel
while the price is approximately three times that of mild steel. Several processes are used in the
production wrought iron of which the puddling process is most commonly used.

1.10.1.2 Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys

The metals which are of free from iron are called non-ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals and
alloys posses different applications in mechanical engineering field.

Following sections gives the different non-ferrous metals and its alloys.

1.10.1.21 Copper and Its Alloys

Copper possesses excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. It can be easily cast,
machine and brazed. It has good corrosion resistance. However, even with these advantages,
pure copper is not used in, any structural application due to its poor strength. The tensile strength of
copper is about 220 N/mm2. Pure copper is mainly used for electrical and thermal applications. For
structural applications, copper alloys are used instead of pure copper. Some of the popular copper alloys
are brass, bronze, gun metal and monel metal. Their properties are briefly discussed here,

(1) Brass: The most commonly used copper alloy is brass. It is an alloy of copper and
zinc. Sometimes, it may contain small amounts of tin, lead, aluminium and manganese.

(2) Bronze: Bronze is an alloy of copper and elements other than zinc. In some cases,
bronze may contain small amount of zinc. There are three important varieties of
bronze-aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze and tin bronze.

(3) Gun Metal: Gun metal is an alloy of copper which contains 10 per cent tin and 2
per cent zinc.

(4) Monel Metal: Monel metal is a copper-nickel alloy. It contains 65% nickel and 32%
copper.

1.10.1.22 Aluminium and Its Alloys

Aluminium is white metal produced by electrical processes from its oxide (alumina),
which is prepared from a clayey mineral called bauxite. It is a light metal having specific
gravity 2.7 and melting point 658°C. The tensile strength of the metal varies from 90 MPa to 150
MPa.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
7

1.24
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I

Pure aluminium is weak. Parts requiring strength are made of aluminium alloys which may
be cast, rolled, forged and extruded. Aluminium-Magnesium alloy contains 3.25 to 4.25 percent
magnesium and this alloy has low specific gravity, excellent combination of strength and
ductility and machinability. Silicon upto 12% is added to increase fluidity,
corrosion resistance etc.

Duralumin is an aluminium alloy of 92% Al, 3.5 to 4.5% Cu, 0.2 to 0.75% magnesium, with 0.4 to
1% manganese. The properties are developed by hot working, quencing, cold working and
aging. This is used for bulk goods such as plates, tubes, rods, rivets etc. 1.10.2 Non-Metallic
Materials

are,
The commonly adopted non-metallic materials are classified into three types, they

(1) Timber: Timber possesses some advantages over metals such as low cost per unit volume
and a low density, bad electrical and thermal conductivities and noteworthy elastic and frictional
properties. On the other hand, the disadvantages are non-uniform structure, combustibility, small
strength and life and often inconsistency of form.
Thus in mechanical engineering timber is used as foundry patterns, templates for sheet metal work,
 belt pulleys, friction blocks for couplings and brakes, water lubricated bearings, handles and stems, etc.
Treated wood offers special possibilities of use... (2) Rubber: Rubber is used as a packing, as a
drive element and as an electric insulator. It has a high bulk modulus and must have lateral freedom if
used as a packing ring. (3) Plastics: These materials have come into extensive use now-a-days. The
name plastic materials has been derived from the state of plasticity existing at a certain stage, in their
manufacture. This makes it possible to give plastic products any desired shape. They are classified into two
main categories, thermoplastics, which soften under the application of heat and can be repeatedly
moulded. Thermosetting plastics which, under pressure and heat are cured and polymerized so
that the plastic assumes a different chemical combination becomes hard and will not deform when
again subjected to heat.
The good features of plastic materials are,

(1) Low cost.

(2) Light weight.

(3) Good resistance to shock and vibration.
(4) Self lubrication, which means low friction and high wear resistance.
(5) Heat and electric insulating properties.
(6) Resistance to corrosion.
(7) Ease of fabrication.
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - 1]

The unfavourable features of plastics are,

(1) Low strength.
(2) High thermal expansion.
(3) Low heat resistance.
(4) High creep and deformation under load.
(5) Embrittlement at low
temperature.
1.11
TYPES OF LOAD
1.25
 The load which is applied on the object can be determined on the following basis, (1)
According to Direction of Load: According to direction of load the loading can be
classified into three types, they are,
(i) Transverse Loading: Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member.
Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original position, with
internal tensile and compressive strains accompanying the change in curvature of the
member. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear deformation of the material
and increase the transverse deflection of the member.

(ii) Axial Loading: The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the
member. The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten.

(iii) Torsional Loading: Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple applied
to a member that has one end fixed against rotation. (2) According to Application of Load:
According to application of load the loading can
be classified into three types, they are,

(i) Steady Load: The applied load which does not vary in magnitude or direction
with respect to time is called steady load.

(ii) Gradual Variable Load: Gradual variable load is one which, goes on
increasing
over a period of time till the maximum value is reached.

(iii) Shock (or) Impact Load: The load which is applied suddenly or with some initial
velocity is called shock or impact load.

1.12 STRESS AND STRAIN

STRESS

When ever a body subjected to external force then that body offers a resisting force
 against the external force is called stress.

Mathematically it can be written as,

Resisting Force (For P)

Stress (a) =
Area (A)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

... (1.12.1)

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.26
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit 1]
·

a = E (or)
P
A

Units: N/m2 = Pascal (pa), N/mm2 = MPa

STRAIN

When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain. It is denoted by a Greek letter
epsilon (ɛ).

Mathematically it can be written as,

Strain (ε)
=

Change in length (81)

Original length (1).
.. (1.12.2)

1.13
SIMPLE STRESSES
When a mechanical component is subjected to an external static force, a resisting
force is set up within the component. The internal resisting force per unit area of the component is called
stress.

Stress are divided into two-types they are,

(1) Tensile Stress: The stresses are called tensile when the fibres of the component tend
to elongate due to the external force.
A tension rod subjected to an external force P is shown in Fig. 1.13.1.

