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 HOLT'Z ., KOVACS • SIHEAHAN
-

A.n,Introduction, ·to
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
 AN INTRODUCTION TO
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Third Edition

Robert D. Holtz, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Washington

William D. Kovacs, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Rhode Island

Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.

Northeastern University

@Pearson
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Names: Holtz, R. D. (Robert D.), author. I Kovacs, William D., author. I

Sheahan, Thomas C., author.
Title: An introduction to geotechnical engineering/ Robert D. Holtz,
Ph.D., P.E., D.GE, University of Washington, William D. Kovacs, Ph.D.,
P.E., D.GE, University of Rhode Island, Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.,
Northeastern University.
Description: Third edition. I Hoboken, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., [2023]
I Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022011439 I ISBN 9780137604388
Subjects: LCSH: Soil mechanics-Textbooks. I Rock mechanics-Textbooks. I
Geotechnical engineering-Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TA710 .H564 2023 I DDC 624.1/5136-dc23/eng/20220316
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Contents

Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering 1
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 1
1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials 3
1.3 Scope of This Book 4
1.4 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering 5
1.5 Suggested Approach to the Study of Geotechnical ENgineering 6
1.6 Notes on Symbols, Units, and Standards 6
1.7 Some Comments on How to Study in General 7
Suggested Activities 8 • References 8
Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 9
2.2.1 Solution of Phase Problems 14
2.2.2 Submerged or Buoyant Density and Unit Weight 22
2.2.3 Specific Gravity 25
2.3 Soil Texture 27
2.4 Grain Size and Grain Size Distribution 28
2.5 Particle Shape 34
2.6 Atterberg Limits 35
2.6.1 One-Point Liquid Limit Test 40
2.6.2 Additional Comments on the Atterberg Limits 41
2.7 Introduction to Soil Classification 43
2.8 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 44
2.8.1 Visual-Manual Classification of Soils 51
2.8.2 Limitations of the USCS 54
2.9 AASHTO Soil Classification System 55
Problems 55 • References 62
Chapter 3 Geology, Landforms, and the Evolution of Geomaterials 64
3.1 Importance of Geology to Geotechnical Engineering 64
3.1.1 Geology 64
3.1.2 Geomorphology 65
3.1.3 Engineering Geology 65
3.2 The Earth, Minerals, Rocks, and Rock Structure 66
3.2.1 The Earth 66
3.2.2 Minerals 66
3.2.3 Rocks 67
3.2.4 Rock Structure 68

V
vi Contents

3.3 Geologic Processes and Landforms 71

3.3.1 Geologic Processes and the Origin of Earthen Materials 71
3.3.2 Weathering 71
3.3.3 Gravity Processes 77
3.3.4 Surface-Water Processes 80
3.3.5 Ice Processes and Glaciation 93
3.3.6 Wind Processes 104
3.3.7 Volcanic Processes 106
3.3.8 Grounc.lwaler Processes 108
3.3.9 Tectonic Processes 109
3.3.10 Plutonic Processes 111
3.4 Anthropogenic Geology 112
3.5 Properties, Macrostructure, and Classification of Rock Masses 113
3.5.1 Properties of Rock Masses 113
3.5.2 Discontinuities in Rock 113
3.5.3 Rock Mass Classification Systems 115
3.6 Products of Weathering 120
3.7 Clay Minerals 120
3.7.1 The 1:1 Clay Minerals 122
3.7.2 The 2:1 Clay Minerals 124
3.7.3 Other Clay Minerals 127
3.8 Specific Surface 128
3.9 Interaction Between Water and Clay Minerals 128
3.9.1 Hydration of Clay Minerals and the Diffuse Double Layer 129
3.9.2 Exchangeable Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 131
3.10 Soil Structure and Fabric of Fine-Grained Soils 132
3.11 Granular Soil Fabrics 135
Problems 140 • References 142
Chapter 4 Compaction and Stabilization of Soils 146
4.1 Introduction 146
4.2 Compaction and Densification 147
4.3 Theory of Compaction 147
4.3.1 Process of Compaction 150
4.3.2 Typical Values; Degree of Saturation 152
4.3.3 Effect of Soil Type and Method of Compaction 153
4.4 Structure of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils 155
4.5 Compaction of Granular Soils 156
4.5.1 Relative or Index Density 156
4.5.2 Densification of Granular Deposits 157
4.5.3 Rock Fills 160
4.6 Field Compaction Equipment and Procedures 161
4.6.1 Compaction of Fine-Grained Soils 161
4.6.2 Compaction of Granular Materials 165
4.6.3 Compaction Equipment Summary 168
4.6.4 Compaction of Rockfill 168
 Contents vii

4.7 Specifications and Compaction Control 169

4.7.1 Specifications 170
4.7.2 Compaction Control Tests 171
4.7.3 Problems with Compaction Control Tests 176
4.7.4 Most Efficient Compaction 180
4.7.5 Overcompaction 181
4.7.6 Rock Fill QA/QC 182
4.8 Estimating Performance of Compacted Soils 183
Problems 186 • References 190
Chapter 5 Hydrostatic Water in Soils and Rocks 193
5.1 Introduction 193
5.2 Capillarity 193
5.2.1 Capillary Rise and Capillary Pressures in Soils 198
5.2.2 Measurement of Capillarity; Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 202
5.2.3 Other Capillary Phenomena 202
5.3 Groundwater Table and the Vadose Zone 205
5.3.1 Definition 205
5.3.2 Field Determination 205
5.4 Shrinkage Phenomena in Soils 208
5.4.1 Capillary Tube Analogy 208
5.4.2 Shrinkage Limit Test 209
5.4.3 Shrinkage Properties of Compacted Clays 211
5.5 Expansive Soils and Rocks 213
5.5.1 Physical-Chemical Aspects 215
5.5.2 Identification and Prediction 215
5.5.3 Expansive Properties of Compacted Clays 218
5.5.4 Swelling Rocks 218
5.6 Engineering Significance of Shrinkage and Swelling 222
5.7 Collapsible Soils and Subsidence 223
5.8 Frost Action 225
5.8.1 Terminology, Conditions, and Mechanisms of Frost Action 226
5.8.2 Prediction and Identification of Frost-Susceptible Soils 230
5.9 Intergranular or Effective Stress 233
5.10 Vertical Stress Profiles 238
5.11 Relationship Between Horizontal and Vertical Stresses 241
Problems 242 • References 246
Chapter 6 Fluid Flow in Soils and Rock 249
6.1 Introduction 249
6.2 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 249
6.3 Darcy's Law for Flow Through Porous Media 251
6.4 Measurement of Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity 254
6.4.1 Laboratory and Field Hydraulic Conductivity Tests 257
6.4.2 Factors Affecting Laboratory and Field Determination of k 257
6.4.3 Empirical Relationships and Typical Values of k 258
6.5 Heads and One-Dimensional Flow 262
viii Contents

6.6 Seepage Forces, Quicksand, and Liquefaction 271

6.6.1 Seepage Forces, Critical Gradient, and Quicksand 271
6.6.2 Quicksand Tank 278
6.6.3 Liquefaction 281
6.7 Seepage and Flow Nets: Two-Dimensional Flow 281
6.7.1 Flow Nets 284
6.7.2 Quantity of Flow, Uplift Pressures, and Exit Gradients 289
6.7.3 Other Solutions to Seepage Problems 293
6.8 Seepage Toward Wells 294
6.9 Seepage Through Dams and Embankments 298
6.10 Control of Seepage and Filters 300
6.10.1 Basic Filtration Principles 301
6.10.2 Design of Graded Granular Filters 302
6.10.3 Geotextile Filter Design Concepts 304
6.10.4 FHWA Filter Design Procedure 305
Problems 310 • References 316
Chapter 7 Compressibility and Consolidation of Soils 318
7.1 Introduction 318
7.2 Components of Settlement 319
7.3 Compressibility of Soils 320
7.4 One-Dimensional Consolidation Testing 322
7.5 Preconsolidation Pressure and Stress History 325
7.5.1 Normal Consolidation, Overconsolidation, and Preconsolidation Pressure 325
7.5.2 Determining the Preconsolidation Pressure 326
7.5.3 Stress History and Preconsolidation Pressure 327
7.6 Consolidation Behavior of Natural and Compacted Soils 329
7.7 Settlement Calculations 329
7.7.1 Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Soils 338
7.7.2 Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Soils 340
7.7.3 Determining C, and C, 0 342
7.8 Factors Affecting the Determination of O'~ 344
7.9 Prediction of Field Consolidation Curves 346
7.10 Approximate Methods and Typical Values of Compression Indices 351
7.11 Compressibility of Rock and Transitional Materials 353
7.12 Introduction to Consolidation 353
7.13 The Consolidation Process 354
7.14 Terzaghi's One-Dimensional Consolidation 1l1eory 355
7.15 Classic Solution for the Terzaghi Consolidation Equation 357
7.16 Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation cv 368
7.16.1 Casagrande's Logarithm of Time Fitting Method 368
7.16.2 Taylor's Square Root of Time Fitting Method 372
7.17 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability 374
7.18 Typical Values of the Coefficient of Consolidation cv 375
7.19 In Situ Determination of Consolidation Properties 376
7.20 Evaluation of Secondary Settlement 376
Problems 384 • References 393
 Contents ix

Chapter 8 Stresses, Failure, and Strength Testing of Soil and Rock 397
8.1 Introduction 397
8.2 Stress at a Point 397
8.3 Stress-Strain Relationships and Failure Criteria 405
8.4 The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 407
8.4.1 Mohr Failure Theory 407
8.4.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 409
8.4.3 Obliquity Relationships 411
8.4.4 Failure Criteria for Rock 413
8.5 Stress Paths 414
8.6 Laboratory Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 420
8.6.1 Direct Shear Test 420
8.6.2 Triaxial Test 424
8.6.3 Special Laboratory Soils Tests 427
8.6.4 Laboratory Tests for Rock Strength 429
8.7 In Situ Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 430
8.7.1 In Situ Tests for Shear Strength of Soils 431
8.7.2 Field Tests for Modulus and Strength of Rocks 437
Problems 438 • References 442
Chapter 9 An Introduction to Shear Strength of Soils and Rock 445
9.1 Introduction 445
9.2 Angle of Repose of Sands 446
9.3 Behavior of Saturated Sands During Drained Shear 447
9.4 Effect of Void Ratio and Confining Pressure on Volume Change 449
9.5 Factors That Affect the Shear Strength of Sands 457
9.6 Shear Strength of Sands Using In Situ Tests 462
9.6.1 SPT 462
9.6.2 CPT 463
9.6.3 DMT 464
9.7 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Sands 464
9.8 Behavior of Saturated Cohesive Soils During Shear 467
9.9 Consolidated-Drained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 468
9.9.1 Consolidated-Drained (CD) Test Behavior 468
9.9.2 Typical Values of Drained Strength Parameters for Saturated Cohesive Soils 472
9.9.3 Use of CD Strength in Engineering Practice 472
9.10 Consolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 474
9.10.1 Consolidated-Undrained (CU) Test Behavior 474
9.10.2 Typical Values of the Undrained Strength Parameters 479
9.10.3 Use of CU Strength in Engineering Practice 480
9.11 Unconsolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 482
9.11.1 Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) Test Behavior 482
9.11.2 Unconfined Compression Test 485
9.11.3 Typical Values of UU and UCC Strengths 488
9.11.4 Other Ways to Determine the Undrained Shear Strength 489
9.11.5 Use of UU Strength in Engineering Practice 491
x Contents

9.12 Sensitivity 494

9.13 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Clays 495
9.14 Strength of Compacted Clays 499
9.15 Strength of Rocks and Transitional Materials 503
Problems 505 • References 508
Chapter 10 Shallow Foundations 512
10.1 Introduction to Foundations 512
10.2 Methodologies for Foundation Design 513
10.3 Introduction to Bearing Capacity 514
10.3.1 Bearing Capacity Failure Types 515
10.3.2 Terzaghi's General Bearing Capacity Theory 516
10.3.3 Modifications to the Basic Bearing Capacity Equation 517
10.4 Calculating Bearing Capacity for Different Loading Conditions 521
10.5 Bearing Capacity in Sands-The Drained Case 522
10.5.1 Determination of Input Parameters for Foundations on Sands 523
10.5.2 Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations on Sand 525
10.6 Bearing Capacity in Clays 532
10.6.1 Bearing Capacity in Clays-The Drained Case 532
10.6.2 Bearing Capacity in Clays-The Undrained Case 535
10.7 Bearing Capacity in Layered Soils 536
10.7.1 Stiff Clay Layer over Soft Clay 537
10.7.2 Sand Layer over Clay 538
10.8 Determination of Allowing Bearing Capacity in Practice 539
10.9 Shallow Foundation Settlement 540
10.9.1 Introduction to Shallow Foundation Settlement 540
10.9.2 Components of Geotechnical Settlement 541
10.9.3 Stress Distribution Under Foundation 542
10.10 Immediate Settlement Based on Elastic Theory 551
10.11 Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Sand 554
10.11.1 Settlement in Sand Based on Standard Penetration Test 555
10.11.2 Settlements in Sand from Schmertmann Strain Influence Factor Method 557
10.11.3 Direct Estimate of Settlement Using CPT 560
10.12 Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Clay 560
10.13 Combined Foundations 564
10.13.1 Combined Footings 565
10.13.2 Mat Foundations 566
Problems 567 • References 580
Chapter 11 Lateral Earth Pressures and Earth Retaining Structures 583
11.1 Introduction to Lateral Earth Pressures 583
11.2 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest and Idealized Retaining Wall 584
11.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure 588
11.3.1 Rankine Active State for Sands 590
11.3.2 Rankine Active Earth Pressure for Inclined Backfill 593
11.3.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure for Clays 596
11.4 Coulomb Active Earth Pressure 602
 Contents xi

