FUNDAMENTALS OF

FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 3 Fluids in Motion
- The Bernoulli Equation

1
MAIN TOPICS
Newton’s Second Law
F=ma Along a Streamline Bernoulli Equation
F=ma Normal to a Streamline
Physical Interpretation of Bernoulli Equation
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure
Application of the Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation
2
Newton’s Second Law on a streamline1/5

As a fluid particle moves from one location to another, it

experiences an acceleration or deceleration.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the net
force acting on the fluid particle under consideration must
equal its mass times its acceleration.
ΣF=ma
 In this chapter, we consider the motion of “inviscid (non
viscous) fluids”. That is, the fluid is assumed to have zero
viscosity or “negligibly small viscous effects compared
with other effects” because there are no inviscid fluids in
reality.)
 The forces acting on the particle ? Coordinates used ?
3
Newton’s Second Law 2/5
The fluid motion is governed by
F= Net pressure force (surface force) + Net gravity
force (body force)
To apply Newton’s second law to a fluid, an appropriate
coordinate system must be chosen to describe the
motion. In general, the motion will be three-dimensional
and unsteady so that three space coordinates and time
are needed to describe it.
The most often used coordinate systems are rectangular
(x,y,z) and cylindrical (r,θ,z) system. What else?

4
Newton’s Second Law 3/5
In this chapter, the flow is confined to be two-dimensional
motion.
As is done in the study of dynamics, the motion of each
fluid particle is described in terms of its velocity vector V.
As the particle moves, it
follows a particular path.
The location of the particle
along the path is a function
of its initial position and
velocity.
5
Newton’s Second Law 4/5
For steady flows [∂( ) ∂t = 0 , nothing changes with time at a
given location in the flow field], each successive particle
that passes through a given point will follow the same path,
which is a fixed line.
Each particle slides along its path, and its velocity vector
is everywhere tangent to the path. The lines that are
tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field
are called streamlines. Pathline -> Chap. 4
For such situation, the particle motion is described in
terms of its distance, s=s(t), along the streamline from
some convenient origin and the local radius of curvature
of the streamline, R=R(s).
6
Example of Streamlines

http://www.aoe.vt.edu/~devenpor/aoe3054/manual/expt1/text.html

7
Newton’s Second Law 5/5
 The speed of a particle along the streamline is given by V =ds/dt,
and the radius of curvature is related to shape of the streamline.
 The acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity of the
particle

 dV   dV  V 2  dV  dV  ds   dV 
a= = a s s + an n = V s+ n s a = =   =  V
dt ds R dt  ds  dt   ds 
 The components of acceleration in the s (tangential) and n (normal)
direction
dV V2
as = V an = CHAP. 04
ds R

8
F=ma along a Streamline 1/3
 Consider the small fluid particle of
size of δs by δn in the plane of the
figure and δy normal to the figure.
 For steady flow, the component of
Newton’s second law along the
streamline direction s
∂V ∂V
∑ δFS =δma S = δmV ∂s = ρδVV ∂s
Where ∑ δFS represents the sum of the s components of all the
force acting on the particle.

9
F=ma along a Streamline 2/3
The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the
streamline direction
δWs = −δW sin θ = − γδV sin θ
The net pressure force on the particle in the streamline
direction
∂p δs ∂p
δFps = ( p − δpS )δnδy − ( p + δpS )δnδy = −2δpS δnδy = −2 δnδy = − δV
∂s 2 ∂s
 ∂p 
δFs = δWs + δFps =  − γ sin θ − δV = ρδVas
 ∂s 
∂p ∂V Equation of motion
− γ sin θ − = ρV = ρas along the streamline
∂s ∂s direction 10
Integration…..
∂p ∂V
− γ sin θ − = ρV = ρa s Rearranged and Integrated……
∂s ∂s
−γ
dz dp 1 dV 2
− = ρ
1  1 
>> γdz + dp + ρd V 2  = 0
ds 
( )
ds ds 2 ds 2 
1
2
2
( )
>> dp + ρd V + γdz = 0 >> ∫
dp 1 2
+ V + gz = C along
ρ 2
a streamline
Where C is a constant of integration to be determined by
the conditions at some point on the streamline.
In general it is not possible to integrate the pressure term because
the density may not be constant and, therefore, cannot be removed
from under the integral sign.