P
P

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

161

Fig. 1.13.1 Tensile Stress

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

The tensile stress is given by,

A
1.27
 (1.13.1)

Where,

σ = Tensile stress (N/mm2). Ot

P = External force (N).

A = Cross-sectional area (mm2).

(2) Compressive Stress: When the fibres of component tend to shorten due to the
external
forces, the stresses are called compressive stresses.

A component subjected to a compressive force is shown in Fig. 1.13.2. The

compressive stress

A
is given by,

...

(1.13.2)

P
P

Oc

P
 Fig. 1.13.2 Compressive Stress

STRAIN AND STRESS RELATION

The strain is given by,

δ
ε=

Where,

ε = Strain (mm/mm).

8 = Elongation of tension rod (mm).

| = Original length of rod (mm).

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

...

. (1.13.3)

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.28
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
- 1]

According to Hooke's law, the stress is directly proportional to the strain with in elastic
limit.

σε αε (or) στα ε

Ot
= Eɛ

Where, E is the modulus of elasticity (N/mm2).

...

(1.13.4)

(1.13.5)
 Substituting Eq. (1.13.1) and (1.13.3) in the Eq. (1.13.5), we get,

ပ်
Pl

AE
. (1.13.6)

The following assumptions were made in the above analysis of stress and strain,

(1) The material is homogeneous.

(2) The load is gradually applied.

(3) The line of action of force P passes through the geometric axis of the
cross-section. (4) The cross-section is uniform and free from the effect of stress concentration.

1.14
SHEAR STRESS

When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the adjacent planes with
respect to each other, the resulting stresses on these places are called direct shear stresses. Two
plates held together by means of a rivet as shown in Fig. 1.14.1.

The average shear stress in the rivet is given by,

T =

Force (P)
Area of cross-section (A)
...

(1.14.1)

P
<
τ
Π

4
P
 N/m2 (or)
N/mm2

Where, d is the diameter of the rivet in mm.

P
P
NOTE: Shear stress for double shear t =
=

2A
2x

N/mm2 π d2

P
P

(b) Shear Deformation (c) Shear

Stress
(a) Riveted Joint

Fig. 1.14.1

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

.. (1.14.2)
 PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.15
1.29

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

The minimum stress level at which the plastic deformation sets in is known as elastic
limit. We have already seen that "within elastic limit stress is proportional to strain". This is the
Hooke's law and is source of definition of elastic modulus.

According to this law, stress is directly to strain.

..
σαε

σ = Eε (or) E
=

Ε
...

(1.15.1)

Similarly shear stress (t) a shear strain (y)

T = Gy (or) G
=
T

γ
...
 (1.15.2)

Where, E is modulus of elasticity or Young's modules and G is modulus of rigidity or

shear modulus.

The modulus of rigidity, is the ratio of the unit shear stress to the unit shear strain. The
modulus of rigidity can be obtained by plotting a torque twist diagram with the help of usual torsion
test. The modulus of rigidity (G) can also be obtained from Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ration
since E and G are related by the equation.
介
G
=

2(1 + μ)

E = 2G(1 + μ)

Where, μ is Poisson's ratio.

(1.15.3)

If E and G are known the above relation can be used to determine the value of the Poisson's ratio
by the relation,

E
μ
1.
2G
...

(1.15.4)

1.16 BENDING STRESSES

Bending stress produces due to combination of the normal tensile and compressive
stresses. When a machine part is bent, the outer fibres are under tension and inner under
compression. There is an intermediate layer where there is no stress. This is known as the neutral
surface. The magnitude of the stress induced in a fibre due to bending moment is proportional to
its distance from the neutral axis.

When a beam of moment of inertia I mm is subjected to a bending moment M N.mm. In Fig.

1.16.1, the fibres above the neutral axis are subjected to tension and the fibres below are
subjected to compression. The stress at any fibre located at a distance y mm from neutral axis is
given from bending equation.
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.30

i.e.,
M.

Bending stress,
=

бо
Y
=

E
x
R

Where,
=

Moy Mo
I
=

Мо
Z
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
I]

(1.16.1)

...

(1.16.2)

Mb
=

Bending moment in N/mm2 = Force x Perpendicular distance.

 I = Moment of inertia (mm4).
y = Distance from the Neutral Axis (N.A) to the extreme fibre or surface (mm).

E = Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2).

R = Radius of curvature (mm).

= Section modulus (mm2)

Z=
=

I
—

Fig. 1.16.1 shows the bending stress,

M
+
b

Fig. 1.16.1 Bending Stress

(1) Bending Stress for Rectangular Section: For a rectangular section, the moment of
inertia is given by,

1
I =

-bt3 12

And the maximum value of y,

Y max
=

2
-

Where b is the dimension perpendicular to the plane of bending and t is the dimension in
 the plane of bending.

it.

j.e.,
Hence maximum stress is from Eq. (1.16.2) by substituting I and Ymax values into

b(max)
=

M
440

. (1.16.3)
M
t
X
=

1
·bt3
2

bt2
12

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit 1]

(2) Bending Stress for Circular Section: For a circular section of a diameter d mm,

And
I
64

Substituting I and y in Eq. (1.16.2).

Maximum bending stress,

M
b
i.e.,
π ď3
32
 1.31

...

(1.16.4)

1.17 TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS

A transmission shaft, subjected to an external torque, is shown in Fig. 1.17.1. The internal
stresses, which are induced to resist the action of twist, are called torsional shear
stresses.

The torsional shear stress is given from equation of torsion.

i.e.,

Shear stress,
T

J
τ
=- =

r
ᏀᎾ

Tr
T=

TN/mm2

Where,

T = Twisting moment or torque (N/mm2).

J = Polar moment of inertia (mm1).

Π
=

-d4, for solid circular shaft.

32

π
=

(dd), for hollow circular shaft.

32

r = Radial distance of the fibre from the axis of rotation (mm).

d
for solid shaft.