11.5 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure 608

11.5.1 Rankine Passive Case for Sands 608
11.5.2 Rankine Passive Case for Clays-Drained Case 612
11.5.3 Rankine Passive Case for Clays-Undrained Case 613
11.5.4 Rankine Passive for Inclined Backfill 613
11.6 Retaining Wall Design 615
11.6.1 Introduction to Retaining Wall Design 615
11.6.2 Initial Proportioning of Retaining Walls 616
11.6.3 Provisions for Drainage Behind Retaining Walls 617
11.6.4 Applying Lateral Earth Pressure Theories to Wall Design and Analysis 619
11.6.5 Retaining Wall Stability Analysis Checks 620
Problems 628 • References 639
Chapter 12 Deep Foundations 640
12.1 Introduction to Deep Foundations 640
12.2 Types of Deep Foundations and Installation Methods 641
12.2.1 Driven Pile Foundations 642
12.2.2 Vibratory-Installed Pile Foundations 646
12.2.3 Jacked Pile Foundations 646
12.2.4 Rapid Impact Piles 647
12.2.5 Jetted Piles 647
12.2.6 Screw Piles 647
12.2.7 Bored Piles 647
12.3 Determination of Pile Load Capacity and Settlement 653
12.3.1 End Bearing Resistance of Deep Foundations 654
12.3.2 Side Resistance of Deep Foundations 658
12.3.3 Deep Foundation Group Behavior 671
12.3.4 Bearing Capacity of Piles in Rock 674
12.3.5 Settlement of Piles 675
12.4 Piles Loaded in Tension and Laterally 678
12.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Piles Loaded in Tension 678
12.4.2 Laterally Loaded Piles- Ultimate Load Analysis 682
12.4.3 Laterally Loaded Piles-Deflection Analysis 685
12.5 Additional Topics in Deep Foundations 691
12.5.1 Negative Pile Side Friction 691
12.5.2 Pile Capacity Verification 692
Problems 694 • References 702
Chapter 13 Advanced Topics in Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 704
13.1 Introduction 704
13.2 Stress Paths for Shear Strength Testing 704
13.3 Pore Pressure Parameters 710
13.3.1 Introduction to Pore Pressure Parameters 710
13.3.2 Pore Pressure Parameters for Different Stress Paths 713
13.4 Stress Paths During Undrained Loading-Normally and Lightly Overconsolidated Clays 714
13.5 Stress Paths During Undrained Loading-Heavily Overconsolidated Clays 724
13.6 Applications of Stress Paths to Engineering Practice 727
xii Contents

13.7 Critical State Soil Mechanics 732

13.8 Modulus and Constitutive Models for Soils 743
13.8.1 Modulus of Soils 743
13.8.2 Constitutive Relations 748
13.8.3 Soil Constitutive Modeling 749
13.8.4 Failure Criteria for Soils 750
13.8.5 Classes of Constitutive Models for Soils 752
13.8.6 The Hyperbolic (Duncan-Chang) Model 753
13.9 Fumlamenlal Basis of LheDrained Slrenglh of Sands 755
13.9.1 Basics of Frictional Shear Strength 755
13.9.2 Stress-Dilatancy and Energy Corrections 757
13.9.3 Curvature of the Mohr Failure Envelope 761
13.10 Behavior of Saturated Sands in Undrained Shear 762
13.10.1 Consolidated-Undrained Behavior 762
13.10.2 Using CD Tests to Predict CU Results 766
13.10.3 Unconsolidated-Undrained Behavior 770
13.10.4 Strain-Rate Effects in Sands 773
13.11 Plane Strain Behavior of Sands 773
13.12 Residual Strength of Soils 779
13.12.1 Drained Residual Shear Strength of Clays 779
13.12.2 Residual Shear Strength of Sands 781
13.13 Stress-Deformation and Shear Strength of Clays: Special Topics 782
13.13.1 Definition of Failure in CU Effective Stress Tests 782
13.13.2 Hvorslev Strength Parameters 783
13.13.3 The T 1!a~0 Ratio, Stress History, and Jlirgenson-Rutledge Hypothesis 788
13.13.4 Consolidation Methods to Overcome Sample Disturbance 799
13.13.5 Anisotropy 801
13.13.6 Plane Strain Strength of Clays 805
13.13.7 Strain Rate Effects 806
13.14 Strength of Unsaturated Soils 808
13.14.1 Matric Suction in Unsaturated Soils 808
13.14.2 The Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 810
13.14.3 The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope for Unsaturated Soils 811
13.14.4 Shear Strength Measurement in Unsaturated Soils 812
13.15 Properties of Soils Under Dynamic Loading 814
13.15.1 Stress-Strain Response of Cyclically Loaded Soils 814
13.15.2 Measurement of Dynamic Soil Properties 817
13.15.3 Empirical Estimates of G max, Modulus Reduction, and Damping 820
13.15.4 Strength of Dynamically Loaded Soils 826
13.16 Failure Theories for Rock 827
Problems 831 • References 840

Index 850
Preface

It has been over a decade since the publication of the second edition of An Introduction to Geotech-
nical Engineering. The impetus for this edition comes from a frequently heard need from faculty and
students for a textbook that covers both the fundamentals of soil mechanics and soil properties, and
also the basics of foundation engineering. As we noted in the preface to the second edition, technical
content in engineering degree programs continues to be reduced, and these three areas of geotechnical
engineering are often covered in a single undergraduate course. However, we continue to believe that
even in such a compressed course, a textbook that is sophisticated and carries appropriate rigor is an
ongoing necessity.
We still believe that there is a need for more detailed and modern coverage of the engineering
properties of geo-materials than is found in most undergraduate texts. This applies to students who
concentrate in geotechnical engineering as well as the general civil engineering undergraduate student.
Our students will be involved in increasingly more complex projects, especially those in transportation,
structural, construction, and environmental engineering. Those projects will increasingly involve envi-
ronmental, economic, and political constraints that will demand innovative solutions to civil engineering
problems. Modern analytical techniques using digital computers have had a revolutionary effect on en-
gineering design practice, allowing multiple what-if design scenarios to be produced and graphically de-
picted. However, the validity of the results from these computational procedures is highly dependent on
the quality of the geotechnical engineering design parameters as well as the geology and site conditions.
This edition is intended for use in either a stand-alone soil mechanics course or, as noted above,
a geotechnical engineering course that includes fundamental foundation engineering, both usually
taught to third- and fourth-year undergraduate civil engineering students. It might also be used in an
introductory graduate school soils mechanics class. We assume the students have a working knowledge
of undergraduate mechanics, especially statics and mechanics of materials, including fluids. In the first
part of the book, we introduce the "language" of geotechnical engineering-that is, the classification
and engineering properties of soils and rocks. Once the student has a working knowledge of the behav-
ior of geo-materials, he/she can begin to predict soil behavior, and then carry out the design of simple
foundations and earth structures.
We have tried to make the text easily readable by the average undergraduate. To this end, An
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering is written at a rather elementary level, although the material
covered may at times be quite sophisticated and complex.
The emphasis throughout is on the practical, and admittedly empirical, knowledge of soil and
rock behavior required by geotechnical engineers for the design and construction of foundations, em-
bankments, earth retaining structures, and underground works. To strengthen this connection between
the fundamental and applied, we have tried to indicate wherever possible the engineering significance
of the property being discussed, why the property is needed, how it is determined or measured, and, to
some extent, how it is actually used in specific design applications. We illustrate some simple geotech-
nical designs-for example, determining the flow, uplift pressures, and exit gradients in 2-D seepage
problems, and estimating the settlement of shallow foundations on sands and saturated clays.
One thing that has not changed over the years is that units remain a problem with U.S. geo-
technical engineers. While this edition continues to use both the British and Systeme International
(SI) sets of units, we have chosen to abandon seldom used units in the SI system such as megagrams
(Mg), but continue to have examples and problems that use kilograms (kg) and kilonewtons (kN).
We continue to be careful to use the correct definitions of density (mass/unit volume) and unit weight

xiii
xiv Preface

(force or weight/unit volume) in phase relationships as well as in geostatic and hydrostatic pressure
computations.
If you have a laboratory component with your course, we consider this to be an important part of
the student's experience with soils as a unique engineering material. This is where you begin to develop
a "feel" for soils and soil behavior, so essential for the successful practice of geotechnical engineering.
An emphasis on laboratory and field testing is found throughout the text. The organization and devel-
opment of the material in the text are traditional and generally follow the order of a typical laboratory
portion of many courses. The early chapters introduce the discipline of geotechnical engineering, phase
relationships, index, and classification properties of soils and rocks, geology, landforms, and the origin
of geo-materials, clay minerals, soil and rock structures, and rock classification. These chapters provide
the background and terminology for the remainder of the text.
Following a very practical discussion of compaction in Chapter 4, Chapters 5 and 6 describe how
water influences and affects soil behavior. Topics presented in Chapter 5 include groundwater and
vadose water, capillarity, shrinkage, swelling, and collapsing soils, frost action, and effective stress.
Chapter 6 discusses permeability, seepage, and seepage control.
Chapters 7 through 9 deal with the compressibility and shear strength of soils and rocks. Chap-
ter 7 covers both compressibility behavior of natural and compacted soils and rock masses and basic
time-rate consolidation of soils. Chapter 8 begins with the theoretical underpinnings of stresses in a
soil mass, followed by a description of laboratory and field tests that attempt to model those conditions
in order to measure stress-strain-strength properties. Chapter 9 is an introduction to shear strength of
soils and rock and is suitable for undergraduate students if the course schedule permits, and can be
covered more extensively in a first soil mechanics course in graduate school.
Chapters 10 through 12 are new chapters in this edition, covering three fundamental areas of
foundation engineering: shallow foundations, lateral earth pressures and earth retaining structures,
and deep foundations. Chapter 10 introduces bearing capacity theory, followed by its application to
bearing capacity in sands and clays, and approaches to determining settlement of shallow foundations.
Chapter 11 covers the two theories of lateral earth pressure, Rankine and Coulomb, and then how
these are used for the design of retaining structures. Chapter 12 describes the estimation methods for
deep foundation bearing capacity, how we compute the tensile and lateral load capacity of piles, and
advanced topics in deep foundations that are often the source of significant field performance issues.
Chapter 13 first covers advanced applications of stress paths, and also includes sections on crit-
ical-state soil mechanics and an introduction to constitutive models. We then discuss some advanced
topics on the shear strength of sands that start with the fundamental basis of their drained, undrained,
and plane-strain strengths. The residual shear strength of sands and clays provides a transition into the
stress-deformation and shear strength of clays, where we discuss failure definitions, Hvorslev strength
parameters, stress history, the Jurgenson-Rutledge hypothesis, consolidation methods to overcome
sample disturbance, anisotropy, plane-strain strength, and strain-rate effects. We end Chapter 13 with
sections on the strength of unsaturated soils, properties of soils under dynamic loading, and failure
theories for rock.
Even though it is primarily for the beginning student in geotechnical engineering, advanced
students in other disciplines and engineers desiring a refresher in engineering properties may find
the book helpful. Advanced students, researchers, and practitioners will also likely make use of the
advanced topical coverage in Chapter 13.
Because of the many fully worked example problems, students and others learning from this
book can follow the solution steps for various types of geotechnical engineering problems, and assess
their understanding of the material. From the previous two editions, we know that many practicing
geotechnical engineers will find this book useful as a refresher and for the typical values given for
classification and engineering properties for a wide variety of soils; we have found such a compendium
very useful in our own engineering practice. We hope that the new chapters on foundation engineering
will provide further value in this regard.
 Preface xv

RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS

The solutions manual and test manual as well as PowerPoint figures of all images and tables from this
book can be downloaded electronically from our Instructor's Resource Center located at www.pearson
highered.com. The material available through the Instructor Resource Center is provided solely for
the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. If you are in need of a
login and password for this site, please contact your local sales representative for additional assistance
or support.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To acknowledge all who have contributed to this edition and previous editions is a formidable task.
We have continued the practice of trying whenever possible to indicate by references or quotations,
concepts and ideas originating in the literature or with our former teachers, especially Profs. B. B.
Broms, A. Casagrande, R. J. Krizek, C. C. Ladd, J. K. Mitchell, J. 0. Osterberg, and H.B. Seed. Others
have made helpful suggestions or reviewed portions of the text, resulting in improvements to the final
product, including Prof. Mal Hill from Northeastern. We are indebted to Prof. Alan Lutenegger, who
provided considerable editing contributions to the foundation engineering chapters, and Prof. Aaron
Gallant and Danilo Botero Lopez were instrumental in revising the worked examples and end-of-
chapter problems. Molly Liddell provided invaluable administrative assistance in preparing the final
versions of chapters for copyediting.
Thank you to the reviewers of this edition: Andrew Assadollahi, Ph.D., P.E. (Christian Brothers
University), Ghada Ellithy, Ph.D. (Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University), Evert Lawton, Ph.D.,
P.E. (University of Utah), Anne Lemnitzer, Ph.D., M.Sc. (University of California, Irvine).

IN MEMORIAM
We are saddened by the loss of our dear friend and colleague, Bill Kovacs, who passed away in March
2020 at the age of 84. Bill was devoted to his family, especially to his wife Eileen. Besides his wife, he
is survived by his 7 children and 19 grandchildren. Bill will be remembered as a dedicated educator
who also loved being a geotechnical engineer. In his lectures he regularly drew on lessons learned from
his days in practice or his consulting experiences, and his delivery was peppered with deadpan humor,
clever puns, and subtle jokes. He was a remarkable mentor who was very generous with his time for
students and younger colleagues, never said an unkind word about anyone, and was a true friend to
many of us. His contributions to the three editions are inestimable in both their technical content and
overall presentation of the material. And, while we never divulge the source or even acknowledge the
existence of humor in the book, we do hope students and others using this book will think fondly of Bill
when they discover something to smile about in its pages.