11
Example 3.1 Pressure Variation along A
Streamline
 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the
horizontal streamline A-B in front of the sphere of radius a, as
shown in Figure E3.1(a). From a more advanced theory of flow past
a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
 a3 
V = V0 1 + 3 
 x 
Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A
far in front of the sphere (xA=-∞ and VA= V0) to point B on the
sphere (xA=-a and VB=0)

12
Example 3.1 Solution1/2
The equation of motion along the streamline (sinθ=0)

∂p ∂V ∂p ∂V
= −ρV − γ sin θ − = ρV = ρa s
∂s ∂s
(1)
∂s ∂s

The acceleration term

∂V ∂V  a 3  3V0a 3  2 a 3  a 3 
V =V = V0 1 + 3  − 4  = −3V0 1 + 3  4 
∂s ∂x  x  x   x  x 
The pressure gradient along the streamline is

∂p 3ρa 3V0 (1 + a 3 / x 3 )
2
= (2)
∂s x4
13
Example 3.1 Solution2/2
The pressure gradient along the streamline

=
2
(
∂p 3ρa 3V0 1 + a 3 / x 3 ) (2)
∂x x4
The pressure distribution along the streamline

2  a 
3
( a / x ) 6 
p = − ρV0    + 
 x  2 
 

14
Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline

For the special case of incompressible flow

V2
p+ρ + γz = constant BERNOULLI EQUATION
2
dp 1 2
Restrictions : Steady flow. ∫ ρ + 2 V + gz = C
Incompressible flow.
Frictionless flow.
Flow along a streamline.

15
Example 3.2 The Bernoulli Equation
 Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air
with velocity V0, as is shown in Figure E3.2. Determine the
difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).

16
Example 3.2 Solution
The Bernoulli’s equation applied along the streamline that passes
through (1) and (2)
2 2
V1 V2
p1 + ρ + γz1 = p2 + ρ + γz 2
2 2
z1=z2
(1) is in the free stream V1=V0
(2) is at the tip of the bicyclist’s nose V2=0
2 2
V1 V0
p2 − p1 = ρ =ρ
2 2
17
F=ma Normal to a Streamline1/2
For steady flow, the
component of Newton’s
second law in the normal
direction n
δmV 2
ρδVV 2

∑ δFn = R = R
Where ∑ δFn represents the
sum of the n components of all
the force acting on the particle.

18
F=ma Normal to a Streamline2/2
The gravity force (weight) on the particle in the normal
direction
δWn = −δW cos θ = − γδV cos θ
The net pressure force on the particle in the normal
direction
∂p
δFpn = (p − δp n )δsδy − ( p + δp n )δsδy = −2δp n δsδy = − δV
∂n
 ∂p  ρV 2
δFn = δWn + δFpn =  − γ cos − δV = δV
 ∂n  R
∂p ρV 2 Equation of motion
Normal direction − γ cos θ − =
∂n R normal to the streamline
19
Integration…..
∂p ρV 2 Rearranged
− γ cos θ − =
∂n R

dz dp ρV 2 A change in the direction of flow of a fluid particle is

−γ − = accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure
dn dn R gradient and particle weight normal to the streamline

Integrated…
dp V2
∫ρ ∫R
+ dn + gz = C across the streamline

Without knowing the n dependent

In general it is not possible to in V=V(s,n) and R=R(s,n) this
integrate the pressure term because integration cannot be completed.
the density may not be constant and,
therefore, cannot be removed from
20
under the integral sign.
Bernoulli Equation Normal to a Streamline

For the special case of incompressible flow

V2
p + ρ∫ dn + γz = C across the streamline
R dp V 2

∫ +∫ dn + gz = C
ρ R
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Incompressible flow.
Frictionless flow.
Flow normal to a streamline.
21
Example 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to
a Streamline
 Shown in Figure E3.3 (a) and (b) are two flow fields with circular
streamlines. The velocity distributions are
C2
V( r ) = C1r (a ) V( r ) = ( b)
r

Assuming the flows are steady, inviscid, and incompressible

with streamlines in the horizontal plane (dz/dn=0). 22
 dz dp ρV 2
Example 3.3 Solution −γ − =
dn dn R
For flow in the horizontal plane (dz/dn=0).
The streamlines are circles ∂/∂n=-∂/∂r
The radius of curvature R=r
∂p ρV 2
=
∂r r
For case (a) this gives
∂p
= ρC1 r
2 1
( )
p = ρC1 r 2 − r0 + p0
2 2