D
I
N
0
 2
do for hollow
shaft.
2.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

. (1.17.1)

.. (1.17.2)

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.32

Design Considerations of Machine Elements

 [Unit - I]

ΟΙ
(a) Solid Shaft

G = Modulus of rigidity (N/mm2).

0 = Angle of twist (radians).

(b) Hollow Shaft

| = Length of the bar (mm).

The distribution of torsional shear stresses is shown in Fig. 1.17.1(b). The stress
is maximum at the outer fibre and zero at the axis of rotation.

M2

(a) Shaft Subjected to Torsional Moment (b) Distribution of Torsional Shear

Stresses

Fig. 1171

(1) Torsional Shear Stress for Solid Shaft: For a solid shaft of diameter (d), the polar
moment of inertia,
 J = Ixx + Ivy

64
d4
+
π

64

32
d4

Π
2
T =1X
X
32
=

d 16

Tx d3
[ Eq. (1.17.3) obtains substituting J into Eq. (1.17.2)]
.. (1.17.3)

(2) Torsional Shear Stress for Hollow Shaft: In case of a hollow shaft with external
diameter (d) and internal diameter (d), the polar moment of inertia,

J = [(d) - (d)*)
32

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit]

And

===
r=
2
 T=TX

16
1

32 [0%) * - (14) *]
× 2

(d)4 = (d,) 4*
do
1.33

T
=
π

16
X

t(d)3(1 − k2)
.. Substituting, k
=

... (1.17.4)

1.18 BEARING STRESS

A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine
part, that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress.

When a pin and an eye is loaded as shown in Fig. 1.18.1, the contact stress will not
remain uniform and the distribution is shown in Fig. 1.18.1.
 P

Fig. 1.18.1 Bearing Stress

The distribution depends on the shape and the physical properties of the materials and is
very difficult to determine. This stress is otherwise called bearing stress or crushing stress. Usually
the stress is expressed as load over projected area. If d be the diameter of pin and L length of
the pin, then, bearing stress or crushing stress is given by,

dL

Where, P is the load on the pin.

... (1.18.1)

Higher, crushing produces local deformation and hence this should be limited to the
allowable values established by experiments. This stress should be taken into account in the design of
riveted joints, pins for couplings etc.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
1]
·

1.34

FOR RIVETED JOINT DESIGN, BEARING STRESS

Fig. 1.18.2 shows the riveted joints,

 P

Fig. 1.18.2 Riveted Joint

Bearing stress or crushing stress,

σ
P

dtn
t

Where,

P = Load acting on the riveted joint.

d = Diameter of rivet.

t = Thickness of the plate.

n = Number of rivets per pitch length in crushing.

1.19 THERMAL STRESSES

Thermal stress and strain are caused by temperature change. Materials expand at
temperature increase and contract at temperature decrease. Restricting thermal strain cause thermal
stress.

Stress Due to Restricting Thermal Expansion: Tensile or compressive stress may be caused by
restricting thermal expansion.
 Thermal stress can be calculated as,

Where,
σ=E ε

σ = E a dt

σ = Stress due to temperature expansion (N/m2, Pa).

E = Youngs modulus (N/m2).

...

. (1.19.1)

81
€ = Strain
lu.dt
= a.dt 1
α

[a = E8l, From (Eq. (1.19.1)]

Ɑ=

Temperature expansion coefficient (m/m°C).

dt = Temperature difference
(°C),

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.20 RESIDUAL STRESSES

1.35
 Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a solid material after the original cause of the
stresses has been removed. Residual stress may be desirable or undesirable. For example, laser
peening imparts deep beneficial compressive residual stresses into metal components such
as turbine engine fan blades and it is used in toughened glass to allow for large, thin, crack and
scratch-resistant glass displays on smartphones. However, unintended residual stress in a
designed structure may cause it to fail prematurely.

Residual stresses can occur through a variety of mechanisms including inelastic

(plastic) deformations, temperature gradients (during thermal cycle) or structural changes
(phase transformation). Heat from welding may cause localized expansion, which is taken up
during welding by either the molten metal or the placement of parts being welded. When the
finished weldment cools, some areas cool and contract more than others, leaving residual
stresses. Another example occurs during semiconductor_fabrication and microsystem fabrication
when thin film materials with different thermal and crystalline properties are deposited sequentially
under different process conditions. The stress variation through a stack of thin film materials can be
very complex and can vary between compressive and tensile stresses from layer to layer.

1.21 PRINCIPAL STRESSES (OR) COMPOUND STRESSES

The planes which carry only normal stress and no shearing stress are termed
principal planes and stresses acting on them are known as principal stresses.
In the design of various elements of a machine, it frequently happens that the stress
produced by external loads, it is not a simple one. It may be subjected to combination of axial
loads, bending and twisting moments and the effect is to produce a combination of normal and
shear stresses at a point which can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.12.1.

Тух
Oy

0
Y
 σχ
Txy

+
X
Txy
TxY

σ0

gy
Txy
Txy

(a) Two Dimensional Stresses

Oy

(b) Stresses in Oblique Plane

Fig. 1.21.1 Combined Stresses

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.36
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit.

The principal stresses can be studied with following five types,

(1) Unidirectional stress.

(2) Biaxial stresses.

(3) Pure shear stress.

(4)
Biaxial stresses combined with shear stress.
(5) Unidirectional stress combined with shear stress.

1.21.1 Unidirectional Stress

If the stress acts only in one direction on a body it is called as unidirectional stress.
Fig. 1.21.2 shows the unidirectional stress.