R. D. HOLTZ
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON

W.D.KOVACS
(DECEASED)

T. C. SHEAHAN
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering

1.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering is concerned with the application of civil engineering technology to some
aspect of the earth, usually the natural materials found on or near the earth's surface. Civil engineers
call these materials soil and rock. Soil, in an engineering sense, is the relatively loose agglomerate of
mineral and organic materials and sediments found above the bedrock. Soils can be relatively easily
broken down into their constituent mineral or organic particles. Rock, on the other hand, has very
strong internal cohesive and molecular forces which hold its constituent mineral grains together. This is
true for massive bedrock as well as for a piece of gravel found in a clay soil. The dividing line between
soil and rock is arbitrary, and many natural materials encountered in engineering practice cannot be
easily classified. They may be either a "very soft rock" or a "very hard soil."
Other scientific disciplines have different meanings for the terms soil and rock. In geology, for
example, rock means all the materials found in the earth's crust, including what most of us would call
soil. Soils to a geologist are just decomposed and disintegrated rocks found in the very thin upper part
of the crust and usually capable of supporting plant life. Similarly, pedology (soil science) and agron-
omy are concerned with only the very uppermost layers of soil- that is, those materials important
to agriculture and forestry. Geotechnical engineers can learn much from both geology and pedology.
Geotechnical engineering has considerable overlap with these fields, especially with engineering geol-
ogy and geological engineering. But beginning students should remember that these fields may have
different terminology, approaches, and objectives than geotechnical engineering.
Geotechnical engineering has several different aspects or emphases. Soil mechanics is concerned
with the engineering mechanics and properties of soil, whereas rock mechanics is concerned with the
engineering mechanics and properties of rock- usually, but not limited to, the bedrock. Soil mechanics
applies to soils the basic principles of mechanics including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and
the mechanics of materials. In other words, soil-rather than water, steel, or concrete, for example-is
the engineering material whose properties and behavior we must understand in order to build with it
or upon it. A similar statement could also be made for rock mechanics. However, because in significant
ways soil masses behave differently from rock masses, in practice, there is not much overlap between

1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

the two disciplines. This divergence is unfortunate from the viewpoint of the practicing civil engineer.
Inconveniently, the world does not consist only of soft or loose soils and hard rock, but rather, most
geo-materials fall somewhere between those extremes. In your professional practice you will have to
learn to deal with a wide range of material properties and behaviors.
Foundation engineering applies engineering geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and structural
engineering to the design and construction of foundations for civil engineering and other structures. The
foundation engineer must be able to predict the performance or response of the foundation soil or rock to
the loads the structure imposes. Examples include foundations for industrial, commercial, and residential
buildings, bridges, towers, and retaining walls,as well as foundations for oil and other kinds of storage tanks
and offshore structures. Ships must have a drydock during construction or repairs, and the drydock must
have a foundation. During construction and launch, rockets and appurtenant structures must be safely
supported. Related geotechnical engineering problems that the foundation engineer faces are the stabil-
ity of natural and excavated slopes, the stability of permanent and temporary earth-retaining structures,
problems of construction, control of water movement and water pressures, and even the maintenance and
rehabilitation of old buildings. Not only must the foundation safely support static structural and construc-
tion loads, but it must also adequately resist dynamic loads due to wind, blasting, earthquakes, and the like.
If you think about it, we cannot design or construct any civil engineering structure, whether built
on the earth or extraterrestrial, without ultimately considering the foundation soils and rocks. The
performance, economy, and safety of any civil engineering structure ultimately are affected or even
controlled by its foundation.
Earth materials are often used as a construction material because they are the cheapest possible
building material. However, their engineering properties such as strength and compressibility are often
naturally poor, and measures must be taken to densify, strengthen, or otherwise stabilize and reinforce
soils so that they will perform satisfactorily. Highway and railway embankments, airfields, earth and
rock dams, levees, and aqueducts are examples of earth structures, and the geotechnical engineer is
responsible for their design and construction. Dam safety and rehabilitation of old dams are important
aspects of this phase of geotechnical engineering. A related consideration, especially for highway and
airfield engineers, is the design of the surface layer on the earth structure-the pavement. Here the
overlap between the transportation and geotechnical disciplines is apparent.
Rock engineering, analogous to foundation engineering for soils, is concerned with rock as a
foundation and construction material. Because most of the earth's surface is covered with soil ( or
water), rock engineering usually occurs underground (tunnels, underground power houses, petroleum
storage rooms, mines, yours, and so on). But some rock engineering problems occur at the surface, such
as in the case of building and dam foundations carried to bedrock, deep excavations to bedrock, stabil-
ity of rock slopes, and the like.
In recent years, geotechnical engineers have become increasingly involved in the solution of
environmental problems involving soil and rock. This interdisciplinary field is called geoenvironmental
engineering or environmental geotechnics. Especially challenging are problems of polluted groundwa-
ter, proper disposal and containment of municipal and industrial wastes, design and construction of
nuclear waste repositories, and remediation of hazardous waste repositories and other contaminated
sites. Although all these problems have a major geotechnical engineering component, they are inter-
disciplinary in nature, and their solutions require that geotechnical engineers work together with envi-
ronmental and chemical engineers, environmental and public health specialists, geohydrologists, and
regulatory agency personnel.
In presenting some of the typical problems facing the geotechnical engineer, we wanted you to
see, first, how broad the field is and, second, how important it is to the design and construction of civil
engineering structures, as well as to the basic health and safety of society. In a very real sense, geotech-
nical engineering combines the basic physical and mathematical sciences, geology, and pedology, with
environmental, hydraulic, structural, transportation, construction, and mining engineering. It truly is an
exciting and challenging field.
 1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials 3

1.2 THE UNIQUE NATURE OF SOIL AND ROCK MATERIALS

We mentioned earlier that soil-from a civil engineering point of view-is the relatively loose agglom-
eration of mineral and organic materials found above the bedrock. In a broader sense, of course, even
shallow bedrock is of interest to geotechnical engineers, as illustrated by examples given earlier.
The nature and behavior of soil and rock are discussed in greater detail throughout this text. For
now, we want just to set the stage for what you are about to study. We assume you understand that rock
refers to any hard solid aggregate or mass of mineral matter found in the earth's crust. You also already
have a layperson's idea about soil. At least you know in general what sand and gravel are, and perhaps you
even have an idea about fine-grained soils such as silts and clays. These terms have quite precise engineer-
ing definitions, as we shall later see, but for now the general concept that soils are particles will suffice.
Soils are particles of what? Well, soils are usually particles of mineral matter or, more sim-
ply, broken-up pieces of rock that result from weathering and other geologic processes (described in
Chapter 3) acting on massive rock deposits and layers. If we talk for the moment about the size of the
particles, gravels are small pieces of rock and typically contain several minerals, whereas sands are
even smaller pieces, and each grain usually consists of only a single mineral. If you cannot see each
individual grain of a soil, then the soil is either a silt or a clay or a mixture of each. In fact, natural soils
generally are a mixture of several different particle sizes and may even contain organic matter. Some
soils, such as peat, may be almost entirely organic. Furthermore, because soils are a particulate mate-
rial, they have voids, and the voids are usually filled with water and air. The physical and chemical
interaction of the water and air in the voids with the particles of soil, as well as the interaction of the
particles themselves, makes soil's behavior complicated and leads to some of its unique properties. It
is also what makes it a very interesting and challenging engineering material to study and understand.
Because of the nature of soil and rock materials and the complexity of the geological environ-
ment, geotechnical engineering is highly empirical, and requires both fundamental knowledge and expe-
rience. Soils and rocks are often highly variable, even within a distance of a few millimeters. In other
words, soils and rocks are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous materials. That is, their material or
engineering properties may vary widely from point to point within a soil or rock mass. Furthermore,
these materials in general are nonlinear; their stress-strain curves are not straight lines. To further com-
plicate things, soils in particular "remember" their previous loading history, and this fact strongly affects
their subsequent engineering behavior. It means that the geotechnical engineer must have knowledge of
the geologic history of a soil deposit. Instead of being isotropic, soils and rocks are typically anisotropic,
which means that their material or engineering properties are not the same in all directions.
Most of our theories about the mechanical behavior of engineering materials assume that they are
homogeneous and isotropic and obey linear stress-strain laws. Common engineering materials such as
steel and concrete do not deviate too significantly from these ideals, so we can use, with discretion, simple
linear theories to predict the response of these materials to engineering loads. With soils and rock, we are
not so fortunate. We may assume a linear stress-strain response, but then we must apply large empirical
correction or "safety" factors to our designs to account for the real materials' behavior. Furthermore, the
behavior of soil and rock materials in situ is often controlled by joints Gust don't inhale), fractures, weak
layers and zones, and other "defects" in the material, which our laboratory tests and simplified methods
of analysis often do not or are unable to take into account. That is why the practice of geotechnical engi-
neering is sometimes seen as more an "art" than a science. Successful practice depends on the good judg-
ment and experience of the designer, constructor, or consultant. Put another way, the successful geotech-
nical engineer must develop a "feel" for soil and rock behavior before a safe and economic foundation
or tunnel design can be made, an earth structure can be safely built, or an environmentally sound waste
containment and disposal system or a site remediation plan can be developed.
In summary, because of their nonlinear, nonconservative, and anisotropic mechanical behavior,
plus the variability and heterogeneity of natural deposits due to the capriciousness of nature, soils and
rocks are indeed complex engineering and construction materials. Helping you find some order in this
potential chaos is our primary objective in this book.
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

1.3 SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

In this revised introductory text, the emphasis is on the classification and engineering behavior of soil
and rock materials, followed by an introduction to the most important aspects of foundation engineering.
Successful practice of geotechnical engineering requires a thorough knowledge and understanding of the
engineering properties and behavior of soils and rocks in situ-that is, when they are subjected to engi-
neering loads and environmental conditions. Therefore, the beginning student must first develop an appre-
ciation for the engineering properties of geo-materials as distinct from other common civil engineering
materials before learning how to analyze and design foundations, earthworks, tunnels, and the like.
Actually, this first part is the hard part. Most engineering students (and engineers) are very good
at analysis and performing design calculations. But in geotechnical engineering, these calculations
alone cannot tell the whole picture. If an incorrect picture of the site geology has been assumed or the
wrong engineering properties assumed for the design, significant errors can result.
Since much of the practice of geotechnical engineering depends on the site geology, landforms,
and the nature of the soil and rock deposits at a site, we have included a portion of Chapter 3 on
geology and landforms. If you have had such a course, that portion of the chapter will serve as a good
review. If you haven't, you are strongly encouraged to take a physical geology or an engineering geol-
ogy course in connection with your studies of geotechnical engineering, and this chapter can provide
initial, basic information.
In the early chapters, we introduce some of the basic definitions, index properties, and classifica-
tion schemes for geo-materials that are used throughout the book. Classification of soils and rocks is
important because it is the "language" engineers use to communicate certain general knowledge about
the engineering behavior of the materials at a particular site.
The greatest portion of the book is concerned with the engineering properties of soils and rocks-
properties that are necessary for the design of foundations, earth and underground structures, and geoenvi-
ronmental systems.We describe how water affects soil and rock behavior, including hydraulic conductivity
and seepage characteristics. Then we get into compressibility, the important engineering property we need
to understand in order to predict the settlement of structures constructed on soil and rock masses.We then
describe some elementary strength characteristics of both soils and rocks. Strength is very important for
the stability of, for example, foundations, retaining walls,slopes, tunnels, and waste containment systems.
The later part of the book introduces key concepts and design methods for the most basic parts
of foundation engineering: shallow and deep foundations, and retaining structures. This is by no means
meant to serve as an exhaustive reference on all foundation engineering topics. However, as more civil
engineering programs offer a "merged" geotechnical engineering course with both soil mechanics and
foundation engineering, these later chapters provide foundation engineering fundamentals.
Finally, we have included a chapter on advanced topics in the shear strength of soil and rock that
is meant primarily for graduate study or for those who wish to extend their knowledge beyond the
coverage in earlier chapters on these topics.
Consistent with this emphasis on fundamentals, keep in mind that this is an elementary text that
emphasizes such basics, but with an eye toward the practical applications that you as a civil engineer
are likely to encounter. Having studied this text, you will be well prepared for any follow-up, more spe-
cialized studies in foundations and earthwork engineering, environmental geotechnics, rock mechanics,
and engineering geology. You should have a fairly good idea of what to look for at a site and how to
obtain the soil and rock properties required for most designs. If you are able to accurately classify the
materials, you will know the probable range of physical and engineering values for a given soil or rock
property. You will have some idea of how to estimate foundation capacity and the stresses on an earth
support structure. Finally, we hope you will learn enough about soils and rocks to be aware of your own
limitations, and to avoid costly and dangerous mistakes in those aspects of your professional career
that involve soils and rocks as engineering materials.
 1.4 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering 5