∂r 2
For case (b) this gives
∂p ρC2 2 1 1
2
1
= 3 p = ρC2  2 − 2  + p0
∂r r 2  r0 r 
23
Physical Interpreter1/2
 Under the basic assumptions: the flow is steady and the fluid is
inviscid and incompressible.
 Application of F=ma and integration of equation of motion along
and normal to the streamline result in
V2 V2
p+ρ + γz = C p + ρ∫ dn + γz = C
2 R
To produce an acceleration, there must be an unbalance of
the resultant force, of which only pressure and gravity can be
considered. Thus, there are three process involved in the flow –
mass times acceleration (the ρV2/2 term), pressure (the p term),
and weight (the γz term).
24
Physical Interpreter2/2
The Bernoulli equation is a mathematical statement of “The
work done on a particle of all force acting on the particle is equal
to the change of the kinetic energy of the particle”.
Work done by force : F × d.
Work done by weight: γz
Work done by pressure force: p
Kinetic energy: ρV2/2

25
Head (사전: height)
 The Bernoulli Equation can be written in terms of heights
called heads
An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli
equation is obtained by dividing each term by γ
2
P V
+ +z=c
γ 2g

Pressure Head Elevation Head

Velocity Head 26
Example 3.4 Kinetic, Potential, and
Pressure Energy
 Consider the flow of water from the syringe
shown in Figure E3.4. A force applied to the
plunger will produce a pressure greater than
atmospheric at point (1) within the syringe.
The water flows from the needle, point (2),
with relatively high velocity and coasts up to
point (3) at the top of its trajectory. Discuss
the energy of the fluid at point (1), (2), and (3)
by using the Bernoulli equation.

27
Example 3.4 Solution
The sum of the three types of energy (kinetic, potential, and pressure)
or heads (velocity, elevation, and pressure) must remain constant.
1 2
p + ρV + γz = cons tan t along the streamline
2
The motion results in a change in the magnitude of each type of
energy as the fluid flows from one location to another.
The pressure gradient between (1) and (2)
produces an acceleration to eject the water
form the needle.
Gravity acting on the particle between (2) and
(3) produces a deceleration to cause the water
to come to a momentary stop at the top of its
flight. 28
Example 3.5 Pressure Variation in a
Flowing Stream
 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow shown in Figure
E3.5. From section A to B the streamlines are straight, while from C
to D they follow circular paths. Describe the pressure variation
between points (1) and (2)and points(3) and (4)

29
Example 3.5 Solution1/2
R= ∞ , for the portion from A to B

p + γz = constant Point (1)~(2)

Using p2=0,z1=0,and z2=h2-1

p1 = p2 + γ ( z 2 − z1 ) = p2 + γh2 −1

Since the radius of curvature of the streamline is infinite, the pressure

variation in the vertical direction is the same as if the fluids were
stationary.
V2 V2
p+ρ + γz = C p + ρ∫ dn + γz = C
2 R 30
Example 3.5 Solution2/2
For the portion from C to D
z4 V2 z3 V
2
p4 + ρ ∫ (− dz ) + γz 4 = p3 + ρ ∫ (− dz ) + γz3
R R
2
Point (3)~(4)
z4V
p4 + ρ ∫ (− dz ) + γz 4 = p3 + γz3
z3 R

With p4=0 and z4-z3=h4-3 ,this becomes

V2 z4
p3 = γh4−3 − ρ ∫ dz
z3 R

31
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure1/5
Each term in the Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a
form of pressure.
V2 Each term can be interpreted
p+ρ + γz = C
2 as a form of pressure

p is the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it

flows. To measure this pressure, one must move along
with the fluid, thus being “static” relative to the moving
fluid. Hence, it is termed the static pressure … seen by the
fluid particle as it moves.