Te

0
B

A
6x

Fig. 1.212 Body Subjected to Unidirectional Stress

A member is subjected to unidirectional stress o, acting on face AB, which may be tensile or
compressive,
 =

cos2 0 Ox

Shear stress along the plane AC inclined at 0 is given by;

TA
=

x sin 20

σχ
at 0 = 45°
2
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Maximum shear stress,

Tmax
=

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.21.2 Biaxial Stresses

1.37

If the stress acts on two sides of a body then it is called blaxial stress. Fig. 1.21.3
shows the biaxial stress on the body.

ay

σχ
C
Το
 0
B

Oy

Fig. 1.21.3 Body Subjected to Biaxial Stress

A body subjected to biaxial stresses σ, and σ, acting two mutual perpendicular axis
x and y respectively is shown in Fig. 1.21.3.
Oy

Then, normal stress on the plane AC inclined at an angle is given by,

00
2

() ()
+
cos 20

Shear stress on the plane AC inclined at angle is given by,

σ
X
σ

Y sin 20
Το
=

5-(+)
2
 Maximum shear stress is,

01-02 2

σχ
σx - αy
2

Where,

01

02
=

σχ

gy
= Maximum principal stress.

= Minimum principal stress.

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
1.38
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.21.3 Pure Shear Stress

Pure shear refers to a body undergoing only shear stress along its surface. Fig. 1.21.4
shows the body subjected to pure shear stress.

C
Txy

Txy
B

de
B

την
 Txy

Fig. 1.21.4 Body Subjected to Pure Shear Stress

The body is subjected to pure shear stress txy'

Normal stress on the plane AC inclined at an angle is given by,
=

Txy sin 20
Shear stress on the plane AC inclined at an angle is given by,
Te = -Txy cos 20
Το

Maximum shear stress,

Tmax
=
-

01 - 02 2

Where,

01
= Maximum principal stress =
в ху

02 = Minimum principal stress =

-Txy
1.21.4 Biaxial Stresses Combined with Shear Stress
Body subjected to biaxial stresses combined with shear stress is shown in Fig. 1.21.5.

C
Txy
B

01

TAY
Txy
 Ox

+
Txy

By

Fig. 121.5 Body Subjected to Biaxial Stresses Combined with Shear Stress

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
- I]

Let,

σχ
= Stress along x direction (tensile or compressive).

y= Stress along y direction (tensile or compressive).

Txy = Shear stress on xy

plane.
1.39

The normal stress by any obligue section AC inclined at an angle e with the
direction of oy is given as,

X
=

+.0.

2
-

y
 +
cos 20+ T
2
sin 20 Txy

Tangential shear stress along the plane AC inclined at an angle is given by,

sin 20 - Txy
cos 20

Maximum principal stress is given by,

01
=

[ન્દ્ર
+ o1) + √(ox - o;)2 +
4+2y

Minimum principal stress is given by,

xy

02 1212
[
(10-XxX
=
-

(0x + o1) - √(x − ∞1)2

+ 4 + xy

Maximum shear stress is given by,

Tmax = 01-02 = = = √(x -

0, )2 + 412,
 2
xy

Since there are two principal planes at right angles to each other. Let 0,
and 0, be the inclinations of these planes with the normal cross-section.

Then,

01,2
=

tan-1
2TxY
-

And angle of maximum shear planes is given by,

0. =
tan-1

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

ху

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.40
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.21.5 Unidirectional Stress Combined with Shear Stress

Fig. 1.21.6 shows the body subjected to unidirectional stress combined with shear
stress.

σχ
Txy
B

C
to
Txy
 σχ

Fig. 1.21.6 Body Subjected to Unidirection Stress Combined with Shear Stress

Body is subjected to a unidirectional stress σ (tensile or compressive) along with

a shear stress Txy'

Maximum principal stress is given by,

01
=

2
2
+
+ 4t
2

xy

Maximum shear stress is given by,

1.22
2

Tmax = 2√3 +
413
FACTOR OF SAFETY
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum
or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the working
stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Mathematically,
Maximum stress
Factor of safety =
Working (or) design stress
. (1.22.1)
 In case of ductile materials e.g., mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined the
factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,

Factor of safety
Yield point stress Working (or)
design stress
. (1.22.2)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
1.41

In case of brittle materials e.g., cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for
ductile materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.

Factor of safety
=

Ultimate stress Working (or) design

stress
... (1.22.3)

This relation may also be used for ductile materials.

1.22.1 Factors to be Considered While Selecting the Factor of Safety

The appropriate value of the factor of safety for any design depends upon a number
of considerations, some of which are as follows,

(1) Degree of economy desired.

(2) Selected values of strength characteristics (yield point, ultimate strength or

endurance limit).

(3) Load conditions such as static, varying or shock loads.

(4) Degree of accuracy of force analysis of members.

(5) Permanency of design and vital importance of the machine part.

(6) Dependability of the material.

(7) Accessibility of parts for inspection and maintenance.

(8) Difficulty in preventing deterioration of the material.

(9) Degree of safety to human life and property.

(10) Possible imperfections of workmanship.

The values of factor of safety based on ultimate strength for different materials and type of
load are given in the following Table 1.22.1.

Table 1.22.1 Values of Factor of Safety

S.No.
Material
Steady Load Live Load Shock Load

(1)
Cast iron
5 to 6
8 to 12
16 to 20

(2) Wrought iron

4
7
10 to 15

(3)
Steel
4
8
12 to 16

(4) Soft materials and

6
9
15

alloys

(5) Leather

(6) Timber
9
12
15
 7
10 to 15
20

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.42

1.22.2 Service Factor

Design Considerations of Machine Elements
[Unit - I]

Besides the factor of safety, an additional factor called as service factor is used in design.
This factor is influenced by the kind of machinery and the prime mover. It should be noted that in a
machine driven by a prime mover, the torque required varies during the work cycle. For example, the
starting torque in an application can be multiple times the nominal working torque. Depending on the
application can be multiple times the nominal working torque. Depending on the application, a
service factor Cs may be taken to account for these conditions and can be defined by,

Maximum torque
Rated torque

Typical values of service factor are listed in Table 1.22.2,

Table 1.22.2 Typical Values of Service Factor, Cs

...