1.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

As long as people have been building things, they have used soils and rocks as a foundation or
construction material. The ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Chinese, and Indians knew about
constructing dikes and levees out of the soils found in river flood plains. Ancient temples and monu-
ments built all around the world involved soil and rock in some way. The Aztecs constructed temples
and cities on the very poor soils in the Valley of Mexico long before the Spaniards arrived in the
so-called New World. European architects and builders during the Middle Ages learned about the
problems of settlements of cathedrals and large buildings. The most noteworthy example is, of course,
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Vikings in Scandinavia used timber piles to support houses and wharf struc-
tures on their soft clays. The "design" of foundations and other constructions involving soil and rock
was by rule of thumb, and very little theory as such was developed until the mid-1700s.
Coulomb is the most famous engineering name of that era. He investigated the problems of
earth pressures against retaining walls, and some of his calculation procedures are still in use today. The
most common theory for the shear strength of soils is named after him (Coulomb, 1776). During the
next century, the French engineers Collin and Darcy and the Scotsman Rankine made important dis-
coveries. Collin (1846) was the first engineer to systematically examine failures in clay slopes as well as
the measurement of the shear strength of clays. Darcy (1856) established his law for the flow of water
through sands. Rankine (1857) developed a method for estimating the earth pressure against retaining
walls. In England, Gregory (1844) utilized horizontal subdrains and compacted earth-fill buttresses to
stabilize railroad cut slopes.
By the turn of the century, important developments in the field were occurring in Scandinavia,
primarily in Sweden. Atterberg (1911) defined consistency limits for clays that are still in use today.
During the period 1914-1922, in connection with investigations of failures in harbors and railroads,
the Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State Railways (Statens Jarnvagers Geotekniska
Kommission, 1922) developed many important concepts and apparatuses in geotechnical engineer-
ing. They developed methods for calculating the stability of slopes as well as subsurface investigation
techniques such as weight sounding and piston and other types of samplers. They understood import-
ant concepts such as sensitivity of clays and consolidation, which is the squeezing of water out of the
pores of the clay. At that time, clays were thought to be absolutely impervious, but the Swedes made
field measurements to show they weren't. The Commission was the first to use the word geotechnical
(Swedish: geotekniska) in today's sense: the combination of geology and civil engineering technology.
Even with these early developments in Sweden, the true father of modern soil mechanics
is an Austrian, Prof. Karl Terzaghi. He published the first modern textbook on soil mechanics in 1925,
and in fact the name "soil mechanics" is a translation of the German word Erdbaumechanik, which was
part of the title of that book (Terzaghi, 1925). Terzaghi was an outstanding and very creative engineer.
He wrote several other important books (for example, Terzaghi, 1943; Terzaghi and Peck, 1967; and
Terzaghi, Peck, and Mesri, 1996) and over 250 technical papers and articles. His name will appear often
in this book. He was a professor at Robert College in Istanbul, at Technische Hochschule in Vienna, at
MIT, and at Harvard University from 1938 until his retirement in 1956. He continued to be active as a
consultant until his death in 1963 at the age of 80. An excellent reference about his life and engineering
career is that of Goodman (1999) and is well worth reading.
Another important figure is Prof. Arthur Casagrande, who was at Harvard University from 1932
until 1969.You will see his name often in this book, because he made many important contributions to
the art and science of soil mechanics and foundation engineering. Since the 1950s, the field has grown
substantially, and many people have been responsible for its rapid advancement. Important contributors
to the field include Taylor, Peck, Tschebotarioff, Skempton, Bjerrum, Seed, Ladd, and Leonards.
Both Terzaghi and Casagrande began the teaching of soil mechanics and engineering geology in
North America. Before the Second World War, the subject was offered only at a very few universities,
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

mostly as a graduate course. After the war, it became common for at least one course in the subject to
be required in most civil engineering curricula. Graduate programs in geotechnical engineering were
implemented at many universities. Finally, there has been a real information explosion in the number
of conferences, technical journals, and textbooks published on this subject during the past four decades.
In terms of foundation engineering, we have already mentioned the important role that Coulomb
and Rankine played in the development of limit state analyses of lateral earth pressures for retaining
structures. It should come as no surprise that Terzaghi was a pioneer in this area as well, offering some of
the first rational methods for estimating soil capacity to support shallow foundations. In the 1950s,George
Meyerhof and Aleksandr Vesic and others similarly began to formulate more fundamentals-based meth-
ods for deep foundations. A number of advances in this area of geotechnical engineering were often
driven by contractors, innovating to build in difficult soils or use familiar materials in more efficient ways.
Important recent developments you should know about include soil dynamics and geotechni-
cal earthquake engineering, the use of computer modeling for the solution of complex engineering
problems, deformation-based analyses and designs, the introduction of probability and statistics into
geotechnical engineering analysis and design, and geo-environmental engineering and technology.

1.5 SUGGESTED APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Because of the nature of soil and rock materials, both laboratory and field testing are very important
in geotechnical engineering. Student engineers can begin to develop a feel for soil and rock behavior in
the laboratory by performing the standard tests for classification and engineering properties on many
different types of soils and rocks. In this way, the novice can begin building up a "mental data bank"
of how certain soils and rocks actually look, how they might behave with varying amounts of water
in them and under different types of engineering loads, and the range of probable numerical values
for the different tests. This is sort of a self-calibration process, so that when you are faced with a new
soil deposit or rock type, you will in advance have some idea as to the engineering problems you will
encounter at that site. You can also begin to judge, at least qualitatively, the validity of laboratory and
field test results for the materials at that site.
Also important is a knowledge of geology. Geology is, of course, the "geo" part of geotechnical
engineering, and you should get as much exposure to it as you can during your academic career. After
a basic course in physical geology, courses in geomorphology and engineering geology are recom-
mended. Geomorphology is concerned with landforms, which are important to geotechnical engineers
because the soils and rocks at a site (and therefore the engineering problems) are strongly related to
the particular landform. Engineering geology is concerned with the applications of geology to primar-
ily civil engineering and has considerable interaction and overlap with geotechnical engineering.
The theoretical and analytical aspects of geotechnical engineering design also require a sound
knowledge of engineering mechanics, including strength of materials and fluid mechanics. It also helps
if you are familiar to some extent with basic structural analysis, reinforced concrete and steel design,
hydraulic engineering and hydrology, surveying and engineering measurements, basic environmental
engineering, and civil engineering construction - in other words, just about all the courses in a typical
undergraduate civil engineering curriculum.

1.6 NOTES ON SYMBOLS, UNITS, AND STANDARDS

As with most disciplines, a standard notation is not universal in geotechnical engineering, so we have tried
to adopt the symbols most commonly used. For example, the American Society for Testing and Materials
has a list of Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained Fluids,
standard designation D 653. The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
 1.7 Some Comments on How to Study in General 7

(ISSMFE, 1977) published an extensive list of symbols. Although we sometimes deviate from these rec-
ommendations because of our personal preference, we have generally tried to follow them.
Units used in geotechnical engineering can be politely called a mess, and, less politely, several
worse things. There has developed in practice, at least in the United States, a jumbled mixture of
cgs-metric, Imperial or British Engineering units, and hybrid European metric units. With the intro-
duction of the universal and consistent system of units, "Le Systeme International d'Unites" (SI) in
the United States and Canada, the profession had a wonderful opportunity to bring some coherence
to units in geotechnical engineering practice. However, since British Engineering units are still rather
commonly used in the United States, students need to be familiar with the typical values in both sets
of units. This edition of the book could be characterized as Jess tolerant of SI units than previous edi-
tions since efforts to use SI units more in the United States have largely failed. There are a number of
excellent, open source units conversions sites on the web, and we recommend you find and bookmark
one that suits your purposes.
We referred earlier to the American Society for Testing and Materials, commonly known as
ASTM, which develops and publishes technical standards for a multitude of materials, products, sys-
tems, and services through a highly organized volunteer committee structure. These committees arrive
at consensus to determine these standards. Throughout the text, we cite only active ASTM, AASHTO,
and British standards without associated years. In the case of ASTM standard, complete ASTM stan-
dards do have a date ( e.g., D 2216-19), which indicates the year of last revision (in this case, 2019).
Standards remain in the system for 8 years, and if not reapproved through the balloting process within
that period, are withdrawn from active status. AASHTO standards are generally reviewed every
4 years, and if a standard is no longer used, it may be discontinued and then ultimately deleted from the
book of standards. We have cited only those standards that were active at the time of publication and
have excluded the year in the citation.

1.7 SOME COMMENTS ON HOW TO STUDY IN GENERAL

It takes a while to learn how to study most effectively. You are probably using the study habits that you
got by with in grade school and high school. As you progress professionally, things are going to get harder,
starting in your third year of university or college, when you take mostly preprofessional courses. We have
all used the following methods to do homework assignments. (1) Just read the assignment to satisfy the
moral obligation to do so. (2) Go further by underlining or highlighting passages to emphasize the main
points. Consider what you are doing physically: the information goes through the eyes, down your neck
and arm into the writing fingers, completely bypassing the brain! Both (1) and (2) are pretty much a waste
of time unless you have a photographic memory. If we are really going to learn anything, most of us need
to study a third way: (3) Read a few pages and then close the book. Write down in your own words what
the main concepts are; a "bullet" format is OK, and you could also use index cards to capture details of
a particular topic on each card. You may have to cheat occasionally and look back at the book to create
your own notes, but you will have started the process of having the material in the brain. Yes, this will take
more time than "studying" using methods (1) and (2), but you will not be wasting your time.
A useful argument for doing it the recommended way is that you will have already started pre-
paring for the exams, because now you know the material. The rest of the time, you are brushing up or
reviewing the material, so you won't need to cram.
One big problem is that there may not be enough time in the week to use method (3) when you
are taking three or four other courses. However, follow it as much as you can. You have invested a lot
in your education. Don't waste time with methods (1) and (2).
Don't ask us to tell you how long it took for us to learn the correct way to study (it's too
embarrassing).
8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

Our suggested approach will help you prepare for the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE or EIT)
exam and later the PE or PEng (professional engineer's exam). We strongly encourage you to take
(and pass) the FE exam before you graduate and receive your engineering degree.

SUGGESTEDACTIVITIES
1.1 Attend a lecture with a geotechnical engineering topic, either through your department's research seminar
series, your student chapter of the American Society of Civil Engineers, your local professional chapter, or
other organizing group in your area. Not only will you learn something about an engineering topic or project,
you may also be able to meet the speaker to build your professional network and learn why they became
interested in geotechnical practitioner or researcher.
1.2 Visit a local project site where the geotechnical phase is still underway. Ideally, an engineer or contractor may
be able to host you and other students, and explain the project and any details related to the geotechnical
design and construction.
1.3 Speak to one of your geotechnical faculty members about research and/or consulting they are doing, and if
you are interested, see if there are opportunities to participate in the research.

REFERENCES
ATTERBERG, A. (1911). "Lerornas Forhallande till Vatten, deras Plasticitetsgranser och Plasticitets- grader," ("The
Behavior of Clays with Water, Their Limits of Plasticity and Their Degrees of Plasticity"), Kungliga Lantbruk-
sakademiens Handlingar och Tidskrift, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp.132-158; also in Internationale Mitteilungen fur Boden-
kunde, Vol. 1, pp. 10-43 ("Uber die Physikalische Bodenuntersuchung und tiber die Plastizitat der Tone").
COLLIN,A. (1846). Recherches Experimentales sur Jes Glissements Spontanes des Terrains Argileux, Accompagnees
de Cunsideratiuns sur Quel4ues Principes de la Mechanic4ue Terreslre, Carilian-Gueury and Dalmunl, Paris.
Translated by W.R. Schriever under the title "Landslides in Clays by Alexandre Collin 1846," University of
Toronto Press, Canada, 1956, 161 p. (21 plates).
CouLOMB,C.A. (1776). "Essai sur une application des regles de Maximus et Minimis a Quelques Problemes de
Statique, Relatifs a lA.rchitecture," Memoires de Mathematique et de Physique, Presentes a l' Academie Royale
des Sciences, par Divers Savans, et lus dans ses Assemblees, Paris, Vol. 7 (Vol. for 1773 published in 1776),
pp. 343-382.
DARCY, H. (1856). Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Dalmont, Paris.
GOODMAN, R.E. (1999). Karl Terzaghi: The Engineer as Artist, ASCE Press, 340 p.
GREGORY, C.H. (1844). "On Railway Cuttings and Embankments with an Account of Some Slips in London Clay, on
the Line of the London and Croydon Railway," Minutes and Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 3, pp.135-145. Reprinted in A Century of Soil Mechanics, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1969,482 p.
INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FORSOILMECHANICS ANDFOUNDATION ENGINEERING (1977). "List of Symbols, Units, and
Definitions," Subcommittee on Symbols, Units, and Definitions, Proceedings of the Ninth International Confer-
ence on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, Vol. 3, pp.156-170.
RANKINE,W.J.M. (1857). "On the Stability of Loose Earth," Abstracts of the Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London, Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Vol. VIII, pp.185-187.
STATENSJARNVAGERS GEOTEKNISKA KoMMISSION(1922). 1914-1922 Slutbetiinkande, (1914-1922 Final Report),
Presented to the Board of the Royal Swedish Railroads, Stockholm, 180 p. (42 plates).
STOKOE, K.H., II ANDLODDE,P.F.(1978). "Dynamic Response of San Francisco Bay Mud," Proceedings of the Earth-
quake Engineering and Soil Dynamics Conference, Los Angeles, ASCE, Vol. H, pp. 940-959.
TERZAGHI, K. (1925). Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalischer Grundlage, Franz Deuticke, Leipzig und Wein, 399 p.
TERZAGHI, K. (1943). Theoretical Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 510 p.
TERZAGHI, K. ANDPECK,RB. (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 729 p.
TERZAGHI,K., PECK,RB., AND MESRI,G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 3rd ed., Wiley, New
York,549 p.
 CHAPTER 2

Index and Classification

Properties of Soils

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we introduce the basic terms and definitions used by geotechnical engineers to index
and classify soils. We need to establish a common language around how these properties are defined so
that when different engineers refer to and use property values, it means the same thing to all. Some of
these properties will have actual physical meaning (like density), while others may be so-called "index"
properties that only make sense relative to some comparative scale. Additionally, as in many sciences,
we want to be able to classify soils in some sort of commonly understood taxonomy. You may be famil-
iar with this term from biology, where biological organisms have a genus and species. We shall define
a relatively rigorous classification system for soils as well. The determination of physical, index, and
classification properties is typically the first step in understanding how the soils in question are then
used as engineering materials.

2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND PHASE RELATIONS FOR SOILS

In general, any assemblage of soil consists of solid particles with voids in between. The solids are small
grains of different minerals, whereas the voids can be filled with either water or other fluid (for exam-
ple, a contaminant) or with air (or other gas), or filled partly with some of each (Fig. 2.1 ).
Su, the total volume V 1 of the soil mass consists of the volume of soil solids Vs and the volume of
voids Vv. The volume of voids is in general made up of the volume of water V w and the volume of air V0 .
A phase diagram (Fig. 2.2) shows the three phases separately. It's as if we could "melt down" all
the solids into a single layer at the bottom, then have the water sit on top of that, and finally have the
air in a single layer at the top. The phase diagram helps us solve problems involving soil phase relation-
ships. On the left side we usually indicate the volumes of the three phases; on the right side we show the
corresponding masses or weights. Even though the diagram is two-dimensional, it is understood that
the volume shown is in units of L3, such as cm 3 or ft 3 . Also, since we're not chemists or physicists, we
assume that the mass of air is zero.

9
10 Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils

w In engineering practice, we usually measure the total vol-

ume VI' the mass of water Mw, and the mass of dry solids Ms.
Then we calculate the rest of the values and the mass-volume
relationships that we need. Most of these relationships are inde-
pendent of sample size, and they are often dimensionless. They
are very simple and easy to remember, especially if you draw
the phase diagram.
Three volumetric ratios that are very useful in geotech-
nical engineering can be determined directly from the phase
diagram (Fig. 2.2).