32
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure2/5
The static pressure is measured in a flowing fluid using a
wall pressure tap, or a static pressure probe.
The static pressure p1 = γh 3−1 + p3 = γh 3−1 + γh 4−3 = γh
γz is termed the hydrostatic
pressure. It is not actually a
pressure but does represent the
change in pressure possible due
to potential energy variations of
the fluid as a result of elevation
changes.
33
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure3/5
ρV2/2 is termed the dynamic pressure. It can be interpreted
as the pressure at the end of a small tube inserted into the
flow and pointing upstream. After the initial transient
motion has died out, the liquid will fill the tube to a height
of H.
The fluid in the tube, including that at its tip (2), will be
stationary. That is, V2=0, or point (2) is a stagnation point.
1
Stagnation pressure p 2 = p1 + ρV1
2

2
Static pressure Dynamic pressure
34
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure4/5
There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is
placed into a flowing fluid. Some of the fluid flows “over”
and some “under” the object.
The dividing line is termed the stagnation streamline and
terminates at the stagnation point on the body.
Neglecting the elevation
effects, the stagnation
pressure is the largest
pressure obtainable along a
given streamline.
stagnation point 35
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure5/5
The sum of the static pressure, dynamic pressure, and
hydrostatic pressure is termed the total pressure.
The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total
pressure remains constant along a streamline.

V2
p+ρ + γz = pT = constant along a streamline
2

36
Pressure tap to measure static pressure

This requires a smooth hole with no burrs or imperfections.

It is important that the pressure taps be properly located to
ensure that the pressure measured is actually the static
pressure.

Incorrect and correct design of static pressure taps.

37
 Pitot-static tubes measure
The Pitot-static Tube 1/4 fluid velocity by converting
velocity into pressure.

Knowledge of the values of the static and

stagnation pressure in a fluid implies that the
fluid speed can be calculated.
This is the principle on which the Pitot-
static tube is based.
p2 = p3 = p + ρV 2 / 2 Stagnation pressure
z1 ≈ z 4
p4 = p1 = p Static pressure
p3 − p4 = ρV 2 / 2
>> V = 2( p3 − p4 ) / ρ 38
Stagnation point
The Pitot-static Tube 2/4

39
The Pitot-static Tube 3/4
The pressure along the surface of an object varies from the
stagnation pressure at its stagnation point to value that
may be less than free stream static pressure.

Typical pressure distribution along a Pitot-static tube.

40
The Pitot-static Tube 4/4 (option)
Three pressure taps are drilled into a small circular
cylinder, fitted with small tubes, and connected to three
pressure transducers. The cylinder is rotated until the
pressures in the two side holes are equal, thus indicating
that the center hole points directly upstream.
If θ=0
P1 = P3
1
 2(P2 − P1 )  2
V= 
 ρ 
Directional-finding Pitot-static tube.
41
Example 3.6 Pitot-Static Tube
 An airplane flies 100mi/hr at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a
standard atmosphere as shown in Figure E3.6. Determine
the pressure at point (1) far ahead of the airplane, point (2),
and the pressure difference indicated by a Pitot-static
probe attached to the fuselage.

42
Example 3.6 Solution 1/2

The static pressure and density at the altitude

p1 = 1456lb / ft (abs) = 10.11psia
2
ρ = 0.001756 slug / ft 3

If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible and elevation

changes are neglected. The Bernoulli equation
ρV
2
p2 = p1 + 1
2
With V1=100mi/hr=146.6ft/s and V2=0

p 2 = 1456lb / ft 2 + (0.001756slugs / ft 3 )(146.7 2 ft 2 / s 2 ) / 2

= (1456 + 18.9)lb / ft 2 (abs ) 43
Example 3.6 Solution 2/2

In terms of gage pressure

p2 = 18.9lb / ft 2 = 0.1313psi
The pressure difference indicated by the Pitot-static tube
ρV
2
p2 − p1 = = 0.1313psi
1
2

44
Application of Bernoulli Equation 1/2
The Bernoulli equation can be applied between any two
points on a streamline provided that the three
restrictions are satisfied. The result is
ρV1 ρV2
2 2
p1 + + γz1 = p 2 + + γz 2
2 2
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Incompressible flow.
Frictionless flow.

45
Application of Bernoulli Equation 2/2

Free jet.
Confined flow.
Flowrate measurement

46
Free Jets 1/3
Application of the Bernoulli equation between points (1)
ρV1 ρV2
2 2
and (2) on the streamline p + + γz = p + + γz
1 1 2 2
2 2
ρV 2
γh =
2
2 γh
V= = 2gh
ρ
At point (5)

V = 2g ( h + H )
47
 ρV1 ρV2
2 2

Free Jets 2/3 p1 + + γz1 = p 2 + + γz 2

2 2

 For the horizontal nozzle, the  For a sharp-edged orifice, a

velocity at the centerline, V2, vena contracta effect occurs.
will be greater than that at the  The effect is the result of the
top V1. inability of the fluid to turn the
 In general, d<<h and use the V2 sharp 90° corner.
as average velocity.

Vena contracta effects

for sharp-edged
48
orifice.
 ρV1 ρV2
2 2

Free Jets 3/3 p1 + + γz1 = p 2 + + γz 2

2 2

 Typical flow patterns and

contraction coefficients for
various round exit
configuration.
 The diameter of a fluid jet is
often smaller than that of the
hole from which it flows.
Define Cc=contraction coefficient
Aj
Cc =
Ah
Aj=area of the jet at the vena contracta
Ah=area of the hole
49
Example 3.7 Flow From a Tank－ Gravity

 A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1m flows steadily from a tank

of Diameter D = 1.0m as shown in Figure E3.7 (a). Determine
the flowrate, Q, needed from the inflow pipe if the water depth
ρV1 ρV2
2 2
remains constant, h = 2.0m.
p1 + + γz1 = p 2 + + γz 2
2 2

50
Example 3.7 Solution1/2
The Bernoulli equation applied between points (1) and (2) is
1 1 2
p1 + ρV1 + γz 1 = p 2 + ρV2 + γz 2
2

2 2 (1)

With p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = h, and z2 = 0
1 2 1 2
V1 + gh = V2 (2)
2 2
For steady and incompressible flow, conservation of mass requires
Q1 = Q2, where Q = AV. Thus, A1V1 =A2V2 , or
π 2 π 2 d
D V1 = d V2 V1 = ( ) 2 V2 (3)
4 4 D
51
Example 3.7 Solution2/2
Combining Equation 1 and 3
2gh 2(9.81m / s 2 )( 2.0m)
V2 = = = 6.26 m / s
1 − (d / D) 4
1 − (0.1m / 1m) 4

Thus,
π
Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2 = (0.1m) 2 (6.26 m / s) = 0.0492 m 3 / s
4
V1≠0 (Q) vs. V1≒0 (Q0)

Q V2 2 gh /[1 − (d / D) 4 ] 1
= = =
Q0 V2 D =∞ 2 gh 1 − (d / D) 4
52
Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank-Pressure

 Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter

D=0.03m and exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of
diameter d=0.01m as shown in Figure E3.8. The pressure
in the tank remains constant at 3.0kPa (gage) and the
atmospheric conditions are standard temperature and
pressure. Determine the flowrate and the pressure in
the hose.

53
Example 3.8 Solution1/2
For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation
along the streamline
1 1 1
p1 + ρV1 + γz1 = p2 + ρV2 + γz 2 = p3 + ρV32 + γz3
2 2

2 2 2
With z1 =z2 = z3 , V1 = 0, and p3=0
2 p1 1
V3 = p2 = p1 − ρV2
2
and (1)
ρ 2

The density of the air in the tank is obtained from the ideal gas law
p 103 N / kN
ρ= = [( 3.0 + 101) kN / m ] ×
2
= 1.26kg / m3
RT1 ( 286.9 N ⋅ m / kg ⋅ K )(15 + 273) K
54
Example 3.8 Solution2/2
Thus,
2p1 2(3.0 × 103 N / m 2 ) π 2
V3 = = = 69 . 0 m / s or Q = A V = d V = 0 . 00542 m 3
/s
ρ 3 3 3 3
1.26kg / m 4

The pressure within the hose can be obtained from Eq. 1 and the
continuity equation

A 2 V2 = A 3V3 Hence , V2 = A 3V3 / A 2 = 7.67m / s

1 2 1
p 2 = p1 − ρV2 = 3.0 × 10 N / m − (1.26kg / m 3 )(7.67 m / s) 2
2 3
2 2
= (3000 − 37.1) N / m 2 = 2963N / m 2

55
Example 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe

 Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Figure E3.9. The

static pressures at (1) and (2) are measured by the inverted U-tube
manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one.
Determine the manometer reading, h.

56
Example 3.9 Solution1/2
For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along
the streamline
1 1
p1 + ρV1 + γz1 = p2 + ρV22 + γz 2
2

2 2
The continuity equation
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
Combining these two equations
1
p1 − p2 = γ ( z 2 − z1 ) + ρV22 [1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2 ] (1)
2

57
Example 3.9 Solution2/2
This pressure difference is measured by the manometer and determine
by using the pressure-depth ideas developed in Chapter 2.
p1 = γ ( z 2 − z1 ) + γ + γh + p* ↑- ↓+
p2 = γ + SGγh + p*
p1 − p2 = γ ( z 2 − z1 ) + γ + γh − SGγh − γ = γ ( z 2 − z1 ) + (1 − SG )γh (2)

1 2   A2  
2

(1 − SG) γh = pV2 1 −   
2   A1   be independent of θ
Since V2=Q/A2
1 − ( A 2 / A1 ) 2
h = (Q / A 2 )
2

2g(1 − SG )
58
Confined Flows 1/4
When the fluid is physically constrained within a device,
its pressure cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for
the free jet.
Such cases include nozzle and pipes of various diameter
for which the fluid velocity changes because the flow area
is different from one section to another.
For such situations, it is necessary to use the concept of
conservation of mass (the continuity equation) along with
the Bernoulli equation.
Tools: Bernoulli equation + Continuity equation
59
Confined Flows 2/4
Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume that has
one inlet and one outlet.
Conservation of mass requires ρ1A1V1 = ρ 2 A 2 V2
For incompressible flow, the continuity equation is

A1V1 = A 2 V2 Q1 = Q2

60
Confined Flows 3/4
If the fluid velocity is increased,
the pressure will decrease.
This pressure decrease can be
large enough so that the
pressure in the liquid is reduced
to its vapor pressure.

Pressure variation and cavitation

in a variable area pipe.

61
Confined Flows 4/4 example of
cavitation
 A example of cavitation can be demonstrated with a garden hose. If
the hose is “kinked,” a restriction in the flow area will result.
 The water velocity through the restriction will be relatively large.
 With a sufficient amount of restriction, the sound of the flowing
water will change – a definite “hissing’ sound will be produced.
The sound is a result of cavitation.

62
Flowrate Measurement in pipes 1/5

Various flow meters are

governed by the Bernoulli
and continuity equations.
1 1
p1 + ρV1 = p 2 + ρV22
2
2 2
Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2
The theoretical flowrate

2( p1 − p2 )
Q = A2
[
ρ 1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2 ] Typical devices for measuring flowrate in pipes
63
Example 3.11 Venturi Meter
 Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the Venturi meter shown in
Figure E3.11 with flowrates between 0.005 and 0.050 m3/s.
Determine the range in pressure difference, p1 – p2, needed to
measure these flowrates.

Known Q, Determine p1-p2

64
Example 3.11 Solution1/2
For steady, inviscid, and incompressible flow, the relationship between
flowrate and pressure
2

Q ρ[1 − ( A / A ) ] 2(p1 − p 2 )
2

p −p = Q = A2
[ ]
2 1
Eq. 3.20
1 2
2A 22 ρ 1 − ( A 2 / A1 ) 2
The density of the flowing fluid

ρ = SGρ H 2 O = 0.85(1000 kg/m 3 ) = 850 kg/m 3

The area ratio
A 2 /A1 = ( D 2 / D1 ) 2 = (0.006 m / 0.10 m) 2 = 0.36

65
Example 3.11 Solution2/2
The pressure difference for the smallest flowrate is

(1 − 0 . 36 2
)
p1 − p 2 = (0.005m /s) (850 kg/m )
3 2 3

2[( π / 4)( 0.06 m) 2 ]2

= 1160 N/m 2 = 1.16 kPa
The pressure difference for the largest flowrate is
(1 − 0 . 36 2
)
p1 − p 2 = (0.05 )(850 )
2

2[( π / 4)( 0.06 m) 2 ]2

= 1.16 × 105 N/m 2 = 116kPa

1.16kPa ≤ p1-p2 ≤ 116kPa 66

Flowrate Measurement sluice gate 2/5
 The sluice gate is often used to regulate and measure the flowrate in
an open channel.
 The flowrate, Q, is function of the water depth upstream, z1, the
width of the gate, b, and the gate opening, a.
1 1
p1 + ρV1 + γz1 = p2 + ρV22 + γz 2
2

2 2
Q = A1V1 = bV1 z1 = A2V2 = bV2 z 2
With p1=p2=0, the flowrate

2 g (z1 − z2 )
Q = z2 b
1 − ( z2 / z1 ) 2
67
Flowrate Measurement sluice gate 3/5
 In the limit of z1>>z2, this result simply becomes

Q = z 2 b 2gz 1

 This limiting result represents the fact that if the depth ratio, z1/z2, is
large, the kinetic energy of the fluid upstream of the gate is
negligible and the fluid velocity after it has fallen a distance (z1-
z2)~z1 is approximately
V2 = 2gz 1

68
Flowrate Measurement sluice gate 4/5
As we discussed relative to flow from an orifice, the fluid
cannot turn a sharp 90° corner. A vena contracta results
with a contraction coefficient, Cc=z2/a, less than 1.
Typically Cc~0.61 over the ： depth ratio range of 0<a/z1<0.2.
For large value of a/z1, the value of Cc increase rapidly.

69
Example 3.12 Sluice Gate
 Water flows under the sluice gate in Figure E3.12 (a). Dertermine
the approximate flowrate per unit width of the channel.

70
Example 3.12 Solution1/2
For steady, inviscid, incompreesible flow, the flowerate per unit width

Q 2 g ( z1 − z 2 ) 2 g (z1 − z2 )
= z2 Q = z2 b Eq.3.21
1 − ( z 2 / z1 ) 1 − ( z2 / z1 ) 2
2
b

With z1=5.0m and a=0.80m, so the ratio a/z1=0.16<0.20.

Assuming contraction coefficient is approximately Cc=0.61.
z2=Cca=0.61(0.80m)=0.488m.
The flowrate

Q 2(9.81m / s 2 )(5.0m − 0.488 m )

= (0.488 m ) = 4 .61m 2
/s
1 − (0.488 m / 5.0m )
2
b
71
Example 3.12 Solution1/2
If we consider z1>>z2 and neglect the kinetic energy of the upstream
fluid, we would have

Q
b
( )
= z 2 2 gz1 = 0.488m 2 9.81m / s 2 (5.0m ) = 4.83m 2 / s

72
EL & HGL 1/4
 For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the total energy
remains constant along a streamline.
2
p V
+ + z = constant = H
γ 2g
p / ρg The head due to local static pressure (pressure energy)
V 2 / 2 g The head due to local dynamic pressure (kinetic energy)
z The elevation head (potential energy )
H The total head for the flow

73
EL & HGL 2/4
 Energy Line (EL) : represents the total head height.
2
p V
+ +z
γ 2g
 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) height: represents the sum of the
elevation and static pressure heads.
p
+z
γ
 The difference in heights between the EL and the HGL represents
the dynamic (velocity) head

V 2 / 2g
74
EL & HGL 3/4

P V2
+ + z = cons tan t = H
γ 2g

75
EL & HGL 4/4

p V2
+ + z = constant = H
γ 2g

p V2
+ + z = constant = H
γ 2g

76
Example 3.14
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
 Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Figure E3.14 through a
hose of constant diameter. A small hole is found in the hose at
location (1) as indicate. When the siphon is used, will water leak out
of the hose, or will air leak into the hose, thereby possibly causing
the siphon to malfunction?

77
Example 3.14 Solution1/2
Whether air will leak into or water will leak out of the hose depends
on whether the pressure within the hose at (1) is less than or
greater than atmospheric. Which happens can be easily determined
by using the energy line and hydraulic grade line concepts. With the
assumption of steady, incompressible, inviscid flow it follows that the
total head is constant-thus, the energy line is horizontal.

Since the hose diameter is constant, it follows from the continuity

equation (AV=constant) that the water velocity in the hose is constant
throughout. Thus the hydraulic grade line is constant distance, V2/2g,
below the energy line as shown in Figure E3.14.

78
Example 3.14 Solution2/2
Since the pressure at the end of the hose is atmospheric, it follows that
the hydraulic grade line is at the same elevation as the end of the hose
outlet. The fluid within the hose at any point above the hydraulic grade
line will be at less than atmospheric pressure.

Thus, air will leak into the hose through the hole at point (1).

79