. (1.22.4)

Prime Mover

S.No.
Driven Machinery
Electric
Motor
Turbine (or)
Multi-cylinder
Single
 Engine
Cylinder
Engine

(1)
Light Duty Applications: Belts, conveyors, bl- owers,
compressors, mixers, generators and agitators.
1.10
1.25
1.50

(2)
Medium Duty Applications: Cranes, hoists,
machine tools, rotary drives and piston
pumps.
1.25
1.50
1.75

(3)
High Duty Applications : Rolling mills, mecha- nical
presses, centrifuges and steel working
machinery.
1.75
2.00
2.25

1.23 THEORIES OF ELASTIC FAILURE

Whenever a machine part is subjected to a system of combined stresses, e.g., as in

crankshafts, propeller shafts, turbine rotors, etc. it is important to know what caused failure. The
particular action causing failure is known as the criterion of failure.
Two types of service failures are possible, elastic failure or yielding and fracture. Elastic
failure results in excessive deformation so that the part or machine can no longer perform its particular
 function as well as it should. In fracture failure, the component usually tears apart into two or more
pieces. In this article we shall consider theories of elastic failure.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
1.43

Any state of stress can be specified completely by value of three principal stresses,
each of which may be tensile or compressive. We can express the normal stress, strain,
shear stress and strain energy in terms of these principal stresses. The criterion of failure. can be
represented as an equation involving principal stresses together with certain
constants and an experimentally determined stress, usually tensile.
Several theories have been proposed each assuming a different hypothesis of
failure. The principle theories of elastic failure are,
(1) Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine's theory).
(2) Maximum shear stress theory (Tresca and Guest's
theory).
(3) Maximum strain theory (St. Venant's theory).
(4) Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh's theory).
(5) Maximum distortion energy theory (Von Mises and Hencky's theory).

1.23.1 Maximum Principal (or) Normal Stress Theory (Rankine's

Theory)
This theory assumes that failure will occur when the maximum principal stress is equal to the
elastic limit in tension.

Let 01 02 03 be the normal stresses in a machine member. Assume that 01

> 02 > 03. Then, failure occurs when the maximum normal stress is equal to the tensile yield strength.
That is, in this case failure occurs when,

01
=

Oyt
Generally, failure occurs when,

01 or 2 or 3 [which is maximum]
=

Oy.
For design purposes, taking factor of safety as (F.S.)

Where,
01

01
=

yt' F.S.
(For ductile materials)

u
(For Brittle materials)
F.S.

"yt = Yield stress.

= Ultimate stress.
.. (1.23.1)

...

. (1.23.2)

(1.23.3)

F.S.= Factor of safety.

This theory is used to brittle materials. This is not suitable for ductile materials
because, ductile materials mostly fail by shearing. But this theory takes into account the
effect tensile and compressive stress only.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.44
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

1.23.2 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest's or Tresca's Theory)

According to this theory, failure occurs when the maximum shear stress developed in the
machine member become equal to the maximum shear stress at yielding in a tension
test.

Mathematically,

Tmax =
Tyt/F.S.
...

(1.23.4)

Where,

Tmax

Tyt
= Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system.

Shear stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test.

F.S.= Factor of safety.

Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one-half the yield
stress in tension, therefore the Eq. (1.23.4) may be written as,

Tmax
=

Oyt 2 x F.S.
...

(1.23.5)

1.23,3 Maximum Principal (or) Normal Strain Theory

(Saint Venant's Theory)
This theory assumes that elastic failure is deemed to occur when the maximum principal
strain of the complex (biaxial) system is equal to the maximum strain at the elastic limit in simple
 tension.
The maximum principal or normal strain in a bi-axial stress system is given by,

02
=

Єmax E m.E
-

According to the above theory,

& max
=
-

E
02 m.E
=&=

yt Ex F.S.
. (1.23.6)

. (1.23.7)

Where,

01
and
= Maximum and minimum principal stresses in a bi-axial stress system. 02
ε = Strain at yield point as determined from simple tension test.
μ = 1/m= Poisson's ratio.

E=
Young's modulus.
F.S. = Factor of safety.
From Eq. (1.23.7), we may write that,

2yt
01
m

Byt F.S.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

. (1.23.8)

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit -
I]

1.23.4 Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh's Theory)

1.45

This theory assumes that failure occurs when the strain energy per unit volume for the
complex (biaxial) system is equal to the strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in
simple tension.

According to this theory,

(or)
U1 = U2

- (01)2 + (02 )2 -
201 × 01⁄2
yt
-
=

m
F.S.
...

(1.23.9)

This theory may be used for ductile materials.

1.23.5 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

(Hencky and Von-Mises Theory)

This theory assumes that failure occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume for the complex (biaxial) system is equal to the strain energy of distortion at the elastic limit
in simple tension.

Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is expressed as,
σ

(01)2 + (02)2 -
201 ×
 yt
=

F.S.
(1.23.10)

This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.

Where,

01
and = Maximum and minimum principal stresses in a bi-axial stress system.
02

ε = Strain at yield point determined from simple tension test.

1
μ
=

Poision's ratio.
m

E = Young's modulus.

F.S= Factor of safety.

1.23,6 Applications of Theories of Failure

Now-a-days FEA based solvers are well integrated to use failure theories. User can
specify kind of failure criterion in his solution method. Shear strain energy theory is the
most commonly used method. These softwares can produce Von-mises stress
along material, which is based on Shear strain energy theory. So user can check
whether maximum Von-mises stress induced in the body crosses maximum allowable stress
value.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.46
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

It is a common practice to introduce Factor of Safety (F.S) while designing, in order to take
care of worst loading scenario.

So the engineer can say his design is safe if following condition satisfies,

Y
 von_misesmax
S F.S
1.24 POISSON'S RATIO, BULK MODULUS, YOUNG'S MODULUS AND

MODULUS OF RIGIDITY RELATIONS

POISSON'S RATION

Poisson's ratio has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within
elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain.

Mathematically,

Poisson's ratio

(1/(or)
μ1)
μπ
Lateral strain

Linear strain

This constant is known as poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m or μ.

BULK MODULUS

When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity, then the
ratio of the direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as bulk modulus. It is usually
denoted by K.