1. The void ratio e is defined as

V
e = _v (2.1)
vs

s where Vv = volume of the voids, and

Vs = volume of the solids.
FIGURE2.1 Soil skeleton containing The void ratio e is normally expressed as a decimal
solid particles (S) and voids with air rather than a percentage. The maximum possible range of e is
(A) and water (W).
between 0 and However, typical values of void ratios for
00 •

sands may range from 0.4 to about 1.0; typical values for clays
vary from 0.3 to 1.5 and even higher for some organic soils.
2. The porosity n is defined as
(2.2)

where Vv = volume of voids, and

V 1 = total volume of soil sample.
Porosity is traditionally expressed as a percentage. The maximum range of n is between 0 and 100%.
From Fig. 2.2 and Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), it can be shown that
e
n= (2.3a)
1+e
and
n
e=-- (2.3b)
l-n

Volume Mass

v,

FIGURE2.2 Volumetric and mass

relationships for a soil shown in a phase
diagram. Note: Weights, W, may also be
used on the right side.
 2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 11

3. The degree of saturation S is defined as

S = ~w X 100(%) (2.4)
V

The degree of saturation tells us what percentage of the total void space contains water. If the soil is
completely dry, then S = 0%, and if the pores are completely full of water, then the soil is fully satu-
rated and S = 100%.
Now let us look at the other side, the mass or weight side, of the phase diagram in Fig. 2.2. First,
we will define a mass or weight ratio that is probably the single most important thing we need to know
about a soil-its water content w. It is also the only strictly mass- or weight-based parameter that we'll
define for phase relationships. The water content tells us how much water is present in the voids rela-
tive to the amount of solids in the soil, as follows:
M
W = ------1£. X 100(%) (2.5a)
Ms
where Mw = mass of water, and
Ms = mass of soil solids.
or in terms of weights,
w = WW x 100(%) (2.5b)
ws
where Ww = weight of water, and
Ws = weight of soil solids.
The ratio of the amount of water present in a soil volume to the amount of soil grains is based
on the dry mass or weight of the soil and not on the total mass or weight. The water content, which is
usually expressed as a percentage, can range from zero (dry soil) to several hundred percent. The nat-
ural water content for most soils is well under 100%, although in some marine and organic soils it can
range up to 500% or higher.
The water content is easily determined in the laboratory. The standard procedure is detailed in
ASTM standard D 2216. A representative sample of soil is selected and its total or wet mass or weight
is determined. Then it is dried to constant mass or weight in a convection oven at ll0°C. Normally, a
constant mass or weight is obtained after the sample is left in the oven overnight. The mass or weight
of the drying dish must, of course, be subtracted from both the wet and dry masses or weights. Then the
water content is calculated according to Eq. (2.5a) or (2.5b ). Example 2.1 illustrates how the calcula-
tions for water content are actually done in practice.

Example 2.1

Given:
A specimen of wet soil in a drying dish has a mass of 388 g. After drying in an oven at ll0°C
overnight, the sample and dish have a mass of 335 g. The mass of the dish alone is 39 g.

Required:
Determine the water content of the soil.

Solution: Set up the following calculation scheme; fill in the "given" or measured quantities a, b, and d,
and make the calculations as indicated for c, e, and f.
12 Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils

a. Mass of total (wet) sample + dish = 388 g

b. Mass of dry sample + dish = 335 g
c. Mass ofwater(a - b) = 53g
d. Mass of dish = 39 g
e. Mass of dry soil(b - d) = 296 g
f. Water content(c/e) x 100% = 17.9%
In the laboratory, masses are usually determined in grams (g) on an ordinary balance. The required
sensitivity of the balance depends on the size of the specimen, and ASTM D 2216 gives some
recommendations.

The water content may also be determined using an ordinary microwave oven. ASTM stan-
dard D 4643 explains the procedure. To avoid overheating the soil specimen, microwave energy
is applied for only brief intervals and repeated until the mass becomes nearly constant. A heat
sink, such as a glass beaker filled with water, helps to prevent overheating of the soil by absorbing
microwave energy after water has been removed from the soil pores. Otherwise, the water con-
tent is determined exactly as indicated in Example 2.1. Note that the microwave water content is
not a replacement for the oven dry water content but is used when the water content is needed
quickly. Other methods sometimes used in the field for water content determination are described
in Sec. 4.7.
Another very useful concept in geotechnical engineering is density. You know from physics that
density is mass per unit volume, so its units are kg/m The density is the ratio that connects the volu-
3

metric side of the phase diagram with the mass side. Several densities are commonly used in geotech-
nical engineering practice. First, we define the total, wet, or moist density p; the density of the particles,
solid density Ps; and the density of water Pw·We also give the corresponding unit weights,"/, which are
obtained by substituting M with the corresponding weight, W.
Ml Ms+ Mw
P ---
- - (2.6a)
vi v,

1=-
WI ws + WW
(2.6b)
vi vi
Ms
Ps (2.7a)
vs

ws
"Is =- (2.7b)
vs

= MW (2.8a)
Pw
vw

"fw - WW (2.8b)
vw
In natural soils, the magnitude of the total density p will depend on how much water hap-
pens to be in the voids as well as the density of the mineral grains themselves. Thus, p can range
from slightly above 1000 kg/m to as high as 2400 kg/m with corresponding units weights of
3 3

9.81 kN/m 62.4 lb/ft

3

(
3

to 23.4 kN/m (150 lb/ft

)
3

The high end of this range would be essentially

3

).

solid mineral, with a corresponding density/unit weight close to that of concrete.

 2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 13

Typical values of Ps for most soils range from 2500 to 2800 kg/m 3 (156 to 175 pcf). Most sands
have Ps values ranging between 2600 and 2700 kg/m 3 (162 to 169 pcf). For example, a common min-
eral in sands is quartz; its Ps = 2650 kg/m 3 . Most clay soils have a value of Ps between 2650 and
2800 kg/m 3 , depending on the predominant mineral in the soil, whereas organic soils may have a Ps
as low as 2500 kg/m 3 . Consequently, for most phase problems, unless a specific value of Ps is given, it
is usually close enough for geotechnical work to assume a Ps of 2650 or 2700 kg/m 3 . The density of
water varies slightly, depending on the temperature. At 4°C, when water is at its densest, Pw exactly
equals 1000 kg/m 3 (1 g/cm 3 ), and this density is sometimes designated by the symbol Po.For ordinary
engineering work, it is sufficiently accurate to take Pw ~ p = 1000 kg/m 3 . 0

Three other densities very useful in soils engineering are the dry density pd, the saturated density
PsaP and the submerged or buoyant density p' or Pb, and their corresponding unit weights.

Pd =vMs I
(2.9a)

- w
_s
'Yd - (2.9b)
Vt

Psat
Ms + M w( V = 0 S = 100 % ) (2.10a)
VI a '

'Ysat
ws +
VI
WW(V
a
= 0' S = 100%) (2.10b)

1
P = Psat - Pw (2.lla)

'Y
1
= 'Ysat - 'Yw (2.llb)
Among other uses, the dry density Pd is a common basis for judging a soil's degree of compaction
after we have applied some mechanical energy to it, for example by using a roller or vibratory plate
(Chapter 4). The saturated density PsaP as the name implies, is the total density of the soil when 100% of
its pores are filled with water; in this special case, p = Psai. The concept of submerged or buoyant density
p' is often difficult for students to understand, so it is discussed later after we have done a few example
problems. However, you may be familiar with this concept from studying aggregates, where a "basket" of
aggregate is weighed while it is submerged under water. Typical values of Pd, PsaP and p' for several soil
types are shown in Table 2.1, and Table 2.2 shows typical unit weights in terms of kN/m 3 and pcf.
From the basic definitions provided in this section, other useful relationships can be derived, as
we show in the examples that follow.

TABLE 2.1 Some Typical Values for Different Densities of Some Common Soil Materials

Density (kg/m 3)
Soil Type Psat Pd p'
Sands and gravels 1900-2400 1500-2300 900-1400
Silts and clays 1400-2100 600-1800 400-1100
Glacial tills 2100-2400 1700-2300 1100-1400
Crushed rock 1900-2200 1500-2000 900-1200
Peats 1000-1100 100-300 0-100
Organic silts and clays 1300-1800 500-1500 300-800
Modified after Hansbo (1975).
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
Newcastle’s family. Here, too, an old hall once stood, close by, in
Sturton Park, just below a spur of the South Wold.
From Baumber, going four miles south, we reach THE SNELLAND
Horncastle. The main eastern road from Lincoln to SHREW
Wragby is described later in the Louth-to-Lincoln
route. It is the Roman road to Horncastle. At the seventh milestone,
shortly after passing Sudbrooke Holme, the house of Mr. C.
Sibthorpe, where the garden is one of the most beautifully kept and
tastefully planted of any garden in the county, the road divides to
the left for Market Rasen, by Snelland, Wickenby, Lissington, and
Linwood; and to the right for Wragby, where it again divides for
Louth on the left, and on the right for Baumber and Horncastle. The
third of the roads takes a north-easterly direction by Dunholme to
Market Rasen. All this route between Nettleham and Linwood lies in
the flat strip of country some eight miles wide, which runs up from
the Fens to the Humber, narrowing in width after reaching Brigg,
from whence it is drained by the river Ancholme and the Wear dyke,
which discharge into the Humber opposite Read’s Island, between
South Ferriby and Winteringham. Half way across this flat-land, on
the way to Market Rasen, and two miles to the left of the Wragby
road, is Snelland. This place is called in Domesday Book Esnelent,
and also Sneleslunt; and we find that land was held here by Thomas
of Bayeux, Archbishop of York and chaplain to the Conqueror, while
another land-holder was William de Percy, founder of Whitby Abbey
and commander of the fleet which brought the Conqueror over. It is
now the property of the Cust family. The following rhymed marriage
entry is in the Snelland register for the year 1671, Mr. R. S. having
presumably married a well-known scold:—

“The first day of November

Robert Sherriffe may remember
That he was marryed for all the days of his life
If God be not merciful to him and take his wife.”

THE ST. POLL

 North of Snelland is Snarford, which we should TOMBS
visit, not so much to see the four inner arches of
the church tower, which are Norman, as to inspect the wonderful
tombs of the St. Poll family. The earliest is in the chancel, where Sir
Thomas lies on an altar tomb in plate armour, with helmet under his
head, bearing as crest an elephant and castle; he wears both sword
and dagger, and holds in his hand a book. They seem to have been
a literary family, for his wife, in a long flowing robe with girdle and a
peculiar head-dress, also holds a book, and the side panels have a
projection on each face also supporting a book. A son and a
daughter are kneeling below; and a canopy supported on pillars and
having a richly moulded cornice bears, over each pillar and between
the pillars, kneeling figures—ten in all. Shields of arms enclosed in
wreaths form further decorations, but both this, which is dated
1582, and the other large monument in the north chantry are much
defaced, and the heavy canopies look as if they might fall and
destroy the figures beneath them at any moment. It is no good
shouting “police!” but where is the archdeacon? This north chantry
has been boarded off from the church, which has an ugly effect. The
monuments in it are first to Sir George St. Poll, 1613, and his wife
Frances, daughter of Chief Justice Sir Christopher Wray of
Glentworth, whom he married in 1583. This is very large, being
eleven and a half feet in height and width. Sir George reclines on his
elbow; he, also, is in armour, his wife is by his side; and below is
their little daughter Mattathia, with cherubs weeping and resting
their inverted torches on skulls. The wife, after putting up this
monument, took for a second husband Robert Rich, Earl of Warwick;
and opposite to the monument of herself and her first husband she
re-appears as the Countess of Warwick, on a round tablet, with
medallions of herself and the earl, her second husband, who died in
1618. His first wife was Lady Penelope Devereux, by whom he had
two sons, Robert and Henry, and two daughters, Lettice and Essex.
A brass on the south side of the chancel has a quaint Latin
inscription, by the Snarford parson, telling us that Frances Wray,
after marriage, was twelve years without issue, and then had a
daughter who died before reaching her second birthday, “cut off
while on her way to Bath.” This was a terrible loss of a most precious
treasure, and he mentions that he had christened her Mattathia, and
goes on to tell us that the “mother passes no day without tears of
poignant anguish,” and ends with “How I wished, alas in vain, that I
the writer, instead of thee, had been the subject of a funeral elegy.
John Chadwick, Sept. 9th, 1597.”

“Hos tibi jam posui versus Mattathia Sct. Poll,

Qui primum in sacro nomina fonte dedi.
Quam vellem (at frustra), te nempe superstite, scriptor
Essem funerei carminis ipse mihi.”

Close to the St. Poll monument in the chantry is THE

a stone in memory of George Brownlow Doughty, BUSLINGTHORPE
1743, who married a Tichborne heiress, and took BRASS
the name in addition to his own. From Snarford,
less than four miles brings us to Buslingthorpe, where is a Crusader’s
effigy, which, like the priest at Little Steeping, had been turned
upside down and used as a paving-stone, possibly for the sake of
saving it from destruction. This may be Sir John de Buslingthorpe, c.
1250. But the great treasure of the church is a brass half-effigy on a
coffin-lid, which also had been buried, and was only recovered in
1707. This represents a knight in armour, holding a heart and
wearing remarkable scaled gauntlets. The inscription in Norman
French is without date, but reads: “Issy gyt Sire Richard le fiz sire
John de Boselyngthorp,” and is probably not later than 1290. This is
earlier than the somewhat similar brass in Croft Church, which is
assigned to 1300 or 1310, but is not so early as the fine brass of Sir
John d’Abernoun at Stoke d’Abernon in Surrey, which is dated 1277.
Anyhow, it is the earliest in Lincolnshire. From here, less than four
miles brings us back on to the Market Rasen road at Linwood, only
two miles from Rasen.
Instead of going by Snarford and Buslingthorpe LINWOOD
we might have reached Rasen by a more direct
route from Snelland through Wickenby to Lissington. Here the road
divides, the right hand going to Legsby and Sixhills, and then turning
left-handed to join the Louth and Rasen road at North Willingham;
or, if the day is clear, the traveller can go straight on from Sixhills
and climb the Wold, which with a rise of one hundred feet will give
him a view and bring him to the crown of the same road at Ludford.
The left-hand road from Lissington will bring us to Rasen viâ
Linwood. This is a pretty road just elevated above the flat, whence
the church spire is visible for a long way. This interesting church,
dedicated to St. Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, a.d. 251, is of the Early
English period with Perpendicular tower. The brasses, which are
good, have been removed from the south chantry to the north aisle
and placed at the west end. We have John Lyndewode, wool stapler,
and his wife, under a double canopy, date 1419. In his shield are
three Linden leaves, which shows the name of the village to mean
‘the Linden (or Limetree) wood.’ There is also one to their son John,
a wool stapler, dated 1421, and a figure of a bishop in the south
chancel window, probably commemorates another son William, who
became Bishop of St. David’s. A cross-legged effigy of a knight has
been torn from its matrix. The old Lyndewode Manor once stood
close to the church.
Continuing northwards for two miles we find ourselves at Market
Rasen.
 CHAPTER XIII
ROADS SOUTH FROM LINCOLN
The Foss Way—The Sleaford Road and Dunston Pillar on “The Heath”—
The Ermine Street and the Grantham Road on “The Ridge”—Canwick
—Blankney—Digby—Rowston—Brant-Broughton—Temple Bruer and
the Knights Templars and Hospitallers—Somerton Castle and King
John of France—Navenby—Coleby—Bracebridge.

