CERN

Fundamental Structure of Matter

An Overview of String Theory
W. Lerche, CERN AcTr, 12/2002 Scale in m
Part 1
10-10 Hull of electrons
Perturbative string theories
Motivation: the Standard Model and its Deficiencies
String theory as 2d conformal field theory 10-14 Nucleus
Consistency conditions on string constructions Protons
Bosonic and supersymmetric strings in D=26,10 Neutrons
10-15
Compactification to lower dimensions Particle
Quarks Physics
T-Duality, minimal length scales
<10-18
Supersymmetry, geometry and zero modes
exper bound
Parameter spaces, geometrization of coupling constants
Stringy predictions ?
Non-perturbative string dualities
Non-perturbative quantum equivalences Superstrings
10-34
S-Duality in SUSY gauge theories
D-branes and Stringy Geometry
Unification of string vacua
Tests and Applications General
Gravitation
"Theoretical experiments": tests and consistency checks Relativity
D-brane approach to QFT
Recent developments
for files and text write-up see:
1 http://nxth21.cern.ch/~lerche/ 2
 Physics of Elementary Particles Deficiencies of the Standard Model
Its structure is quite ad hoc: are there deeper principles ?
Interactions Carriers elementary ("grand unification" of all matter and forces)
(Forces) (Gauge Fields) Matter Fields
ca 25 free parameters: determined by what ?
Electromagnetism Photon Leptons
(eg electrons)
weak Interactions
W,Z-Bosons gauge couplings massess Higgs VEVs
(Radioactivity)
Quarks
strong Interactions Gauge hierarchy:
Gluons
(binds Nuclei) There are three why weak scale (100GeV) << Unification scale scale (10^16GeV)
"families" of them:
Instability of parameters through self-interactions
(Renormalization:
large scale hierarchies problematic)
"Supersymmetry"
The "Standard-Model" of perticle physics describes subnuclear Symmetry between bosons and fermions
phenomena with partly stunning accuracy ! (roughly: force carriers and matter fields)
improved divergence structure:
- = 0
B F
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 Problems of Quantum Gravity String-Theory
The Standard-Model of Particle Physics is not complete: small (10-34m), one-dimensional objects:
gravity is not included !
The usual quantum field theoretical formulation of
gravity does not work, due to incurable divergences
(is "not renormalizable"):
scale determined by gravitational coupling:
Graviton
There are conceptual difficulties with quantum black holes...
Excitation spectrum:
Expressions of a deeply-rooted problem:
Mass
Apparent incompatibility of Quantum Mechanics and
general Relativity
New concepts are necessary....like string theory 1019GeV "Low energy physics:"
1GeV
Quarks ....
0 GeV Photon, Graviton
As a "by-product", it also provides the grand
unification of all particles and their interactions ! "elementary" Particles of the Standard Model =
(almost) massless zero modes
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 String Theory as 2d Field Theory The String "Miracle"
Perturbative effective action in D-dimensional space-time:
Strings trace out two-dimensional "world-sheets" :
2d action (eg. free)
+ + ...
general relativity, small string corrections
gauge theory etc
infinitely many predictions
Perturbative string theory = 2d field theory on Riemann surfaces
Building blocks: can be eg. free 2d bosons ‘‘Loop expansion’’ = sum over 2d topologies, weighted by
+ + + ........
Variety of field operators in Simple combinatorics of 2-d
D-dimensional space-time field operators
graviton Only one (UV finite) "diagram" at any
given order in perturbation theory
gauge field
Higgs boson Discrete reparametriztions of have no analog in particle
theory; important to make sense eg. of graviton scattering.
‘‘Feynman rules’’ are substantially different from particle theory.
Intrinsic unification of particles + interactions !
In particular, gravity is automatically built in. String theory, even in perturbation theory, is more than just having
infinitely many particles plus a cutoff !