Mathematically, bulk modulus,

K=
Direct stress

Volumetric strain
σ
=

SV/V

RELATION BETWEEN BULK MODULUS AND YOUNG'S MODULUS

 The bulk modulus (K) and Young's modulus (E) are related by the following relation,

m.E
K
E

3(m2) 3(1 - 2μ)

RELATION BETWEEN YOUNG'S MODULUS AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

The Young's modulus (E) and modulus of rigidity (G) are related by the following
relation,

G
m.E 2(m +
1)
E

2(1 + μ)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
- I]

1.25 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRITTLE AND DUCTILE MATERIALS

Table 1.25.1 Difference Between Brittle and Ductile Materials

S.No.
Brittle Materials
Ductile Materials
1.47

Ductile materials will withstand large Brittle materials fracture at much lower
strains before the specimen ruptures.
(1)

(2)
 Ductile materials often have relatively small
Young's moduli and ultimate stress-

(3)

(4)

(5)
ses.
strains.

Brittle materials often have relatively large Young's moduli and ultimate stre-
sses.

Ductile materials exhibit large strains and Brittle materials fail suddenly and yielding
before they fail.
without much warning.
Steel and aluminum usually fall in the Glass and cast iron fall in the class of class of
Ductile Materials.
Brittle Materials.

Warmer temperature will cause a material Colder temperature can cause

materials to become more ductile.
to become more brittle.

1.26 STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR MILD STEEL

Mild steel as steel classification is no more a popular term. It was in earlier days
that group of steels used for structural purposes was called mild steel. Its carbon content is low and a
larger group of steel, named low carbon steel, is now used for the same purposes. We will read about steel
classification later. Mild steel was perhaps developed first out of all steels and it was manufactured from
Bessemer process by blowing out carbon from iron in a Bessemer converter. It was made from pig iron.
The interesting point to note is that this steel was first studied through o- diagram and most
properties were studied with respect to this material. The term Yield Strength (YS) is
frequently used whereas yield behaviour is not detectable in most steel varieties used today. It is
mild, steel, which very clearly shows a yield behaviour and upper and lower yield points. Fig.
1.26.1 shows a typical -ε diagram for mild steel.

a, b, c
с

a (Stress)
c' d
 e'
(Stress)
b
C'
Yielding
d

€ (Strain)
€ (Strain)

Fig. 1.26.1 Stress-strain Diagram for Mild Steel

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS

1.48
Design Considerations of Machine Elements
[Unit-1]

The proportional limit, elastic limit and upper yield point almost coincide (i.e., a, b, c). d is
lower yield point and deformation from c to c' is at almost constant stress level. There is
perceptible drop in stress from c to c'. The deformation from c' to d almost 10 times the deformation
at c. It can be seen effectively if strain is plotted on larger scale, as shown on right hand side in
Fig. 1.26.1 in which the & scale has been doubled.

The mechanism of yielding is well understood and it is attributed to line defects, dislocations.
The readers are already exposed to this defect in the subject of material science. This defect in
materials is also responsible for effect of strain rate on mechanical properties like Ultimate
Tensile Strength (UTS), Yield Strength (YS) and percent elongation.

The UTS normally increases with increasing strain rate and decreases with increasing
temperature. Similar trend is shown by yield strength, particularly in low carbon steel.

1.27 IMPACT LOADING

Impact or shock load is a type of load which is applied suddenly or with some initial velocity.
Examples for this type of loading include punching presses, hammers loads exerted on cams
during the motion due to eccentricity, load imposed on gear teeth due to irregular tooth profile.

Another definition given for impact loading is as follows,

If the time load application is less than one third of the lowest national period of vibration of
the part, the load is called an impact load.
 Generally, the stress produced due to impact loads (impact stress) are more than the stresses
produced of the same load is applied gradually.

1.27.1 Design of Component Subjected to Impact Loading

Let us assume that a bar of diameter 'd' and length 'I' has a collar at its base. A load W falls
from a height of 'h' on to the collar shown in Fig. 1.27.1.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

h
d

Fig. 1.271 Impact Loading

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
- I]
1.49

'S' is the deformation of the bar. Due to the falling load, energy is gained. But at the
same time as the weight 'W' falls down, potential energy is lost, by equating these
two,

Kinetic energy gained Potential energy lost.

1

But, W = 0, x A

Where,

༠
=

× W × 81 = W (h + 81)

= The stress induced.

A = Area of the bar.

But from Hook's law,

...

(1.27.1)

...

(1.27.2)

δι
E

8, = =
 =
E

WI
81
=

AE
E
...

(1.27.3)

.. (1.27.4)
Substituting Eq. (1.27.2) in Eq. (1.27.1).

i.e.,
1
× σ, x A x 81 = W (h + Sl)
...

Substituting Eq. (1.27.3) in Eq. (1.27.4),

1/2
xoxAx1W(n+1
)
1 ΑΙ
-

2
E
=

Wh
=

삍
이
E E

Wh WI
E
 1
ΑΙ
Al 2
—

2
E
=0
E
E

Eq. (1.27.5) is in the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0

Where,

x = 01

Solving this quadratic equation on σ,, we have,

-":,,2haE」
A
1+1+
WI

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

.. (1.27.5)
...

(1.27.6)

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS

1.50
Design Considerations of Machine Elements
[Unit - I]
 0, in the
Relation between Suddenly Applied and Gradually Applied Loads : Putting h= Eq.
(1.27.6) we have,

2W

But, when the same load 'W' is gradually applied the stress produced,
...

(1.27.7)

σ
W

A
...

(1.27.8)

From this, it is clear that the stress due to suddenly applied load is double that of the
gradually applied load.

i.e.,
σ = 20
...

(1.27.9)

NOTE: If shock energy which is stored in the member of strain energy is known, then the impact
stress induced is given by,

Where,
σ=

2UE

ΑΙ

U = Strain energy
=

2E

1.28
SOLVED PROBLEMS
 SOLVED PROBLEM 1 1
A steel member is subjected to a 3 dimensional stress system and the resulting
principal stresses are 120 N/mm2 tension, 80 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2 compression. If the
proportional limit of the material in simple tension is 280 N/mm2 and its poisson's
ratio is 0.3. Determine factor of safety according to,
(i) Maximum principal stress theory.
(ii) Maximum principal strain theory.