Besides these three roads going east from Lincoln, there are three
great roads which run along “the ridged wold” northwards, and two
going south; but these two, as soon as they are clear of Lincoln,
branch into a dozen, which, augmented by five lines of railway, all
radiating from one centre and all linked by innumerable small roads
which cross them, form, on the map, an exact pattern of a gigantic
spider’s web. Of this dozen the three trunk roads southwards are the
Foss Way to Newark in the flat country, and the Sleaford road over
“the heath,” both of which roads avoid all villages (though the
Sleaford road passes through Leasingham, described in Chap. VIII.,
about two miles north of Sleaford, and has that curious erection, the
Dunston pillar, at the roadside about eight miles out from Lincoln,
described in the chapter on Nocton); and thirdly, the Grantham road,
on the ridge between the two, which has a village at every mile.
Others run, one to Skellingthorpe, one to Doddington with its
interesting old Hall, which we will revert to shortly; one all down the
Witham valley to Beckingham on the border, going by Basingham
with its ninth-century Saxon font, and Norton Disney with its fine
Disney tombs and remarkable brass, also to be described later; and
one to Brant Broughton.
A sign-post in Lincoln points to this village, CANWICK
because, though twelve miles distant, there is
nothing on the way; indeed you may follow up the ROWSTON
valley of the Brant River another six miles to its
source near Hough-on-the-Hill, and then go on another six as it
curves round into Grantham, and not pass through anything but
Marston, and there is nothing to see there but the old seat of the
Thorold family, Marston Hall, now a farmhouse. All these are on the
low ground to the west. Then on the ridge itself is “the Ermine
Street,” and east of the Sleaford highway is a desolate road over
“Lincoln Heath” to Scopwick, where a stream, crossed by several
single planks, runs right through the village. East of this, another
somewhat important road goes across the low and once swampy
ground south of Lincoln, where the Witham gets through the gap in
the cliff ridge to Canwick. Here the church, which has a rich Norman
chancel arch and arcade, and an Early English arcaded reredos in
the vestry, once a chantry chapel, rises, without any other footing,
from a Roman pavement; here, too, from the grounds of Mr. Waldo
Sibthorp’s house, Canwick Hall, where the cliff begins again, you get
a most beautiful view of the minster about two miles distant; indeed,
those who live near Lincoln and can see the minster may boast of a
view which for grandeur has few equals in the land. This walk from
Lincoln is a favourite one, and passes a well-planted cemetery of
twenty-five acres, part of which was taken from the common, which
rejoices in the delightfully bucolic name of “the Cowpaddle.” The
road is really the continuation of the Wragby road, and, curving
down Lindum road passes into Broadgate, then crossing the Witham
and the Sincel dyke and the intersection of the Midland and Great
Northern Railways, crosses yet two more lines before it reaches the
cemetery. After Canwick the road goes through Branston and
passes, near Nocton, Dunston, and Metheringham, to Blankney. The
hall here, the home of Mr. Henry Chaplin, than whom no Lincolnshire
man is better known or more popular, is now occupied by Lord
Londesborough. The church has a curious tomb-slab to John de
Glori, with a bearded head looking out of a cusped opening, and a
beautiful sculpture by Boehm of Lady Florence Chaplin. This is one
of the few churches in which the ringing of the Curfew-bell still
obtains. After Blankney the road passes Scopwick and curves round
through Digby, Donnington and Rushington to Sleaford. Of these
villages Digby is worth seeing, and so is Rowston, lying one mile
north of it. At Digby the village cross has been restored, but with a
very indifferent top, and at the other end of the village is a curious
stone lock-up, like a covered well-head, and hardly capable of
holding more than one man at a time. Lingfield in Surrey has a
larger one called ‘Ye Village Cage’; it has two steps up inside, and is
capable of holding a dozen people. The tower has three stages,
Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular. The south door is
transition Norman, the north arcade aisle and chancel Early English,
the south arcade and aisle Decorated, and the font, screen and
clerestory Perpendicular. In this the six tall two-light windows are
distributed in pairs. Rowston, which is dedicated to St. Clement, has
a spire rising from a tall tower, so little wider than itself that it may
safely be said to cover less ground than any tower in England, for it
measures only five and a-half feet inside; it is blank except for a
rather heavy window in the upper stage. The first thing that strikes
you on entering is the extraordinary loud ticking of the clock. It has
to be stopped during service, as no one can compete with it. The
next thing is that the thirteen windows are all filled with painted
glass and of the same type, striking in design, though not of quite
first-rate excellence. One window has figures of the three
Lincolnshire saints—St. Guthlac, St. Hugh, and St. Gilbert. The
church is in very good order, having been recently restored, and
some Saxon stones with interlaced work have been built into the
outside wall of the chancel. It would have been better to have put
these inside. But there is inside a very good head of a churchyard or
village cross, and the base and broken shaft of one, possibly the
same, is just outside the churchyard. This head is of the usual
penthouse form, with a carved figure on either side; it was found
quite recently built into a cowshed. In the nave the pillars are all
different. The vestry was over the burial chapel of the Foster family;
later it was, as was so often the case, used for a school. A beautiful
bit of an old carved oak screen separates it now from the north aisle.
A heavy timber floor cuts across the top of the tall tower arch, and
below a very curious pillar stands against one side of the arch. An
Early English priest’s door, with a flat-arched lintel, is in the south
wall of the chancel. It is impossible to walk round the slender tower,
as a garden wall runs into it on both the north and south sides,
leaving part of the tower in a neighbouring garden, the owner of
which once claimed half the tower as his property, and considered
that he had a right to pierce a door through it for easier access to
his pew.
We have now but one road south of Lincoln to GRANTHAM ROAD
describe—for what we have to say about Norton
Disney and Nocton can come afterwards; this is the Grantham road,
a road curiously full of villages mostly perched on the western edge
of the ridge, whilst the Ermine Street running so near it on the east
has no villages at all on it, and the Sleaford road over “the Heath,” a
little to the east of the Ermine Street, is, as we have said, just as
bare. The number of roads in Lincolnshire which have no villages on
them is very remarkable, though not hard to explain. We have
already, in treating of the roads from Grantham, through the villages
of Manthorpe, Belton, Syston, Barkstone, Honington, Carlton Scroop,
Normanton, Caythorpe and Fulbeck, brought the account of this
road northwards as far as Leadenham. Here the Sleaford and
Newark main road crosses it, and Leadenham spire is a fine
landmark for all the neighbourhood. It is to be noted that, common
as the Danish termination ‘by’ is in all parts of the county, the Saxon
‘ton’ just about here and on the west side generally, is even more
frequent.
This spire is crocketed, but has no flying buttresses. The nave and
arcades are lofty, with bold clustered columns, and the doorways,
which are quite different in style, are both very good. There is some
good Flemish glass, and a stone monument of the Beresford family
has long been in use as an altar. Wellbourn, on an Early English
tower, has one of those ugly, Perpendicular “sugar loaf” spires, with
a sort of bulge in the middle, and that to a worse degree than at
Caythorpe. The nave and aisles are the work of John of Wellbourn,
the munificent treasurer of Lincoln in the middle of the fourteenth
century.
 Brant Broughton.

To the right and left of Wellbourn are two places BRANT

which should not be missed. Brant Broughton, with BROUGHTON
its beautiful spire, and Temple Bruer, where are the
THE VILLAGE
remains of a preceptory of the Knights Templars. SMITH
The church of Brant Broughton (pronounced
Bruton) is a beautiful structure, and all in perfect order, the
magnificent lofty chancel having been built to match the rest of the
church by Bodley and Garner in 1876. To take the woodwork first,
the tall handsome screen and the chancel stalls are in memory of
the late rector, Canon E. H. Sutton, as is also the lofty carved font
cover, whose doors open and display three carved and coloured
figures, one being St. Nicholas, the patron saint, with the three
children in a pickling tub, whom he is said to have raised to life after
their murder by a butcher, as is so quaintly represented in the
famous black font in Winchester Cathedral. The roof, which in the
first instance was of a higher pitch, as seen by the string course, is
an exact reproduction, both in shape and colour, of the old
Perpendicular one which it replaced, and is in appearance upborne
by figures of angels with outspread wings. The three tall arches of
the aisle arcades and chancel are Early English, two of the pillars are
octagonal. These arches are very high, though not so high as those
in Hough-on-the-Hill, which are of about the same date. The three-
light clerestory windows, five on each side, and the roof to the nave,
were added with the upper stages of the tower in 1460, and the
Perpendicular aisle windows are large and handsome, and have a
transom running across the tracery in the head of each. They are
filled with most interesting glass, good in design, and mostly good in
colour, all of which was made in the village by the late Canon Sutton,
who also filled several windows in Lincoln Minster. The ironwork in
the church was also made by Mr. F. Coldron and Son at the village
forge, where excellent work is always being done and sent to all
parts of the country. All the work inside the church, and the chancel
in particular, is beautifully finished in every detail, and bears the
impress of being all the work of one mind, and as that mind was
Bodley’s, and he took the utmost pains with it, it need hardly be said
that it comes very near perfection.
Among the things to notice are the long stone responds of light
clustered pillars between each clerestory window, which support the
roof timbers. This is seen in other churches in this part of the
county, but is otherwise by no means common. Another is that at
intervals on the outer moulding of some of the doors and windows
are carved rosettes which give a very rich effect and are, I believe,
unique. The excellent lectern eagle is a copy of one at Oxborough in
Norfolk, and a similar one is in the neighbouring church of Navenby.
Thus far I have spoken of the inside, but it is the outside of the
church which gives the greatest delight, for it is a very perfect
specimen, built of good stone, of the finest proportions, and richly
ornamented. The nave and chancel have each an ornate parapet,
while the nave is also embattled and pinnacled. The tower has the
most glorious base-mouldings, and the pinnacled and crocketed
spire soars up 175 feet. Both tower and spire date from about 1320,
the period of the Flowing Decorated style. But the two porches,
which are a little later, are absolute gems of architecture. They have
groined roofs, their parapets are pierced and ornamented, thickly set
with gargoyles, and supported by canopied buttresses. Over the
entrance of the south porch is a figure of Christ seated, and in the
north porch is an ornamental roof ridge of carved stone. These
porches are as beautiful as anything can well be; altogether it would
be hard to find in a country village anything architectural, more
pleasing than Brant Broughton Church.

The Ermine Street at Temple Bruer.