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 Consistency Conditions Conformal Field Theory
The 2d theory cannot be arbitrary but is highly constrained Is a tool set by which one can relatively easily do
explicit computations, in terms of simple building blocks
Stress-Energy Tensor T(z) = generator of conformal transformations
2d properties D-dimensional properties
... satisfies an operator product algebra:
Conformal invariance implies gauge and general
coordinate invariance in spacetime
consistency requires D=26
"central charge c" is an anomaly, an obstruction to
a good transformation behavior of T(z)
Modular invariance strongly constrains spectrum
For D free 2d scalars:
absence of UV divergences
and anomalies each contributes 1, so
consistency allows only few possible spectra
2d Supersymmetry space-time fermions For theories with more symmetries,
("Superstrings") like supersymmetry or gauge symmetries, one has
does not imply that D-dimensional a corresponding generalization of this current algebra
space-time theory is supersymmetric !
consistency requires D=10
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 The Bosonic String Consistency at 1-loop level
Polyakov-action:
reduces in conformal gauge (2d metric g->1)
to a CFT of D free scalar fields
Particles:
(QFT partition
Gauge-fixing of 2d reparametrization symmetries: function)
Faddeev-Popov ghosts b,c
Strings:
Ghost stress-tensor has central charge
Consistent quantization requires total central charge to vanish:
modular parameter of torus = complexified proper time
Bosonic string exists only in 26 dimensions !
Quantization also implies a shift of vacuum energy:
m2
2 massive higher spin fields
1
0 massless Graviton, Dilaton, Tensorfield
-1 Tachyon No stable vacuum !
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 Modular transformations Modular Invariance of Partition Function
Torus is defined by identifying sides of parallelogram:
For bosonic string:
oscillator excitations
zero modes
0 1
The "modular" parameter determines its shape
Global reparametrizations:
where (Dedekind function)
is the (inverse) oscillator partition function of a scalar field
It has well-defined modular properties, eg:
The vacuum amplitude is indeed modular invariant.
... yield equivalent tori !
... generate the modular group, PSL(2,Z):
This "global consistency condition" has no analog in particle
QFT; and is responsible for many stringy features...
Physical amplitudes must be invariant under such
modular transformations !
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 Vacuum amplitude at 1-loop UV and IR Divergences
In string theory, we need to integrate precisely once over
To obtain vacuum amplitude, still need to integrate; try:
all inequivalent shapes of the torus.
These are described by the "fundamental region F":
t
IR limit
projection on R=0 t = proper time
F
t
1
IR limit
UV limit
S s
-1/2 0 1/2
Every point outside F is equivalent (via a modular
UV limit: divergence from
symmetry transformation) to a point inside F;
s integrating over it would be overcounting
-1/2 0 1/2
As t=0 is not integrated over, there is no UV divergence possible
However, this is all-too-naive particle field theory thinking..... (NB: is more than a cutoff...)
However, there is an IR divergence for large t
in string theory,
has a definite geometrical meaning,
namely it is the modular parameter of a torus ! Pole is due to Tachyon state (vacuum instability)
Superstrings !
15 16
 Superstrings Spin Structures
2d fermions can have non-trivial boundary conditions:
2d supersymmetry --> space-time fermions
typically, but not necessarily supersymmetric in space-time !
Typically have no tachyons -- only known consistent theories...
The R-sector leads to space-time fermions, the NS-sector to bosons !
Each cycle can be either periodic (P) or anti-periodic (A)
Two formulations: "Green-Schwarz": covariant, but difficult
to quantize
"Neveu-Schwarz-Ramond":
easier to quantize, but
not manifestly covariant The partition function of a fermion depends on the "spin structure":
From 2d NSR perspective: CFT -> SuperCFT
additional ghost fields with c=+11
Critical dimension for superstrings is D=10 These "theta"-functions have well-defined modular properties .
Modular invariance of the partition function requires particular,
Main novel technical ingredient: consistent choices for the boundary conditions,
and these determine the physical spectrum
boundary conditions of the 2d fermions
Modular invariance strongly constrains the possible
physical spectra
.... chiral anomalies always cancel
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 Modular Invariant Partition Functions
Supersymmetric String Theories in D=10
How to construct modular invariant sums over spin structures ?
By combining superstring (S) and bosonic string (B) building
blocks, one can construct five types of string theories in D=10:
Systematic procedure: map this to certain lattice sums !
Modular invariance self-duality of lattice, Combination Name Gauge group
easy classification of all possibilities
The result is various possibilities in D=10 :
1) Holomorphic and anti-holomorphic sectors separately invariant
"Type IIA"
"Type IIB"
These theories have one dimensionful parameter,
"heterotic" the string tension , besides the coupling .
(two kinds, related to
uniqueness of self-dual lattices:
E8xE8 or SO(32) gauge symm.) They have very different spectra (c.f., gauge groups) !
2) Non-trivial correlation of spin structures
This gives various non-supersymmetric theories,
only one of which is tachyon-free
In addition, there is one more "open" supersymmetric string
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