SOLUTION
= max

=-80 N/mm2 [ve due to compression] = -40 N/mm2 [ve due to compression]
Given Data : Maximum principal stress (σ1) = 120 N/mm2
Second principal stress (02) Third principal stress (3)
Limiting stress (t) = 280 N/mm2

Poisson's ratio

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

()
= 0.3.

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit
I]

To find, factor of safety,

1.51

(i) Maximum Principal Stress Theory: According to this theory, for safe design.

Omax
=

gyt FOS

280
 i.e.,
120 =
F.S.

F.S. = 2.333

(ii) Maximum Principal Strain Theory: From this theory for 3-stresses,

03
01
-

mm

gyt
F.S.

120 - (-80 x 0.3 +40 x 0.3)

=

280

F.S.

i.e.,
132=
280

F.S.

F.S. 2.1212

SOLVED PROBLEM 2

A bolt is subjected to a tensile load of 25 KN and a shear load of 10 KN. Determine

the diameter of the bolt according to,

(i) Maximum principal stress theory.

(ii) Maximum principal strain theory.

Assume factor of safety as 2.5, yield point stress in simple tension = 300 N/mm2.

Poisson's ratio = 0.25.

SOLUTION

Given Data: Tensile load (P) = 25 kN = 25 x 103 N

 Shear load (F) = 10 kN = 10 x 103 N

Factor of Softy (F.S.) = 2.5

Yield stress (ayt)

= 300 N/mm2

Poisson's ratio

()
= 0.25.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.52
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

To find, Core diagram of bolt 'd' (mm),

Stress due to tensile load (ox),

ох
=

Tensile load P

Area of bolt A

25 × 103

(π/4 d2)

31.83 × 103
d2

Stress due to shear load (t),

 F

10 × 103
=

7/4 d2
12.732 × 103
d2

From maximum principal stress,

Here,
01

Jy

Txy

6+
=

1
2

+a) + √(ox − 01)2 +

4+ xy
(0x + y)

[.
0
 =T=

12.732 × 103
d2

31.83 × 103
d2
X

Substituting,
2

1 31.83 × 103
x

31.83 × 103
01
2
+

x
102)
12.732 × 103
+4

d2
d2

1 31.83 x 103
+

2
d2
40.73 × 103 d2

36.267 × 103
01
N/mm2
d2

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]
 From minimum principal stress,

02
=

» [ન્દ્ર
(0x - - 2 + o1) − √(ox − 01)2 + 4xxy2

-31.83-1040.73 10
d2

-4.465 × 103
X

02
=

Nmm2
d2

(i) Maximum Principal Stress Theory: As per this theory, for safe design is,

Oyt Omax =
F.S.

In this case, o, is maximum.

But,
01

01
=

36.267 × 103

F.S. = 2.5
d2
yt = 300
 (i.e.),
36.267 x 103 d2
300
=

2.5
1.53

d = 17.4 mm, say 18 mm

(ii) Maximum Principal Strain Theory: According to this theory, safe design is,

01
-
 d
m
=

Gyt
F.S.

36.267 × 103
d2

37383.25 d2

SOLVED PROBLEM 3
-4.465 × 103
X
0.25
=

300

2.5

300
=

2.5

17.64 mm, say 18 mm

A beam of uniform rectangular cross-section is fixed at one end and carries a

transverse load of 1.8 kN at a distance of 0.9 m from the fixed end. The yield strength of
material is 294.2 MPa and factor of safety is 2.5. Find the width and depth of the beam, if
depth
is twice the width.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.54
SOLUTION
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit -
I]

Given Data Load (P) = 1.8 kN = 1800 N

Length (1) = 0.9 m = 900 mm

(

Yield stress (oyt) = 294.2 MPa =

294.2 N/mm2
Factor of safety (F.S.)

900 mm
=

2.5

1800 N
b

Fig. 1.27.1

- Let,

b= Width of the beam in mm.

h=
Depth of the beam in mm.

Allowable stress,

σ=

Tyt F.S

294.2-
 2.5

σ = 117.68 N/mm2

Depth of cross-section, h = 2b (Given)

From equation of bending,

Where,
Мо
I
=

Мо
=

Мо
Bending moment

= PXI

= 1800 × 900

= 1.62 x 106 N-mm

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit -
I]

I = Moment of inertia

=
 =

bh3
12

b (2b)3

8b
12

12

I = 0.667b4

y = Distance from Neutral Axis (N.A) to outer fiber

5/
2
1.55

2b

2
 y =b

1.62 x 10° 0.667

b4

b3
=
=

117.68

1.62 × 106
117.68 x 0.667

b = 27.4 mm 28 mm

Width, b = 28 mm

Depth, h = 2b = 2 x 28 = 56 mm

SOLVED PROBLEM 4

A steel shaft 120 mm in diameter and 1 m long has a flywheel fitted at one end and
rotates at 240 r.p.m. When the shaft is suddenly stopped, determine the angle of
twist and shear stress induced in the shaft. The mass of the flywheel is 100 kg and its
radius of gyration is 350 mm. Take modulus of rigidity as 0.84 x 105 MPa.

SOLUTION

Given Data: Diameter of the shaft (d) = 120 mm

Length of the shaft (1)

= 1m

Speed (N) = 240 r.p.m

The mass of the flywheel (m) = 100 Kg

Radius of gyration (K) = 350 mm = 0.35 m

Modulus of rigidity (G) = 0.84 × 105 MPa

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
1.56
Design Considerations of Machine Elements
[Unit - I]
Kinetic energy of the flywheel is given by,

E == 1/2 x
mv2

1/
2
mx (or)2

--100-(2x240035)
=

E = 3868.9 Nm
60

Assuming that the entire mass of the flywheel is concentrated at the flywheel rim.