We passed through the village, visited the THE ERMINE

Coldron forge, and then by a road constantly STREET
turning first right then left, with fields of scarlet
poppy or brilliant yellow corn-marigold on either hand, and with a
stormy sky which ever and anon brought us a squall of rain, we
drove across the flat country eastwards till we crossed the railway
and reached the ridge. Climbing this, we come to Wellbourn, on the
Grantham road, and going on eastwards over Wellbourn Heath we
reach the Ermine Street, here only a wide grassy track. This we
cross and go forwards through a well-cultivated, but almost
uninhabited plain, till we see on the left a farm road leading over a
field to a big farmyard, in the middle of which stands a solitary
square-built Early English tower, with windows irregularly placed,
and steps on one side. This is all that is left of a Preceptory of the
Knights Templars, founded early in the thirteenth century in the
reign of Henry II. by the Lady Elizabeth de Canz at Temple Bruer.
One does not always like to confess one’s THE TEMPLARS
ignorance, but I am sure many people may read
that word “preceptory” without at all knowing what it may mean, or
what the difference is between a Preceptory and a Commandery. So
we may as well say something about the Templars, and the kindred
order of the Hospitallers. And here I may say that I am indebted for
my facts to a paper read at Lincoln by Bishop Trollope in 1857.
The first, then, of these, in point of time, were the Hospitallers.
But as they long outlived the Templars we will take the history of the
Templars first. This famous order, half-religious and half military, was
founded in 1118, during the first Crusade, by nine French knights,
whose object was to protect pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre at
Jerusalem. At first they were bound by laws of poverty, and were
termed “Poor Knights,” but Baldwin II., having given them lodging in
a part of his palace at Jerusalem, the abbot of the Temple Convent,
which adjoined the palace, gave them further rooms to live in, and
from this they got the name “Templars.” In 1128 they adopted a
white distinctive mantle, to which a red cross on the breast and on
their banner was added in 1166. The fame of their feats of arms and
chivalry induced many members of noble houses to join the society,
and land and treasure were so freely offered them that they became
known for their wealth, as at first for their poverty. Their head was
termed “Grand Master,” and their headquarters were in Palestine,
until they moved, in 1192, to Cyprus. In other countries each section
or “Province” was governed by a “Grand Preceptor.” They first came
to England in the early part of Stephen’s reign, and had a church in
London, near Southampton Buildings, called “The Old Temple,” from
which they migrated in 1185 to the spot where the circular Temple
Church still stands. Their wealth was the cause of their downfall,
morally and physically; and the monarchs, both of France and
England, becoming jealous, Philip IV., in 1307, seized and imprisoned
every Templar in his dominion, 200 in number, on the vague charges
of infidelity, sorcery, and apostasy, and eventually confiscated all
their property and burnt more than fifty of them alive, relegating the
rest to perpetual seclusion in some monastic house. Edward II. did
much the same here, except that there were no burnings or
executions. Old Fuller, the historian, was probably thinking of those
in France when he says in his inimitable way: “Their lives would not
have been taken if their lands could have been got without; but the
mischief was, the honey could not be got without burning the bees.”
In 1312 the Pope, Clement V., who was under Philip’s thumb at
Avignon, and had helped him to coerce Edward II., abolished the
order, which was found to be possessed of no less than 9,000
manors and 16,000 lordships, besides lands abroad. Grants were
made to favourites, and also to those who had claims for some
benefaction to any Templar’s estate. Thus Robert de Swines
(Sweyne’s)-thorp was to receive 3d. a day for food, and another 3d.
for himself and 2d. for his groom; and his daughter, Alice
Swinesthorpe was to have for life (and she drew it for thirty years)
“7 white loaves, 3 squire’s loaves, 5 gals of better ale, 7 dishes of
meat and fish on Saturday for the week following, and an extra dish
(interferculum) of the better course of the brethren, at Xmas, Easter,
Whitsuntide, Midsummer, The Assumption, and Feast of All Saints,
and 3 stone of cheese yearly and an old gown of the brethren.”
Twelve years later Edward granted the whole of THE
their property to the similar society of “Knights HOSPITALLERS
Hospitallers.”
 This society came into existence some fifty years before the
Templars, and originated in a band of traders from Amalfi, who got
leave from the Caliph of Egypt to build a church and monastery for
the Latins near the Holy Sepulchre, in order to look after the sick
and poor pilgrims who used to come in large numbers to Jerusalem.
Soon a hospital, or guest house, was added, and a chapel dedicated
to St. John the Baptist; but the society did not take the distinctive
name of Hospitallers, or guest receivers, until 1099, when Jerusalem
was in the hands of the Christians. They then assumed a white cross
as their badge, and were termed Knights of the Hospital, Knights
Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John.
In 1154 they procured a Papal bull, relieving them from payment
of tithes, and exempting them from all interdicts and
excommunications, and giving them other privileges, but binding
them never to leave the order. These marks of Papal favour seem to
have made them presumptuous, and great complaints soon arose of
their insolence. They were accused before the Pope, but they
managed to clear themselves and to keep their privileges. Hence we
find that Temple Bruer, which came to them after the destruction of
the Knights Templars, still remains exempt from the payment of
tithe, and from episcopal jurisdiction, as being extra parochial.
The head of the order had the title of “Grand KNIGHTS OF
Prior,” and when the Christians were expelled from MALTA
Palestine, the Knights retreated to Cyprus, after
which they took from the Turks the island of Rhodes, which they
held against the Sultan until 1522, when Solyman II., after a long
siege, forced them to capitulate. A few years after that, the Emperor
Charles V. gave them a home in Malta, and they thenceforth were
commonly called Knights of Malta. They fortified the island, and
imported soil to make it productive, and putting to sea with their
galleys they made constant war upon all Turkish vessels. Solyman at
length determined to drive them out of Malta. He despatched a fleet
of 180 galleys, carrying 30,000 men. The Turks took the fort of St.
Elmo, but with a loss of 8,000 men; and when the Emperor sent an
army to assist the Knights, La Valette, the Grand Prior, a famous
leader, drove the Moslems off. After this they remained in Malta until
the order was dissolved at the close of the eighteenth century by
order of Napoleon, when most of the Knights took service in the
French army. Whilst the society existed it had branch establishments
in England, where the chief or Prior took precedence of all the
barons, and had a seat in Parliament. Their establishments were
called “commanderies”—while those of the Templars, who were
ruled by “Grand Preceptors,” were called “preceptories.” Of these
there were three in Lincolnshire: at Willoughton, four miles south of
Kirton in Lindsey; at Aslackby, two miles south of Falkingham; and at
Temple Bruer; all three situated close to the Ermine Street or “High
Dyke” as they call it, on Lincoln Heath, and it is from the heath that
one of them gets its name Templum de la bruère, or the temple on
the heath, shortened into Temple Bruer.
The lands of these Knights Templars, which were TEMPLE BRUER
handed over by Edward II. in 1324 to the Knights
Hospitallers, were all sequestrated in England at the time of the
dissolution of the monastic and religious houses in 1538, and, like so
many other Lincolnshire estates, granted by Henry VIII. to his
relative, Charles Brandon Duke of Suffolk. Henry, with his wife,
Katherine Howard, dined at Temple Bruer when on his way to
Lincoln in 1541. The buildings then were of considerable size, and
the circular church, whose pillar bases have been laid bare, a little to
the west of the existing tower, was fifty feet in diameter. It is
modelled on the plan of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, having, as
may still be seen in London, Cambridge, and Northampton, a
corridor running round between the circular arcade of the church
and the outer wall. The existing tower is of the Early English period,
fifty feet high, and having three storeys; the walls of the lower
storey are decorated by arcading on two sides, and the rising levels
of the floor indicate that an altar was placed at the east end, so that
it was probably the domestic chapel of the Grand Prior. The roof of
this and the next storey is vaulted, and above the third storey was a
parapet. The rooms were reached by a winding staircase in the
north-west angle. A well nine feet in diameter, and never dry, was in
the precincts, and another, discovered in the eighteenth century, was
found to have in it three large bells. The Earl of Dorset, who owned
this interesting property in 1628, sold it to Richard Brownlow of
Belton, whose daughter and co-heiress carried it to the family of
Lord Guildford, and he sold it to the ancestors of Mr. Chaplin of
Blankney.

Temple Bruer Tower.

It shows that the interest in the Order of the KNIGHTS AT

Knights of Jerusalem is not yet extinct when we RHODES
read the following, which appeared in The Times of
December 21, 1913:—
 “HOUSE OF THE KNIGHTS AT RHODES.
“(FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.)
Rome, Dec. 23.
“The Tribuna announces that the House of the Knights at
Rhodes has been acquired for France by the French
Ambassador at Constantinople, M. Bompard. The house,
which is one of the most beautiful in the island, is a Gothic
edifice dating from the 15th century, and was originally the
residence of the French Priors of the Order of Jerusalem.
“⁂ This appears to refer to the Auberge of the “Langue” of
France, with its shield-adorned façade in the famous street of
the Knights in Rhodes, which is still preserved in fair
condition. Under the Ottoman regime no Christian was
allowed to own a house or to sleep within the walled town of
Rhodes, and before the revival of the Constitution foreigners
were jealously excluded from the majority of the medieval
buildings of the city. It is probably due to this suspicious and
exclusive attitude that no such step as that just taken by
France has been attempted before. It is to be hoped that the
palace of the Grand Masters of the Order of the Hospital,
which ruled the island from 1309 until 1522, is now no longer
to be used as a common prison.”

From Temple Bruer we return to the “High Dyke,” SOMERTON

and, crossing it, make westward for the Grantham CASTLE
road; but before we go along it, by Boothby
Graffoe to Navenby, we must pause on the Ridge, or “Cliff,” as they
call it there, and look down on a solitary round tower on a slight
elevation about a mile across the flat plain which extends westward
from the Wolds to the Trent. This tower and its grassy mounds are
all that is left of a once fine stronghold, built, about 1281, by Antony
Bec, Archdeacon of Durham, second son of Walter Bec, Baron
d’Eresby. He was consecrated Bishop of Durham in the presence of
Edward I., on January 9, 1284, and he was wise enough, a few
years later, when his growing magnificence excited the jealousy of
his sovereign, to present Somerton to Edward I., and it remained a
royal castle for some three centuries, passing afterwards through
several families, among whom were the Disneys of Norton and
Carlton. Edward, son of Thomas Disney of Carlton-le-Moorland
having purchased it from Sir George Bromley, and being succeeded
in 1595 by his son Thomas, who having lost both his sons, sold it to
Sir Ed. Hussey. Hence we find that his son Charles, afterwards Sir
Charles Hussey of Caythorpe, is described in his marriage licence,
April 10, 1649, as Charles Hussey, Esq., of Somerton.
After the battle of Poictiers, in 1356, John, son of Philip of Valois,
King of France, was brought captive to London, together with his
third son Philip. Hence, after a short residence at the Savoy Palace,
they went to Windsor as guests of the King and Queen Philippa, and
were subsequently sent to Hertford Castle. Edward III. soon thought
it wiser to transfer them to Somerton, where they were placed under
the custody of William, Baron d’Eyncourt of Blankney, during the
years 1359 and 1360. The expensive furnishing of the castle (see
Chap. XXXVII.) and the provision made for the maintenance of the
large number of the king’s French suite, and of the officers and men
who were appointed to guard the prisoners, and the style of life
there, the tuns of French claret, and the enormous amount of sugar
to make French bon-bons, together with the subsequent history of
King John, who, on being set at liberty, returned in the most
honourable way to England in 1363, because his son Louis, Duc
d’Anjou, had broken his parole as a hostage and left England for
France, is fully related by Bishop Trollope. King John died in 1364, at
the palace of the Savoy.
Somerton Castle, which we must now visit, was a fortified
dwelling-place with outer and inner moats, and with round towers at
each corner of an irregular parallelogram, only one remains now at
the south-west angle. This is forty-five feet high, and has three
storeys—the lower one vaulted, the highest covered with a conical
roof and having two chimneys, rising well above the plain parapet,
which is still perfect, and springs from a bold and effective moulding.
Each floor is lit by small lancet windows, the middle one much
enlarged of late years, for it is still inhabited, together with some
building adjoining it on the east, as a farm house. The large
earthworks around the castle, which are especially noticeable on the
south, are very remarkable, and must be much earlier than the
castle, which seems to have been planted inside these rectangular
embankments, of which the northern side has been levelled,
probably at the time of the building. The earthworks are not Roman
in character, and are probably of very great antiquity. Outside these
are at least two round artificial hills, which have not been as yet
explained with certainty.
Leaving the castle, and driving over the rough NAVENBY
field road which leads to it, we regain a highway
which takes us up “the cliff” to the village of Navenby. This is
situated on a spur jutting out from the edge of the cliff, with a deep
little valley sweeping round on the south side and breaking down
into the plain. Nestling in the curve of the hill are some picturesque
farm buildings and stacks, and above is an old windmill; whilst over
the horizon peeps through the trees the spire of Wellingore Church.
The chancel of Navenby Church, as at Heckington, is as long as the
nave, and almost as high; indeed, this Decorated chancel is as fine
as any to be found, no other being built on at all so magnificent a
scale, except Hawton in Notts, and Heckington and perhaps Merton
at Oxford. The tower, which probably had a spire, fell in the
eighteenth century, and the whole church was restored about forty
years ago, by Kirk of Sleaford, who made the chancel roof of too
high a pitch, and kept the nave roof too low. The pillars in the nave,
of which there are two on each side, have shafts clustered round a
central column, four shafts of coursed masonry alternating with four
light detached monolithic shafts, all united under a circular capital.
But the north-west pillar is thicker than the others, and belongs to
the latter part of the twelfth century. The tower arch is a low one;
the fine Decorated east window of six lights, restored in 1876, has
superb tracery, and is nearly as fine as that at Heckington. There are
four large chancel windows, and a good Early English window in the
south aisle. There is also a rood-loft staircase, and a rood-loft with
canopy, or ‘hang over,’ and a modern rood-beam above bearing a
large crucifix and two almost life-size figures carved and painted. An
octagon panelled font stands on a pedestal of slender columns. The
roof of both nave and aisles is painted. The clerestory, added later,
has five three-light windows. The east window is filled with white
glass, slightly toned, and is half hidden by a tapestry screen used as
a reredos, by no means beautiful, and twice as high as it need be.
The Jacobean pulpit and the fine copy of an old brass eagle lectern,
as at Brant Broughton, are to be noticed; but the main glories of the
church are in the chancel, where, besides the splendid windows,
there are, on the south side, three rich sedilia and a piscina; and on
the north, just east of the canopied arch for the founder’s tomb, in
which is now placed a trefoiled stone with Lombardic lettering of
Richard Dewe, priest, is a priest’s door and a very beautiful Easter
Sepulchre. This is only surpassed by those at Heckington, Lincoln,
and Hawton, near Newark. It has only one compartment, with three
Roman soldiers, with mutilated heads, below the opening, and above
it, amongst the delicately carved foliage of the canopy, are two
figures of women. Few churches can give more pleasure to the lover
of church architecture than this; and its fine position on the edge of
the cliff, with the wide view over the plain westward, makes a visit to
Navenby very memorable.
Going on northwards along the cliff road we pass COLEBY
Boothby Graffoe, where the old church was actually
blown down, or, as the Wellingore register has it, “extirpated in a
hurricane,” in 1666—and come to Coleby. Here is an early
unbuttressed tower with a rude original arch over the door of the
tower staircase, and with two keyhole windows in the south side, as
in the early Lincoln towers or those at Hough-on-the-Hill, and Clee.
Part of the original tower arch is visible inside the tower, which is
entered from the nave through a very tall narrow arch supported by
two very small pilasters with plain rectangular caps.
The two arches of the north arcade are TREVENEN
Transition Norman; those on the south Early
English, with good stiff foliage. The tall, plain porch PENROSE
had once a room over it, and retains its richly
moulded Transition doorway. The font is of the same date, being a
massive cylinder with Norman arcading cut on it, and with four
equidistant pillars which give it a square appearance. The crocketed
spire is a good one, Perpendicular in style, and of better stone than
the tower. The three lancet windows at the east end are filled with
good glass, and the seats are of oak with poppy-heads throughout.
The fellows of Oriel College, Oxford, to whom the living belongs,
helped in its restoration by Bodley and Garner in 1901. The wall at
the west end of the south aisle, which runs up to the tower and also
forms the west side of the porch, as the aisle has no window, is one
long blank face, which has a singularly ugly look outside. Inside,
there are some good bench-ends, and there is an inscription by Sir
John Coleridge to the Rev. Trevenen Penrose, who spent the greater
part of a long life as vicar of the parish.
 Navenby.

The Hall is a gabled house of 1628, built by Sir W. Lester, now the
property of the Tempest family, and having classic temples in the
grounds, one of them adapted from the Rotunda in the baths of
Diocletian at Rome.
Harmston, the next village, has a tower of the pre-Norman type,
with a mid-wall shaft to the window of the belfry in which are eight
bells. A brass plate commemorates Margaret Thorold who had a
family of eight sons and eleven daughters, and lived to be eighty.
 Waddington has some very good Early English BRACEBRIDGE
work in its clustered columns and carved capitals.
Here the string of villages, one at every milestone, ceases, and we
go on for three miles seeing the beautiful minster tower in front of
us on the height, and arrive at Bracebridge, a very dark church, but
with some most interesting Long-and-Short work in the tower, in the
angles of the nave, and in the south porch, and a Norman west door
to the tower, which is a very early one with mid-wall shaft to the
belfry window. The Norman north door is now blocked. There is a
curious rectangular opening, twice as wide as its height, in the south
aisle, near the porch, which allows a view between the pillars and
through the hagioscope or “squint” on the right of the chancel arch
to the altar. Another squint is on the left side of the chancel arch,
which is a very narrow and early one, through a thick wall.
The nave pillars, two on each side, are cylindrical with four
banded shafts attached. The north aisle and transept are modern. A
fine Transition Norman font is mounted on a new base, and on the
pulpit is still to be seen the old hour-glass stand, as at Leasingham;
though there and at Belton in the Isle of Axholme it is attached to a
pillar, at Sapperton and Hammeringham it is on the pulpit. There is
also an old cracked Sanctus bell.
The road over the heath unites with the Grantham road near
Bracebridge, and runs into Lincoln by the Stonebow, and on up to
the Minster Hill.
So much for the roads east, west, and south. The roads north of
Lincoln demand another chapter. But a few words about Nocton and
Norton Disney shall come first.
 CHAPTER XIV
PLACES OF INTEREST NEAR LINCOLN
Nocton—Norton Disney—Doddington—Kettlethorpe.

NOCTON
As an instance of what the great Roman catch-water drain the
“Carr-dyke” effected, we may take the little village of Nocton, six
miles south-east of Lincoln. Here is a little string of villages—Potter
Hanworth, Nocton, Dunston and Metheringham—running north and
south on the edge of a moor which drops quickly on the east to an
uninhabited stretch of fen once all water, but now rich cornland cut
into long strips by the drains which, aided by pumps, send the
superfluous water down the Nocton “Delph” into the Witham River.
Along the extreme edge of the moorland runs the “Carr-dyke” and
intercepts all the water which would otherwise discharge into the
already water-logged lowlands, and so makes the task of dealing
with the fen water a possible one.
At Potter Hanworth the Romans had a pottery. The church was
rebuilt in 1857, one of the bells was re-cast in memory of the
Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and on it were placed Tennyson’s
lines from “Morte d’Arthur.”

“The old order changeth, yielding place to new,

And God fulfils Himself in many ways,
Lest one good custom should corrupt the world.”

On the same occasion the ringing of the Curfew bell, which had
been continued till 1890, was given up, and a clock with four faces
put up instead, which strikes the hours, but is not at all the same
thing. Thus one more interesting and historic custom has
disappeared, which is much to be regretted in this utilitarian and
unimaginative age.
Domesday Book tells us that Nocton was divided THE D’ARCY
in unequal shares between two landlords, Ulf and FAMILY
Osulf; on the land of the former there was already
a church with a priest in 1086. These owners had given place to one
Norman de Ardreci, written later de Aresci, and finally D’Arcy, a
companion of the Conqueror. Norman D’Arcy’s son granted the
churches of Nocton and Dunston to the Benedictines of St. Mary’s
Abbey, York, also some land to the Carthusians of Kirkstead Abbey,
and himself founded a priory at Nocton for canons of the Orders of
St. Augustine, who first settled in England in 1108. The buildings are
quite gone, but the site is still called the Abbey Field, and the
vicarage is called the Priory; the Priory well, whose water was said
to be “remarkably good,” in 1727, was only filled up about fifty years
ago. Why couldn’t they have let it alone, one wonders. To follow up
the history of Nocton: in 1541 Henry VIII. and Katharine Howard
slept there.
The D’Arcy family and their descendants in the female line, whose
married names were Lymbury, Pedwardine, Wymbishe and Towneley,
held the property for three and twenty generations till the middle of
the seventeenth century—a good innings of 600 years. But the
losses which the Civil War brought about made it necessary for
Robert Towneley, at the Restoration in 1660, to sell the estate to
Lord Stanhope, from whom it soon passed by sale to Sir William
Ellys, about 1676, and in 1726—by the marriage of Sir Richard Ellys’
widow—to Sir Francis Dashwood; after whom, in 1767, it descended
to a cousin, George Hobart, eventually third Earl of
Buckinghamshire. He altered Nocton considerably, pulled down the
church, which was too near the house, and set up a poor structure
further off, where the present church stands. He also spent much in
draining Nocton fen, and erected a windmill pump which raised the
water and sent it into the Witham, and worked well for forty years
till it was superseded in Frederick Robinson’s time (1834) by a forty-
horse-power steam engine which was found to pump the water
faster than the fens could supply it. The earl died in 1804; ten years
later his daughter, Lady Sarah Albinia, carried the estate to Frederick
John Robinson, second son of Lord Grantham, who became Prime
Minister and was created Viscount Goodrich in 1827, and Earl of
Ripon in 1833; and, as a member of Sir Robert Peel’s cabinet, moved
in the House of Lords the second reading of the Bill for the repeal of
the Corn Laws in 1846. In 1834 the house at Nocton was burnt
down, and the earl’s young son, afterwards Marquis of Ripon, laid
the foundation stone of the present house in 1841. The earl died in
1859, and his widow, who survived him eight years, built in his
memory the present fine church, which was designed by Sir Gilbert
Scott. In 1889 Lord Ripon sold the estate to Mr. G. Hodgson of
Bradford.
It is interesting to hear of a school being set up in 1793 at
Nocton; first as a private school by John Brackenbury of Gedney,
grandson of Edward Brackenbury of Raithby, near Spilsby, which was
continued for forty-six years after her father’s death in 1813, by his
daughter Justinia, who became Mrs. Scholey. In her time it was an
elementary school which Lady Sarah financed and managed, the
children paying a penny a week.
Another thing that was set up was a land DUNSTON PILLAR
lighthouse on Dunston Heath. This was a lonely
tract where inhabitants had not only been murdered by
highwaymen, but had even been lost in the storms and snow-drifts
on the desolate and roadless moor. Here then Sir Francis Dashwood
set up the Dunston Pillar, ninety-two feet high with a lantern over
fifteen feet high on the top. The date on it is 1751. The fourth Earl
of Buckinghamshire, who as Lord Hobart was Governor of Madras,
took down the lantern on July 18, 1810, and set up in its place a
colossal statue of George III. to commemorate the king’s jubilee.
The granddaughter of the third earl, whose NOCTON HALL
father (The Very Rev. H. L. Hobart) lived at the
Priory, being, inter alia, vicar of Nocton and Dean of Windsor, and
also of Wolverhampton, tells me that the mail coaches used to pass
the pillar and leave all the letters for the neighbourhood at one of
the four little lodges close by. She has several interesting specimens
of the work done by the Nocton School of Needlework under the
guidance of Justinia, whose family were remarkable for their
Scriptural as well as “heathen Christian names,” e.g., Ceres and
Damaris. Justinia herself always, as they say in Westmorland, used
to “get” Justina. These specimens include a very clever and faithful
copy in black silk needlework of an engraving by Hoylett from a
picture by Thos. Espin of old Nocton Hall, which was burnt down in
1834. The needlework artist has done one of the trees in the picture
most beautifully, but has given the rein to her imagination by
working in two fine palm trees in place of the oaks of the picture.
There is a sampler done at the vicarage by the dean’s daughter, and
inscribed:—
“Nocton Priory, 1839.
Louisa C. Hobart.”
And two large samplers with the usual pretty floral borders worked
by Justinia’s daughters, signed “Alice Scholey, 1832, and Betsey
Scholey, 1848.” The latter has some rather primitive representations
of the old Hall and its two lodges; also the Vicarage and the School,
and a libellous portrait of Lincoln Minster. Alice Scholey was of a
more Scriptural turn of mind and apparently fond of birds, for she
has owls in the centre of green bushes, and pheasants or peacocks
among her flowers; but her central picture is the temptation, where
Adam and Eve, worked in pink silk, au naturel, stand on either side
of a goodly tree covered with fruit, a gorgeous serpent twining
round the trunk, and one remarkably fine plum-coloured apple
temptingly within reach of Eve’s hand.
Certainly Justinia’s school was in advance of the time, but the art
needlework doubtless owed much to the interest taken in it by Sarah
Albinia, Countess of Ripon.
Samplers of the eighteenth century are now much sought after. I
saw one lately of 1791, on which a little mite of seven, in days when
the “three R’s” were taught along with the use of the needle in the
good old sensible way, had stitched in black silk letters:—

The days were long

The weather hot
Sometimes I worked
And sometimes not.

Seven years my age

Thoughtless and gay
And often much
Too fond of play.

The first stanza with its pathetic little picture is genuine enough,
but the second was manifestly dictated by her elders.
Among the treasures long preserved at Nocton SAXON
was an Anglo-Saxon ornament of great beauty (see ORNAMENT
illustration, Chap. XXII) in which three discs of
silver with a raised pattern of dragons, &c., and with pins four inches
long are connected by silver links so as to form a cloak-chain to
fasten the garment across the breast. The pins have shoulders an
inch from the sharp points to prevent their shaking loose. This for a
time was in a museum at Lincoln, and on the dispersal of the
collection was bought and presented to the British Museum, and is in
the Anglo-Saxon room. In the same room are kept the very
interesting finds from the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Sleaford,
consisting mainly of bronze ornaments and coloured beads. The
cloak-chain was found in the Witham at Fiskerton, four miles from
Lincoln, when the river was deepened in 1826.
Sir Charles Anderson, in his excellent Lincoln THE
pocket guide, gives some notion of the gaiety MASQUERADE
which distinguished Nocton in the eighteenth
century by quoting an account of a masquerade held there on
December 29, 1767, which begins:—
 “Met at the door by a Turk, in a white Bearskin, who took our
tickets.”
It is curious to note the use of the word Turk for any dark-skinned
person in a turban, for later in the list of dresses we have: “Mr.
Amcotts, a Turk, his turban ornamented with diamonds. Mr. Cust, a
Turk; scarlet and ermine; turban and collar very rich with diamonds.
He represented the Great Mogul,” who would have been little
pleased to be called a Turk, I imagine. Amongst more than seventy
other dresses which are described we find: “Lady Betty Chaplin: a
Chinese Lady, in a long robe of yellow taffety; the petticoat painted
taffety. Her neck and hair richly ornamented with diamonds.”
But rich jewellery was the order of the night whether it was proper
to the costume or not, so we find “Lady Buck: a Grecian Lady,
scarlet satin and silver gauze; her neck and head adorned with
diamonds and pearls.”
The host and hostess are thus described:—
“Mr. Hobart: ‘Pan.’ His dress dark brown satin, made quite close to
his shape, shag breeches, cloven feet, a round shock wig, and a
mask that beggars all description, a leopard skin over his back
fastened to his shoulder by a leopard’s claw. In his hand a
shepherd’s pipe.”
“Mrs. Hobart; First “Imoinda,” a muslin petticoat, puffed very
small, spotted with spangles. The arms muslin puffed like a dancer.
Her second dress “Nysa” or “Daphne.” She came in footing it, and
singing a song in “Midas.” Muslin and blue ornaments; a white chip
hat and blue ribbons.”
Several dancers had two costumes. Thus “Lord George Sutton.
First a Pilgrim; next a Peasant Dancer; pink and white.
Miss Molly Peart: a Peasant Dancer; same colours as Lord George.
Miss Peart: ‘Aurora’ Blue and White. The Moon setting on one side
of her head; the Sun rising on the other.
Miss A. Peart: a Dancer; pink and silver.”
 Mr. and Miss Hales went as a Dutchman and “a Dutchwoman,
brown and pink,” and Mrs. Ellis as “a Polish Lady; pink and silver; a
white cloak and a great many diamonds.”
Another classic lady to match ‘Aurora’ was “Miss Manners: ‘Diana’
her vest white satin and silver; her robe purple lute-string; a silver
bow and quiver: her hair in loose curls, flowing behind, and a
diamond crescent on her forehead.”
I should judge that the “Eyewitness” who wrote the account was a
Mr. Glover because of the minute particularity with which his own
costume is set forth, thus: “Mr. Glover: a Cherokee Chief; a shirt and
breeches in one, puffed and tied at the knees; a scarlet mantle,
trimmed with gold, one corner across his breast; scarlet cloth
stockings; brown leather shoes, worked with porcupine quills and
deer’s sinews; a gold belt; gold leather about his neck, and before
like a stomacher, and over that a long necklace and gorget; head-
dress of long black horsehair, tied in locks of coloured ribbons, a
single lock hanging over his forehead; ear-rings red and blue;
plumes of black and scarlet feathers on his head; a scalping knife
tucked into his girdle; a tomahawk in his hand, and a pipe to smoke
tea with.”
Mrs. Glover went in black and yellow as a Spanish lady.
Then we have Henry the Eighth, a shepherdess, “a Witch with
blue gown, red petticoat and high crowned hat,” a friar in a mask, a
Sardinian knight, a Puritan, a sailor, “Lord Vere Bertie a very good
Falstaff,” and many Spaniards, among them “Dr. Willis: a Spaniard
with a prodigious good mask.”

THE NORTON DISNEY BRASS

Norton Disney (= de Isigny, a place near NORTON DISNEY
Bayeux) was the home of a family who lived here
from the thirteenth century to nearly the end of the seventeenth.