Polar second moment of area,

] =
πα

32

= 3/2
x 1204,

J = 2036 × 104 mm2

Angle of twist,

2EI
0=
GJ
 0=

Volume of shaft,

A/
=

2 x 3868.9 x 1000 × 1 × 1000 0.84 ×

105 × 2036 × 104

d2 x I
4

× 1202 × 1000
4

A/ = 11309.7 x 103 mm3

Shear stress induced in the shaft,

T=

4EG
A/

4 x 3869.9 x 1000 x 0.84 x 105

11309.7 × 103

T = 339 MPa

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

SOLVED PROBLEM S
1.57

A bolt is subjected to an axial pull of 10 kN and a transverse shear force of 5 kN. The yield
strength of the bolt materials is 300 MPa. Considering a factor of safety of 2.5, determine the
diameter of the bolt, using,
 (i) Maximum normal stress theory.
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory.
(iii) Maximum principal strain theory.
Take Poisson's ratio as 0.25.

SOLUTION

Given Data: Axial pull (P) = 10 kN

Transverse shear force (F) = 5 kN

Yield strength (oyt) = 300 Mpa = 300

N/mm2
Poisson's ratio (1/m or μ) :
= 0.25

Let, d be the diameter of the bolt in mm.

Cross-sectional area of the bolt,

A = = d2
4

A = 0.7854 d2 mm2

Direct tensile stress in the bolt,

Pt
A

10 × 1000
=

0.7854 d2

12732.4
N/mm2
d2

Transverse shear stress in the bolt,

F
 <
A

5 × 1000 0.7854
d2

6366.2 d2
N/mm2

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
1.58

Let,

01 = Maximum principal stress.

02
= Minimum principal stress.

01/02. =
C2

01

01

02
=

1
Design Considerations of Machine Elements
[Unit-1]
 · 1/2 [ 0 ± √ o2
+4=2]

2d2
√o2

12732.4 + √12732.42 +
6366.22

15369.4

2d2
d2

2637
N/mm2

12732.4 - √12732.42 + 4 ×
6366.22

02 =
N/mm2
d2

Permissible stress is given as,

gyt
 300
=

= 120 N/mm2
F.S 2.5

(i) According to Maximum Normal (Principal) Stress Theory

01
=σ

15369.4 d2
= 120

d2
=

15369.4

120

d= 11.32 mm

(ii) According to Maximum Shear Stress Theory

01 - 02

15369.4 d2
=

Byt
F.S
=σ

= 120

(-2637
)-
15369.4 + 2637
= 120
d2

d2
15369.4 + 2637
120
 d = 12.25 mm

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I]

(iii) According to Maximum Principal Strain Theory

1.59

15369.4 d2
=

F.S

0.25

=σ

(-2
637)
= 120

15369.4659.25

120

d = 11.56 mm

SOLVED PROBLEM 6
=

d2
 A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to a bending moment of 2000
N- m and a torque T. If the yield point of the steel in tension is 200 MPa, find the
maximum value of this torque without causing yielding of the shaft, according to,

(i) The maximum principal stress theory.

(ii) The maximum shear stress theory.

(iii) The maximum distortion strain energy theory of yielding.

SOLUTION

Given Data: Diameter of shaft (d)

B e n. d
= 50 mm

= 2000 N-m = 2000 x 103 N-mm

Yield strength (yt) = 200 MPa =

= 200 MPa = 200 N/mm2

Let, T is the maximum torque without causing yielding of the shaft in N-mm.

(i) According to Maximum Principal Stress Theory

Section modulus of shaft,

Z = d3 132 ×

=
π

32
(50)3
Z = 12273 mm3

Bending stress due to bending moment (M) is given by,

 b
=

Mb
Z

2000 × 103
12273

= 163 N/mm2

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
1.60
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit - I)

Shear stress (1) produced due to torque (T) is given by,

Let,

01

02
T =

16T

-d

16 T

π (50)3

t = 0.0407 × 10-3 x T N/mm2

 = Maximum principal stress.

= Minimum principal stress.

Maximum principal stress is,

01 - 2
1
2
+
2
+472

163
+
2

01
=

— [√(163)2 + 4 ×
(0.0407 × 10 ̃3-T)2.
2

81.5+√6642.5+ 1.65 × 10-9 T2 N/mm2

Minimum principal stress is,

бь 02 2
=

163

2 = 81.5
+ 4+2
2

1
-
 -

[√(163)2 + 4 × (0.0407 ×
10 ̃3T)2
x x

6642.5+1.65 x 10-9 T2 N/mm2

Maximum shear stress is,

Tmax
1

= [√(o2 )2
+4=2]
2
×

√(163)2 + 4(0.0407 ×
10-3T)2

Tmax
=

√6642.5+1.65 × 10-9 T2
N/mm2
X

According to maximum principal stress theory,

Byt
01
F.S

01 = "yt
 [Assume F.S =
1]

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
Design Considerations of Machine Elements [Unit 1]
-

81.5+√√6642.5 + 1.65 × 10-9T2

T2_14042-6642.5
1.65 × 10-9 x
= 200

4485 × 109
X

T= 2118 x 103 N-mm or 2118 N-m.

(ii) According to Maximum Shear Stress Theory

gyt
gyt
Tmax = y = 20x5 =
vt
F.S 2

6642.5 1.65 × 10-9 T2

=

200
= 100
2

6642.5+1.65 x 10-9 T2 = 10000

T2
=

100006642.5

1.65 x 10-9

T = 1426 x 103 N-mm or 1426 N-m

(iii) According to Maximum Distortion Strain Energy Theory

According to this theory,

02 + o2 + 03 - 01 × 02 =
(0yt)2
1.61

[81.
5 +
81.5+ √√6642.5+ 1.65 x 10-9 T2+
81.5
× T2
-

6642.5+ 1.65 × 10-9 T2

 r2] =
2002
81.5+√6642.5+1.65x10-9
T2+81.5-√6642.5+1.65×10-9 T2

By solving we get,

T = 1647 x 103 N-mm or 1647 N-m

::

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS