156 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz

Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection
112 (2), 156–172, 2005, ISSN 0340-8159
© Eugen Ulmer GmbH & Co., Stuttgart

Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control

measures against insect pests in stored maize in Ethiopia
Laboratoriums- und Freiland-Untersuchungen über die Wirkung natürlicher Bekämp-
fungsmittel gegen Vorratsschädlinge an Mais in Äthiopien
A. Tadesse1, Th. Basedow2 *
1
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation, Holetta Substation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Giessen University, Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Experimental Station, Alter
Steinbacher Weg 44, D-35394 Giessen, Germany
* Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Received 8 September 2004; accepted 15 October 2004

Summary
Laboratory and field studies were conducted with stored maize in western Ethiopia, against storage
pests using the diatomaceous earth SilicoSec® (SS), pirimiphos-methyl (PMM) and a range of plant
powders, oils, wood ash and other inert materials. In the laboratory, the effects of the substances were
tested on Sitophilus zeamais. Fresh powder of Chenopodium ambrosioides (MTP) at 20 % w/w killed
100 % of maize weevils within 6 days, at 2.5 % within 8 days. Powders of leaves (NLP) (20 % w/w) and
kernels (NSP) (3 % w/w) of Azadirachta indica (neem) exerted a weevil mortality of about 90 % after
12 days. Progeny emergence was delayed in NLP, and suppressed by NSP. Wood ash at 5 and 10 %
w/w induced 100 % mortality of weevils within 15 days in the laboratory, and there was no progeny.
These effects lasted for > 300 days, in the laboratory. Admixing sand at 50 % and tef at 70 % w/w
induced weevil mortalities of about 90 % after 4 weeks, with a lowered progeny production. Treat-
ments of maize with oils of neem, sunflower, maize, sesame and of Guizotia abbyssinica at 10 ml kg–1
exerted a mortality and reduction of progeny of 100 %, for 318 days. But the germination of maize
seeds was reduced. In traditional field stores, four substances were tested. Wood ash (at 5 % w/w) and
tef (at 33 % w/w) performed worse than in the laboratory, effects lasting for 14 weeks, only, in contrast
to SS and PMM. The mechanisms and prospects of the observed effects are discussed.

Key words: Stored maize; pest control; wood ash; plant powders; oils; diatomaceous earth; Ethio-
pia; Sitophilus; storage pests

Zusammenfassung
In West-Äthiopien wurden Laboratoriums- und Freilandversuche bei gelagertem Mais durchgeführt
unter Verwendung der Diatomeen-Erde SilicoSec® (SS), von Pirimiphos-methyl (PMM) und einer
Reihe von Pflanzenpulvern, Pflanzenölen sowie Holzasche und anderer inerter Substanzen. Im Labo-
ratorium wurden alle Substanzen gegen Sitophilus zeamais getestet. Frisches Blattpulver von Chenopodium
ambrosioides (MTP) (20 %) tötete die Käfer nach 6 Tagen zu 100 % ab, bei 2,5 % nach 8 Tagen.
Blattpulver (NLP) und Saatpulver (NSP) von Azadirachta indica (Neem) induzierten bei S. zeamais
eine Mortalität von 90 % nach 12 Tagen. Das Erscheinen von Nachkommen war bei NLP verzögert
und blieb bei NSP aus. Holzasche bei 5 und 10 % induzierte im Laboratorium innerhalb von 15 Tagen
100 % Mortalität der Käfer, und Nachkommen blieben aus. Diese Effekte dauerten im Laboratorium
> 300 Tage an. Beimischungen von Sand (50 %) und Tef (Eragrostis tef) (70 %) hatten nach vier
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 157

Wochen 90 % Mortalität der Käfer zur Folge, mit einer verminderten Nachkommen-Produktion. Im
Laboratorium bewirkte die Zugabe von 10 ml Öl pro 1 kg Mais (von Neem, Sonnenblume, Mais,
Sesam und Guizotia abbyssinica) eine Mortalität von 100 % für 318 Tage. Aber die Keimung des Mais
war reduziert. Im Freiland wirkten Holzasche (5 %) und Tef (33 %) geringer als im Laboratorium,
wobei die Effekte nur 14 Wochen anhielten, im Gegensatz zu SS und PMM. Die Ursachen und
Konsequenzen der Befunde werden diskutiert.

Stichwörter: Mais; Vorratsschutz; Holzasche; Pflanzenpulver; Öle; Diatomeen-Erde; Äthiopien; Sito-

philus

1 Introduction
Food security is a pressing problem in a lot of subtropical and tropical countries (Pantenius 1987).
Growing human populations require more food every year (Edmeades et al. 1997), while in some
African subsaharan countries the area of agricultural production is reducing. So, bringing more land
under cultivation in order to increase agricultural production is not possible. In countries where
climatic conditions make a satisfactory harvest possible every second year only, or following even a
more irregular pattern, stored product protection becomes more important to guarantee food security
(Richter 1987). In Ethiopia, maize is the predominant food source in the Bako area, and farmers allot
more land to maize than any other crop (Franzil and van Houten 1992). In total, maize covers 17 %
of the agricultural area, but contributes 28 % to the total cereal production (CSA 2000). Stored
product losses, especially of maize have been reported to be 0.2 to 30 % (Kashi 1985; Getu and
Gebre-Amlak 1998; Boxall 1998). To replace the use of synthetic insecticides in stored product
protection by natural, non-toxic substances is important for different reasons. Especially in Ethiopia, it
is fundamental to prevent misuse and poisening, since a high percentage of smallholder farmers is
illiterate (Tadesse and Basedow 2004 b). Therefore, from January 2000 to May 2001, we studied the
effects of non-synthetic alternatives on the main stored product pests in Ethiopian maize stores, mainly
Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulski) (Col., Curculionidae) and (in the field trials) also other beetles and
Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) (Lep., Gelechiidae).

2 Materials and methods

All studies were conducted in Western Ethiopia at the Bako Research Center of EARO, at the Maize
Protection Research Division. Bako is located 9° 06’ N and 37° 09’ E, 250 km west of Addis Ababa at
an altitude of 1650 m above sea level. The area receives annual rainfall of about 1200 mm in a bimodal
distribution, 80 % of which falls from May to September and the rest from March to April. Mean
minimum and maximum temperatures are 13.8 and 27.8 °C, respectively. In all experiments, the maize
cultivar ‘BH-660’ was used. It is the most commonly grown maize hybrid developed by the National
Maize Research Program based at Bako.

2.1 Experiments in the laboratory

A continuous mass rearing of S. zeamais was established. The temperature averaged 24 °C (range 22 °
to 27 °), the relative humidity ranged from 45 % in January to March, in the dry season to 85 % in July/
August, when it rained. The other months lay in between.
The sources of materials used were different. Fresh seed of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.)
(Meliaceae) was obtained from Dire Dawa and Melka Werer, both in the eastern part of Ethiopia.
Neem leaves were obtained from the Nazareth Research Center (NRC). Chenopodium ambrosioides L.
(Chenopodiaceae) (“Mexican Tea”) was collected from along road sides in Addis Ababa. C. ambrosioides
is an occasional weed at high elevations (2400 m above sea level) (Stroud and Parker 1989). It is a
strongly aromatic hairy annual or perennial herb, native to tropical America (Su 1991). Neem seed was
dried, decorticated and ground using mortar and pestle. Neem leaves and Mexican tea were sun dried
158 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

under shade and ground to fine powders. Oils of maize (Zea mays L.), sesame (Sesamum indicum L.),
noug or niger seed, Guizotia abyssinica L. (Cass.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) were purchased
from a supermarket in Addis Abeba. Neem oil was obtained from Niem-Handel, D-64579 Gernsheim,
Germany, and SilicoSec® from Chembico, D-67283 Obrigheim, Germany. Wood ash was obtained
from the kitchen of the Bako Research Center recreation club and sieved to remove greater particles.
Tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] (Poaceae) was purchased from a grain trader at Bako. Tef is a major
cereal crop and a staple food in Ethiopia (occupies about 2 million hectares with a yield of 1t ha–1). It
is a small-seeded millet-like cereal grain indigenous to the country. The resistance of tef to stored grain
insect pests has been reported by McFarlane and Dobie (1972). Sand was obtained from that
purchased for construction of houses and sieved over a 1 mm mesh to remove unwanted particles.
Pirimiphos-methyl (Actellic) 2 % was purchased in Addis Ababa. Oils and botanicals were kept in a
refrigerator while the other materials were kept in a dry and cool place until use.
Four inert materials were tested and compared in the laboratory (SilicoSec®, wood ash, sand, and
tef), and three botanical powders (Mexican tea powder, neem leaf- and neem seed-powder). Oils of five
plants (neem, maize, sunflower, noug and sesame) were compared with each other and with pirimiphos-
methyl-treated and untreated checks.
Hundred and fifty gram (50 g for the experiment with tef) of clean maize grain (12.6 % moisture
content) were put in each of several glass jars with lids allowing ventilation. The concentrations
(% w/w) tested were the following. SilicoSec (SS) 0.05 to 0.3; wood ash 2.5–35. Tef 20–250; sand 30–
40; Mexican tea powder (MTP) 2.5–30; neem leaf powder (NLP) 2.5–25; Neem seed powder (NSP)
1–10; plant oils 2.5–12.5. The different rates of each material were weighed and added in the
corresponding glass jars and shaken well in order to have a uniform mixture. Fifty randomly picked
adult maize weevils of mixed age were introduced in each jar, including the untreated check following
3 to 5 days after treatment. Each experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with four
replications (200 beetles per treatment). The glass jars were stored in a laboratory with a temperature of
22–27 °C, and a relative humidity of the air, 45–60 % in November until April, and 65–85 % in Mai
until October.
Mortality of introduced weevils was counted and recorded at 5-day intervals except for SilicoSec,
which was inspected at the interval of 2 days. At the last day, all of the introduced weevils were removed
and the number of dead and live ones was recorded. The grain was kept at the same condition for
progeny emergence and inspected frequently starting from the appearance of the first progeny weevil.
The number of dead and live progeny weevils was recorded until emergence was completed. After 115
to 130 days, the number and weight of damaged and undamaged grain in each jar were recorded. The
percentage of grain weight losses were calculated using the count and weigh method (Adams and
Schulten 1978).
ANOVA was conducted, after square root transformation where necessary, using the computer
program SPSS 10.

2.2 Field experiments

Four substances were tested in field experiments. SilicoSec (0.2 % w/w), wood ash (5 % w/w), tef
(33 % w/w), and pirimiphos-methyl (2 %) applied at the time of storage (PMATS) and 11 weeks after
storage (PM11WAS) at the recommended rate, and an untreated check were compared in traditional
farmstores arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications. Eighteen simulated
farmstores of the same type were constructed at Bako, Ethiopia. The stores were constructed from
woven stick and plastered with mud from inside. The stores were raised 0.63 m off the ground, the
height and diameter of the cylindrical container were 0.73 and 1.07 m, respectively. A store had a
capacity of 300 kg.
More than 5 t of BH-660 maize grain of December 1999 harvest were obtained from the Bako
Research Center’s farm and 0.3 t of grain was placed into each store in the last week of January 2000.
The grain moisture content, determined using a Dickey-John moisture tester (average of three readings
from each sample) and the oven method following the procedures of FAO (1983) and ISO (1985), was
8 % initially. The mean grain weight was recorded by taking about 250 g of sample from each store at
random and counting and weighing each sample and dividing the weight by its corresponding number.
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 159

Seed germination was determined by placing 50 seeds on a moist filter paper in a plastic Petri dish for
1 week. The grain samples were collected every 5th week until week 54 after storage, using a compart-
mentalized grain sampling spear of 1 m length (Seedburo Equipment Company – Seed Trade Report-
ing Bureau – Seedburo Quality, Chicago ILL 1912). The damaged and undamaged grains in each size
category were counted and weighted using an analytical balance capable of weighing mg. Insect
specimens recovered were preserved in glass vials containing 80 % ethyl alcohol or, if dead, in dry Petri
dishes for identification.
Climatic conditions at Bako in 2000 were as follows. Temperature (°C), Maximum, October to
March (I) 30°, and 24°, April to September (II). Minimum I = 23°, II = 12°. Relative humidity (air) was
40 to 65 % (November to May), and 75 % (July to October).

3 Results
3.1 Experiments in the laboratory
3.1.1 Comparison among inert materials and admixing tef against the maize weevil, Sitophilus
zeamais, at selected rates
Four independent experiments were conducted with four different materials (SilicoSec, wood ash,
sand, and tef seed), each at different rates (% w/w). But these details would be too much to be reported
here. Only a comparison of all inert materials will be shown. The rates (% w/w) tested were SilicoSec
(SS) at 0.1 %, wood ash at 5 and 30 %, sand at 30 and 40 %, and tef at 50 and 70 %. Pirimiphos-
methyl 2 % dust (PMM) at 0.05 %, and untreated check treatments were included.
The percentage of dead maize weevils after different time of infestation in the different treatments
are presented in Table 1. All rates of sand, wood ash and tef treatments did not cause significant
mortality 2 days after infestation as did the untreated check. Moreover, the SS treatment was signifi-
cantly (P < 0.05) inferior to the synthetic insecticide until 4 days after infestation (Table 1). In
addition, both rates of the wood ash treatments caused significantly (P < 0.01) higher mortalities than
the sand, tef and the untreated check after 4 days of infestation. Furthermore, the wood ash treatments
inflicted as high mortality as both SS and the synthetic insecticide treatments within 6 days after
infestation (Table 1). The higher rate of tef caused significantly high (20.7 %) mortality within 8 days
after infestation, while the lower rate of tef and both rates of sand treatments were still ineffective. The
mortality in the wood ash, SS and the synthetic insecticide was 100 % at this date (Table 1). A
mortality near 90 % was reached after four weeks with tef (70 %) and sand (50 %) (Tadesse 2003).

Table 1. Effect of different materials on the percentage mortality of maize weevils after different time of
infestation in the laboratory at Bako/Ethiopia. Means followed by the same letter within a column are
not significantly different from each other at 5 % (DMRT)
SS = SilicoSec®, PMM = Pririmiphos-methyl 2 %

Treatment Percentage of dead weevils at days after infestation (dai)

and rates
2 dai 4 dai 6 dai 8 dai

Check 00.00 ± 0.00 c 000.00 ± 0.00 c 001.33 ± 0.81 b 001.33 ± 0.81 c

Sand 30 % 00.00 ± 0.00 c 000.00 ± 0.00 c 000.66 ± 0.66 b 003.33 ± 1.82 c
Sand 40 % 01.33 ± 0.81 c 002.00 ± 0.81 c 004.00 ± 1.63 b 008.00 ± 3.59 c
Tef 50 % 00.00 ± 0.00 c 001.33 ± 0.81 c 005.33 ± 1.33 b 007.33 ± 2.66 c
Tef 70 % 00.00 ± 0.00 c 002.00 ± 0.81 c 007.33 ± 3.23 b 020.66 ± 6.27 b
Ash 5 % 02.00 ± 1.33 c 063.33 ± 7.14 b 098.00 ± 1.33 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a
Ash 30 % 00.66 ± 0.66 c 068.66 ± 6.79 b 098.66 ± 1.33 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a
SS 0.1 % 12.00 ± 2.26 b 098.00 ± 1.33 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a
PMM 93.33 ± 1.49 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a
160 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

3.1.2 The effects of plant powders at selected rates

Mexican tea powder (MTP), neem leaf powder (NLP), and neem seed powder (NSP), each at different
rates, were evaluated. The results of an experiment with selected rates shall be shown. The effects of
MTP, NLP and NSP at selected rates on the mortality of adult weevils (S. zeamais) at different dates
after infestation are presented in Figure 1. The percentages of dead weevils in both rates of MTP were
significantly (P < 0.01) greater than that of the NLP and NSP treatments after 6 days of infestation.
NLP at the rate of 5 % did not differ significantly from the untreated check in the percentage of dead
weevils after 6 days of infestation. Furthermore, the difference between the MTP and the synthetic
insecticide treatments in the amount of dead weevils was not significant (Fig. 1). After 12 to 30 days,
when MTP and PMM had induced 100 % mortality, both rates of NLP and NSP had a lower efficacy
of 60 to 90 % (Fig. 1).
The effect of different botanicals at different rates on the percentage mortality of weevils re-infested
after 91 days of treatment are presented in Figure 2. The higher rate of MTP 20 caused mortality of
22.7 % and 76.7 %, within 2 and 4 days after re-infestation, respectively, and these figures were
significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those of the other botanicals and rates. NSP at 3 % was the next best
among the botanicals causing 55.3 % mortality within 4 days after re-infestation. The lower rate of
MTP 2.5, the higher rate of NLP 20 and the lower rate of NSP 2.0 did not differ significantly from
each other but all of them differed significantly from the untreated check. However, the lower rate of
NLP 5 did not differ significantly from the untreated check following 4 days after infestation.
After 6 days of re-infestation, all rates of the MTP and the NSP were as effective as the synthetic
insecticide, all of which were significantly superior to both rates of NLP. There was no significant
variation between the NLP rates in the percentage of dead weevils, but both of them differed signifi-

Fig. 1. Effect of different botanicals on the percentage mortality of maize weevils at different dates after infestation
(dai) in the laboratory. T-beams represent standard errors. The rate of mortalities at 20 and 30 dai were similar and
not shown in the graph. For significant differences see text. Abbreviations (figures: different percentage rates):
MTP = Mexican tea powder, NLP = neem leaf powder, NSP = neem seed powder; PMM = Pirimiphos-methyl 2 %.
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 161

Fig. 2. Effect of different botanical treatments on the percentage mortality of weevils reinfested after 91 days of
treatment in the laboratory at Bako/Ethiopia. T-beams represent standard errors. For significant differences see
text. Abbreviations: see Figure 1.

cantly from the untreated check. All of the botanicals and their rates inflicted as high mortality as the
synthetic insecticide following 10 days after infestation (dai), in the laboratory (Fig. 2).

3.1.3 The effect of plant oils on maize weevil populations

Neem oil (NMO), maize oil (MZO), noug/niger seed oil (Guizotia abbyssinica) (NGO), sesame oil
(SSO), and sunflower oil (SFO) were evaluated at 10 ml per kg maize. The amounts of dead adult
weevils, progeny emerged and damaged maize grain in different plant oil treatments at the concentra-
tion of 10 ml/kg maize are presented in Table 2. All oils caused significantly (P < 0.01) higher mortality
than the untreated check. The rate of mortality following 1 week after infestation in the different oil
treatments was 100 %. Moreover, no progeny weevils emerged from the oil treatments (Table 2). The
percentages of damaged grain after 137 and 338 days of infestation were significantly (P < 0.01) higher
in the untreated check than those of the oil treatments, in which almost no grain was damaged at both
dates (Tables 2 and 3). The amount of damaged grain in the untreated check after the later date of
infestation was 100 % (Table 3). Moreover, the amounts of grain weight losses in the untreated check
were significantly higher than those of the oil treatments at both dates.
All oil treatments reduced seed germination significantly more than the untreated check following
185 days after treatment. The NMO caused significantly higher loss of seed germination than the SFO.
However, both oils did not differ significantly from the other oil treatments in the amount of
germinated seeds (Table 3).
162 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

Table 2. Effect of different plant oils on adult maize weevil mortality, progeny emergence and maize grain
damaged at different dates after infestation (dai) in the laboratory at Bako/Ethiopia. Means followed
by the same letter within a column are not significantly different from each other at 5 % (DMRT)
NMO = neem oil, MZO = maize oil, NGO = noug/niger seed oil (Guizotia abbyssinica), SSO = sesame
oil and SFO = sunflower oil

Plant oils Percent dead adult weevils Weevil progeny Amount of grain
(10 ml kg–1) (days after infestation, dai) emerged (no.) damaged (%)

3 dai 7 dai 106 dai 137 dai

Check 000.00 ± 0.00 b 001.85 ± 1.19 b 99.00 ± 0.00 a 25.20 ± 5.16 a

NMO 095.64 ± 4.49 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 00.00 ± 0.00 b 00.00 ± 0.00 b
MZO 100.00 ± 0.00 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 00.00 ± 0.00 b 00.07 ± 0.07 b
SFO 096.25 ± 0.72 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 00.00 ± 0.00 b 00.00 ± 0.00 b
NGO 097.50 ± 2.50 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 00.00 ± 0.00 b 00.14 ± 0.14 b
SSO 098.75 ± 1.25 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 00.00 ± 0.00 b 00.00 ± 0.00 b

Table 3. Percentage of damaged grain, grain weight losses and germination of maize treated with different plant
oils against the maize weevil in the laboratory at Bako/Ethiopia, at different days after infestation (dai).
Means followed by the same letter(s) within a column are not significantly different from each other at
5 % (DMRT)
For explanations see Table 2

Plant oils Percent damaged Percent grain weight losses Percent seed
(10 ml kg–1) maize grain germination
(338 dai) 137 dai 338 dai (185 dai)

Check 100.00 ± 0.00 a 2.47 ± 0.74 a 100.00 ± 0.00 a 81.00 ± 5.25 a

NMO 000.47 ± 0.27 b 0.00 ± 0.00 b 000.01 ± 0.01 b 59.00 ± 4.12 c
MZO 000.00 ± 0.00 b 0.07 ± 0.07 b 000.00 ± 0.00 b 63.00 ± 6.40 bc
SFO 000.00 ± 0.00 b 0.00 ± 0.00 b 000.00 ± 0.00 b 78.47 ± 3.21 b
NGO 000.00 ± 0.00 b 0.00 ± 0.00 b 000.00 ± 0.00 b 67.83 ± 6.60 bc
SSO 000.22 ± 0.22 b 0.00 ± 0.00 b 000.02 ± 0.02 b 65.00 ± 1.91 bc

3.2 Field experiments: Comparison among four different control measures for effectiveness
against insect pests on maize in simulated farm-storage at Bako/Ethiopia.
Unfortunately, due to the lack of resources, no more preparations could be tested in the field stores, in
2000.

3.2.1 Population density of arthropods in grain samples after different treatments

The numbers of maize weevils recorded from grain samples obtained at different weeks after storage in
simulated traditional farm-grain stores receiving different treatments are shown in Figure 3. The
numbers of arthropods recorded in grain samples obtained after 5 weeks of storage with different
treatments did not differ significantly from each other, although the figures for SS, pirimiphos-methyl
(PMM) applied at the time of storage (PMATS) and wood ash treatments were relatively lower than
those of the tef, PMM applied 11 weeks after storage (PM11WAS) and the untreated check (Fig. 3).
Beginning from 11 weeks after storage, the differences among the different treatments were highly
significant (P < 0.001) (Fig. 3). SS and PMATS treatments resulted in highly significantly (p < 0.01)
lower numbers of arthropods throughout the storage period. The number of arthropods in the wood
ash treatment was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than that of the tef treatment and the untreated check
only at 11 weeks after storage. In the rest of the storage periods, the numbers of arthropods in the wood
ash treatment were as high as or even higher than those in the tef treatment and in the untreated check
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 163

Fig. 3. Number of maize weevils recorded in grain samples of 250 g obtained at different weeks after storage with
different treatments in simulated traditional farmstores at Bako/Ethiopia. PMATS = Primiphos-methyl at time of
storage, PM11WAS = 11 weeks after storage, SS = SilicoSec®, Tef = Eragrostis tef. For significant differences see
text.

(Fig. 3). The tef and PM11WAS treatments and the untreated check did not differ significantly from
each other in the number of arthropods recorded 11 weeks after storage. However, PM11WAS, like SS,
resulted in a highly significantly (P < 0.001) lower numbers of arthropods beginning 15 weeks after
storage. As was witnessed during sampling, almost 100 % of the arthropods in the PM11WAS
treatment were dead beginning 15 weeks after storage. The high numbers of arthropods recorded from
this treatment were due to their multiplication in the first 11 weeks before the treatment was applied.
The populations of arthropods in the tef treatment differed significantly from that of the untreated
check only in samples obtained after 40 weeks of storage, when the numbers in the untreated check
were significantly higher. The increase in insect populations in the wood ash and tef treatments and in
the untreated check were linear until 45 weeks after storage and then declined sharply.

3.2.2 Arthropod species recorded in grain samples after different treatments

The most dominant arthropod species recorded in the grain samples throughout the storage period
were maize weevils, Sitophilus zeamais (Fig. 3). The increase in maize weevil population over time in the
different treatments followed a similar trend to that of the total number of arthropod fauna. The
numbers of weevils in the wood ash treatment were significantly higher than that of the untreated check
in most of the storage periods. The tef treatment and the untreated check differed significantly from
each other in the number of weevils at 40, 45 and 54 weeks after storage. The populations of weevils in
the rest of the treatments were significantly low. Tribolium spp., Cryptolestes spp., Carpophilus spp. and
parasitic wasps were also found. The numbers of other species of arthropods were low. Although the
numbers of moths (Sitotroga cereallella) caught in the spear samples were too low, they were abundant
in the stores receiving treatments other than PMM and SS.
164 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

Fig. 4. Number (square root transformed) of arthropods recorded in grain samples obtained at the end of the
experiment (61 weeks) from simulated farmstores with different treatments at Bako/Ethiopia. PMATS = Primiphos-
methyl at time of storage, PM11WAS = 11 weeks after storage, SS = SilicoSec®. For significant differences see text.

3.2.3 Insect populations within the stores at the end of the experiment
The major species of insects and their numbers (square root transformed) recorded at the end of the
experiment (61 weeks) in grain samples obtained from the simulated farm-storage containers receiving
different treatments are presented in Figure 4. The numbers of the different insect species recorded in
the PMATS, PM11WAS and SS treatments were highly significantly (P < 0.001) lower than those of
the tef and wood ash treatments and the untreated check. The number of Tribolium spp. was signifi-
cantly higher in the SS than in the other treatments.

3.2.4 The amount of damaged grain

The percentages of damaged grain in samples obtained from simulated traditional farmstores with
different treatments after different storage periods are presented in Figure 5. There was no significant
difference among the different treatments after 5 weeks of storage. However, after 11 weeks, all
treatments differed significantly from the untreated check, and from the PM11WAS, which was not
treated until then. Furthermore, the PM11WAS did not differ significantly from the untreated check
in the percentage of damaged grain recorded in samples obtained 15 weeks after storage. However,
beginning from 20 weeks after storage, the difference between the PM11WAS and the untreated check
was highly significant (P < 001). Moreover, the differences between the wood ash treatment and the
untreated check beginning 20 weeks after storage were not significant, with relatively more damaged
grain in the wood ash treatment (14.1 %) than in the untreated grain (12.8 %). Wood ash (at 5 %)
provided significantly better protection than the untreated grain for only 15 weeks. Beginning week
20, the percentages of grain damaged in the tef treatment were significantly lower (5.1 %) than those
of the wood ash and the untreated check. For the first 15 weeks, wood ash and tef treatments were
equally effective with damage records of 3.2 to 3.8 % as opposed to 7.3 % in the untreated grain. The
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 165

Fig. 5. Percentage of damaged grains in samples obtained from simulated traditional farmstores with different
treatments after different weeks of storage at Bako/Ethiopia. PMATS = Primiphos-methyl at time of storage,
PM11WAS = 11 weeks after storage. For significant differences see text.

maximum amount of damaged grain in the tef treatment after a storage period of 54 weeks was 44.2 %
while that of the untreated grain was 75.0 %. However, the amounts of damage inflicted in the tef
treatment after 30 weeks of storage appeared to be too high to be tolerated. PMATS and SS treatments
resulted in significantly (P < 0.01) lower percentages of damaged grain. However, changes in grain
physical properties such as reduced flow rate were noticed in grain treated with SS.
In field stores, wood ash (at 5 %) and tef (at 33 %) performed worse than in the laboratory, effects
lasting 14 weeks only, in contrast to SS and PMM.

4 Discussion
4.1 Effect of SilicoSec® (SS)
SilicoSec®, a diatomaceous earth registered as a stored product protection insecticide in Europe, served
as a standard. The high rate of adult weevil mortality observed in this study is in agreement with the
results reported in the literature (La Hue 1978; McLaughlin 1994; Korunic 1998; Subramanyam et
al. 1994). Erb-Brinkmann (2000) reported that SS provides a long-term complete protection of all
stored grain insect pests including weevils, beetles, borers and moths. Mewis and Ulrichs (2001a)
observed 100 % mortality of adult Sitophilus granarius 2 weeks after exposure to wheat treated with a
diatomaceous earth (DE), Fossil Shield®, at 0.2 %. In another experiment, Mewis and Ulrichs
(2001b) observed 98 % mortality of Tribolium castaneum after 2 weeks of exposure to rice treated with
the same DE at the same dosage.
166 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

4.2 Effect of Mexican tea powder (MTP)

The significantly high mortality of adult weevils caused by the different rates of the MTP treatments
5 days after infestation is in accordance with previous reports. Eticha and Tadesse (1999) found that
MTP applied at the rate of 10 % caused 92 % mortality of adult maize weevils 7 days after infestation. At
the end of the experiment (4 weeks), 100 % mortality was recorded in both the botanical and the
synthetic insecticide treatments. Tapandjou et al. (2002) tested powder and essential oil obtained from
dry ground leaves of Chenopodium ambrosioides at rates ranging from 0.8 to 6.4 % against six insect pests
including the granary and the maize weevils on wheat and maize and reported that the highest dosage of
6.4 % induced 100 % mortality of both species 2 days after treatment, although mortality of the larger
grain borer was only 44 %. Delobel and Malonga (1987) reported that Chenopodium ambrosioides at
application rate of 1 : 40 w/w against the storage bruchid pest of groundnuts (Caryeon serratus (Olivier))
affected the survival of adults, 90 % of them dying within 13 days (compared to the 13.8 % in the
untreated check), and very few eggs were laid. Malik and Naqvi (1984) found that dry ground leaves of
Chenopodium ambrosioides have antifeedant activity against Rhizopertha dominica. Moreover, Novo et al.
(1997) evaluated crude extracts in ethanol, hexane and chloroform of this and other plants for their
repellent effects against Tribolium castaneum and found Chenopodium ambrosioides in chloroform was the
second best. The insecticidal activity of the essential oil from Chenopodium ambrosioides against several
stored grain insect pests has been reported by Su (1991), who indicated that the oil was highly toxic to
Callosobruchus maculatus and Lasioderma serricorne, moderately toxic to Sitophilus oryzae and slightly
toxic to Tribolium castaneum. According to Tapandjou et al. (2002), essential oils were more effective
than the ground leaf treatments except in the case of Callosobruchus maculatus and Sitophilus zeamais
which were least affected. A terpene peroxide ascaridole (Delobel and Malonga 1987) and others are
reported to be responsible for the toxic properties of MTP. Tapandjou et al. (2002) reported the
chemical constituents of the leaf oil to be alpha-terpinen (37.6 %), cymol (p-cymen) (50 %), cis-β-
farnesen (1.4 %), ascaridole (3.5 %) and carvacrol (3.3 %) and suggested the toxicity to be related to
compounds present in larger quantities than ascaridole. Tapandjou et al. (2002) indicated that Calloso-
bruchus maculatus and Sitophilus zeamais were least affected by essential oils from C. ambrosioides. We
have observed reduced performance against the granary weevil on wheat when lower rates of old material
was used (Tadesse and Basedow 2004 a). The inhibition of progeny emergence from grain treated with
MTP is also in line with the findings of Eticha and Tadesse (1999). Tapandjou et al. (2002) also
reported that progeny production was completely suppressed in the Sitophilus species and the larger grain
borer at the dosage ranging from 1.6 to 6.4 %. This may be due to the death of insects before oviposition
or the effect of the treatment on either the egg or on other development stages of the insect. Unfortu-
nately, MTP, like the other botanicals, could not be tested in our field trials: Due to lack of maize and
stores priorities had to be set.

4.3 Effect of neem leaf powder (NLP)

Hellpap and Dreyer (1995) reported that, in contrast to neem seeds, neem leaves do not contain
azadirachtins, but presumably other triterpenoids with insecticidal properties (Schmutterer 2002).
Getu (1999) reported only 15 % survival of adult Sitotroga cerealella 6 h after infestation on grain
treated with 10 % NLP, and it did not differ significantly from NSP at 10 % and PMM at 10 mg/kg.
Eticha and Tadesse (1999) reported mortality rates of 64 and 91 % in 10 % NLP treatment after 1
and 4 weeks of infestation, respectively, although in another experiment, a mortality of only 20 % was
found using the same rate. The source of the material, method of preparation and age of the material
before use could contribute to the difference in effectiveness of neem products. Tanzubil (1987), after
evaluating neem leaf at 2, 5 and 10 % together with other materials for effectiveness against the cowpea
weevil, reported that the leaf powder treatments provided a reasonable level of protection up to the 12th
week only, after which seed damage and subsequent weight loss became serious. Although emergence
of progeny weevils was delayed and the number emerged decreased significantly with the rate of the
NLP applied, no treatment prevented progeny emergence. Pereira and Wohlgemuth (1982) tested
NLP at different rates (0.5 to 8 %) against six species of stored grain pests on maize and found that the
productivity of Sitophilus zeamais was not reduced while the fecundity of Sitophilus oryzae was reduced
three fold at the 8 % treatment.
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 167

4.4 Effect of neem seed powder (NSP)

NSP rates of 2 % caused equal amounts of adult weevil mortality as higher rates, following 5 days after
infestation. This indicates that addition of NSP at rates higher than 2 % has no added benefit as far as
adult mortality is concerned. Pereira and Wohlgemuth (1982) evaluated NSP at rates ranging from
0.5 to 8 % against six species of stored grain pests on maize and found it to be toxic to the adults of
Sitophilus oryzae followed by Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Rhizopertha dominica and Sitophilus zeamais. With
Sitophilus oryzae, there was 99 % mortality at 4 % NSP treatment by the third day of exposure. Eticha
and Tadesse (1999) found adult weevil mortality rates of 94 % and 98 %, respectively, within 4 weeks
after infestation on maize grain treated with NSP at 5 %, protection of the grain lasting for about
49 weeks. Siddig (1980) tested the effect of NSP on Trogoderma granarium Everts infesting wheat in
the Sudan and found that damage was significantly reduced when wheat was treated with powdered
neem seeds at doses of 1, 2 or 4 %, the effect increasing as the dose of neem increased. This effect was
maintained in one experiment for 207 days and in a second experiment for 490 days after treatment.
According to Ketkar and Ketkar (1993), neem products in storage occasionally retain their activity
for periods of 1 year or longer. Moreover, treatment of paddy with 2 % NSP during 6 months of
storage was as effective as treatment with 0.01 % malathion dust (Saxena et. al. 1988). Pereira and
Wohlgemuth (1982) found that even after 3 months storage of the treated maize, neem seed reduced
the adult populations of Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Rhizopertha dominica and Ephestia
cautella. However, after 7 months, only the population of Rhizopertha dominica was significantly
reduced. NSP has been found effective against almost all stored grain pests. The insecticidal and
repellent properties of neem kernels have been attributed to the triterpenoid azadirachtin and other
related compounds (Schmutterer 1995; Govendachari et al. 2000).

4.5 Effect of wood ash

Many authors reported the effectiveness of wood ash as grain protectant (Golob and Webley 1980;
Golob et al. 1982; Compton et al. 1993; Gwinner et al. 1996). It was found that at the application
rate of 30 % by weight wood ash can be almost as effective as pirimiphos-methyl, a conventional
synthetic insecticide, when the latter is applied at its recommended dosage (8.8 mg/l). The use of wood
ash is an efficient method of stored product pest control in practice all over the world (Gwinner et al.
1996). GTZ (1980) stated that, compared to other types of additive, ash has the advantage of being
universally available as a natural by-product of cooking. Its use does not involve any risk to health and
is lighter than sand. At the same time, it is said to promote the further drying of the stored produce, due
to its good hygroscopic properties (GTZ 1980). Wolfson et al. (1991) found storage in ash as a safe,
effective and affordable method of grain preservation. Eticha and Tadesse (1999) reported wood ash
applied on maize grain at the rate of 10 % caused in different years, 100, 40, 99 and 100 % mortality
of adult maize weevils after 4 weeks following infestation. Baier et al. (1992a, b) found that kitchen ash
applied at the rate of 20 % by weight controlled bruchid reproduction throughout a 39-week storage
period. Gwinner et al. (1996) indicated that the success of wood ash depends on a considerable
amount of ash (30 % v/v) being added. Wolfson et al. (1991) found that a minimum ratio of three
parts of ash to four parts of cowpeas prevented population growth of Callosobruchus maculatus, and that
of 3-cm layer of ash on top of stored seeds prevented infestation by adults.
For the results presented here, it must be stressed that experiments in the laboratory and in the field
gave different results. The effectiveness of wood ash at lower rates (5 %) observed in the laboratory
contradicts with many of the above mentioned reports and the results of our experiment in the simulated
traditional stores conducted at Bako, where wood ash at 5 % did not protect the grain for a long time.
This variability could be due to the distribution of the ash in the interstitial space. In the laboratory
experiments, the distribution of the ash remained equal during the experiments, while in field stores
movements occur, by animal pests, by farmers withdrawing grain etc. However, ash from cooking fire is
a readily available resource to all farmers. Therefore, it appears to be better to apply higher doses of ash in
order to provide a margin of safety. The prohibited progeny emergence in the wood ash treatments is in
accordance with previous reports. The effect of wood ash on insect multiplication (Eticha and Tadesse
1999) may be due to either the insects could not move to locate mating pairs and/or they died before
168 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

oviposition. Wolfson et al. (1991) found that ash treatments did not affect larval development, adult
emergence holes were present, if the grain was infested prior to ash treatment.
It must be said that it is important to do both, experiments in the field and in the laboratory, to be
sure of the effects. But finally, the ash concentration used by us in field tests was rather low. So the
opinion of GTZ (1980) still holds that the use of the universally available wood ash in higher
concentrations is to be recommended for stored product protection. Wood ash is used by > 30 % of
Ethiopian farmers in their stores (Tadesse and Basedow 2004).

4.6 Effect of admixing grain with sand

The high rate of adult weevil mortality (74 %) following 30 days after infestation achieved by the
addition of 30 % sand is in accordance with Golob et al. (1982). They evaluated the effectiveness of
admixing sand at the rate of 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 1 : 4 and 1 : 8 by volume with maize and found that the
effectiveness was directly related to dosage, the highest dose 30 % by weight completely covered the
grain. The lower mortality (40 %) observed in another experiment involving the same rate of sand
could be attributed to the difference in the particle size of the sand used. Higher efficacy was obtained
with finer particles (Golob et al. 1982; van Huis 1991). Gwinner et al. (1996) indicated that in case
of fine sand a mixture of sand and maize one by one (weight) is required for effective protection.
Zehrer (1984) found that sand at the rate of 25 % (v/v), the amount used by Togo farmers, protected
cowpeas well and only 13 % of their weight was lost after a 10-month period, which was comparable to
the protection obtained by neem oil treatment. Sand at 30 % provided adequate protection to grain for
a short-term storage (about 4 months). However, longer storage with sand rates of less than 70 %
resulted in high amounts of grain damage. The use of sand depends on its availability close to the place
of storage and is thus limited to areas where sand occurs naturally.

4.7 Effect of tef

The role of mixing tef with maize grain for the protection of the latter from insect attack has been
reported by many farmers in Ethiopia (Tadesse 1997; Tadesse and Basedow 2004). McFarlane and
Dobie (1972) showed that tef is unlikely to be infested by Sitophilus zeamais, Rhizopertha dominica and
Sitotroga cerealella due to its small size (ca. 1 mm long) and hard seed coat. From this study, it can be
suggested that application of 50 % tef can provide protection of grain for a short storage time.

4.8 Effect of plant oils

It was interesting to note that all of the vegetable oils showed the same effect as the NMO, which
contains azadirachtin. The complete mortality of adult maize weevils in the different plant oil treat-
ments tested in the laboratory, here, is in accordance with the reports of other authors who have proven
that oil coating is effective in controlling insect pests of stored grains regardless of the source of oil.
Kumar and Okonronkwo (1991) showed the effectiveness of vegetable and palm oils against two
bostrichid species, Rhizopertha dominica and Dinoderus distinctus in stored maize, sorghum and wheat.
Ivbijaro et al. (1985) found that oils of coconut and groundnut admixed with maize grains at rates of
5 and 10 ml kg–1 killed 67 to 100 % Sitophilus oryzae within 24 h. At 1 ml oil kg–1, mortality of adult
weevils reached 100 % in 7 days. Yun-Tai and Burkholder (1981) found that oils of cottonseed,
soybean, maize and groundnut at 5 to 10 ml kg–1 suppressed Sitophilus granarius in wheat. According
to Ivbijaro (1985), groundnut oil at rates of 5 to 20 ml kg–1 completely controlled infestation of stored
maize by Sitophilus zeamais and Sitophilus oryzae. Obeng-Ofori (1995) evaluated several plant oils
including MZO at different dosages as grain protectants against Cryptolestes pusillus and Rhizopertha
dominica in maize and sorghum, and found that grain treated with 10 ml kg–1 of the different oils
induced 100 % mortality within 24 h. Dey and Sarup (1993) studied oils from several plants including
neem and sesame at different rates against stored maize insects and found that higher mortality occurred
1 day after treatment of the grain irrespective of the type of oil. Tembo and Murfitt (1995) found that
oils of groundnut, rape seed and sunflower at 10 ml kg–1 caused considerable mortality (60.0 to 80.0 %)
within 14 days and there was little difference between the three oils in their effect. Application of NMO
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 169

at a low concentration of 0.1 % (w/w) to wheat grain reduced egg laying by Sitotroga cerealella as
effectively as 5 % malathion dust treatment (Saxena 1995). Ivbijaro et al. (1985) showed that plant oils
at different rates significantly reduced oviposition, grain damage and grain weight losses in maize. Don-
Pedro (1989) found oils from maize, sunflower, sesame, groundnut, palm and coconut being effective
against eggs and early stage larvae of Sitophilus zeamais. Despite their different properties, origin and
purity, all of the oils tested were equally effective in reducing progeny development.
However, the mode of action of vegetable oils in the protection of treated seeds is complex and not
clear (Yun-Tai and Burkholder 1981; Obeng-Ofori 1995). The mechanism of protection may be
due to physical properties of the oil (Singh et al. 1978; Obeng-Ofori 1995), oils providing a physical
barrier to insect respiration resulting in suffocation (Hewlett 1975; Schoonhoven 1978; Credland
1992) and may also contain insecticidal or repellent compounds, including fatty acids and other
compounds produced by chemical breakdown of the oil after application (Hill and Schoonhoven
1981; Don-Pedro 1989). According to Hill and Schoonhoven (1981), the insecticidal action of
palm and vegetable oils was due to triglyceride fractions. Hewlett (1975) working with mineral oils
and Sitophilus granarius suggested that the most likely mechanism of action is blockage of the tracheal
system by the oils and the beetle dies of anoxia. The protection of grains by oils could, therefore, be due
to both physical and chemical factors (Obeng-Ofori 1995). The oils could also act as antifeedants or
modify the storage micro-environment, thereby discouraging insect penetration and feeding (Obeng-
Ofori 1995). Concerning insect eggs, it was suggested that the activity of plant oils against insect eggs
was by a general physical property of the oil coating rather than a specific chemical action leading to a
reduction in oviposition of bruchid beetles on treated grains (Singh et al. 1978; Messina and
Renwick 1983). Don-Pedro (1989) observed no significant effect on oviposition in no choice
experiments but in two way choice experiments, groundnut oil at 14 ml kg–1 significantly deterred
oviposition and he suggested it to be possibly due to a repellent effect. The repellent effects of plant oils
have also been reported by Yun-Tai and Burkholder (1981) and Akou-Edi (1984).
The observed reductions in seed germination in the oil treatments is in accordance with the results
of Yun-Tai and Burkholder (1981) who reported same adverse effect of vegetable oils on seed
germination.
It can be concluded that a lot of alternative/traditional substances or measures exist in Ethiopia,
which can reduce the attack of stored maize by insect pests significantly. They could replace the use of
synthetic insecticides successfully.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) for a grant given to the first
author.

Literature
Adams, J. M., G. G. M. Schulten: Losses caused by insects, mites and microorganisms. – In: Harris,
K. L., C. J. Lindblad (eds.): Post harvest grain loss assessment methods, pp. 83–93. Washington, D.
C. (American Association of Cereal Chemistry), 1978.
Akou-Edi, D.: Effects of neem seed powder and oil on Tribolium confusum and Sitophilus zeamais. – In:
Schmutterer, H., K. R. S. Ascher (eds.): Natural pesticides from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica
A. Juss.) and other tropical plants, pp. 445–451. Proceedings of the Second International Neem
Conference, Rauischholzhausen, Germany, 25–28 May, 1983. GTZ (Eschborn, Germany), 1984.
Baier, A. H., B. D. Webster: Control of Acanthoscelides obtectus Say (Col.: Bruchidae) in Phaseolus
vulgaris seed stores stored on small farms. I. Evaluation of damage. – J. Stored Prod. Res. 28, 289–
293, 1992a.
Baier, A. H., B. D. Webster: Control of Acanthoscelides obtectus Say (Col.: Bruchidae) in Phaseolus
vulgaris seed stores stored on small farms. II. Evaluation of germination and cooking time. – J. Stored
Prod. Res. 28, 295–299, 1992b.
170 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

Boxall, R. A.: Grain post harvest loss assessment in Ethiopia. – Report No. 2377, NRI, University of
Greewhich, 1998.
CSA (Central Statistical Authority, Addis Ababa): Agricultural sample survey. Report on area, pro-
duction and yield of meher season crops for private holdings. Volume 1. – Statistical Bulletin
227, 2000.
Compton, J. A. F., P. S. Tyler, P. S. Hindmarsh, P. Golob, R. A. Boxall, C. P. Haines: Reducing
losses in small farm storage in the tropics. – Tropical Sci. 33, 283–318, 1993.
Credland, P. F.: The structure of bruchid eggs may the ovicidal effects of oils. – J. Stored Prod. Res.
28, 1–9, 1992.
Delobel, A., P. Malonga: Insecticidal properties of six plant species against Caryeon serratus (Ol.)
(Coleoptera: Bruchidae). – J. Stored Prod. Res. 23, 173–176, 1987.
Dey, D., P. Sarup: Feasability of protecting maize with vegetable oils to save losses due to Sitophilus
oryzae (L.). – J. Entomolog. Res. 17, 1–15, 1993.
Don-Pedro, K. N.: Mechanism of action of some vegetable oils against Sitophilus zeamais Motsch.
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). – J. Stored Prod. Res. 25, 217–223, 1989.
Edmeades, G., O. M. Banziger, H. R. Mickelson, C. B. Pana-Valdivia (eds.): Developing drought
and low N-tolerant maize. Proceedings of a Symposium, March 25–29, 1995, EL Batan, Mexico,
CIMMYT, 1997.
Erb-Brinkmann, M.: Application of amorphous silica dust (SilicoSec®) in Germany – practical
experiences. – IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 23, 10, 239–242, 2000.
Eticha, F., A. Tadesse: Effects of some botanicals and other materials against the maize weevil
(Sitophilus zeamais Motsch.) on stored maize. – In: Maize production technology for the future:
Challenges and opportunities, pp. 101–104. Proceedings of the Sixth Eastern and Southern Africa
Regional Maize Conference, 21.–25. Sept. 1998, Addis Abeba (CYMMIT and EARO), 1999.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization): Technical guidelines for cereal seed testing. – Rome
(FAO), 1983.
Franzil, S., H. van Houten (eds.): Research with farmers: Lessons from Ethiopia. – CAB Interna-
tional, U. K., 1992.
Getu, E.: Use of botanical plants in the control of stored maize grain insect pests in Ethiopia. – In:
Maize production technology for the future: Challenges and opportunities, pp. 105–108. Proceed-
ings of the Sixth Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, 21.–25. Sept. 1998,
Addis Abeba (CYMMIT and EARO), 1999.
Getu, E., A. Gebre-Amlak: Arthropod pests of stored maize in Sidama Zone: economic importance
and management practices. – Pest Managem. J. Ethiopia 2, 26–35, 1998.
Golob, P., J. Mwambula, V. Mhango, F. Nglube: The use of locally available materials as protectants
of maize grain against insect infestation in Malawi. – J. Stored Prod. Res. 18, 67–74, 1982.
Govindachari, T. R., G. Suresh, G. Gopalakrishnan, S. D. Wesley: Insect antifeedant and growth
regulating activities of neem seed oil – the role of major tetranortriterpenoids. – J. appl. Entomol.
124, 287–291, 2000.
GTZ (Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit): Post harvest problems. – Documentation of a
OAU/GTZ-Seminar, Lome. Eschborn (GTZ), Germany, 1980.
Gwinner, J., R. Harnisch, O. Mück: Manual of the prevention of post harvest grain losses. – Post
Harvest Project, GTZ, D-65726 Eschborn, 1996.
Hellpap, C., M. Dreyer: Neem products for pest management, practical results of neem application
against arthropod pests, and probability of development of resistance. – In: Schmutterer, H. (ed.):
The Neem Tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and other meliaceous plants. Source of unique natural
products for integrated pest management, medicine, industry and other purposes, pp. 367–375.
VCH (Weinheim, Germany), 1995.
Hewlett, P. S.: Lethal action of a refined mineral oil on adult Sitophilus granarius L. – J. Stored Prod.
Res. 11, 119–120, 1975.
Hill, J., H. V. Schoonhoven: Effectiveness of vegetable fractions in controlling Mexican bean weevil
on stored beans. – J. econom. Entomol. 74, 478–479, 1981.
ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation): Cereals and ceral products – determination of
moisture contents (routine reference method). 2nd Edition. – ISO (Switzerland), 1985.
PflKrankh. 2/05 Laboratory and field studies on the effect of natural control measures 171

Ivbijaro, M. F., C. Ligan, A. Youdeowe: Control of rice weevils, Sitophilus oryzae (L.), in stored
maize with vegetable oils. – Agricult. Ecol. Environm. 14, 237–242, 1985.
Kashi, K. P.: Report on the post-harvest losses consultancy mission to Ethiopia; February 25 to April
25, 1985. – Rome (FAO), 1985.
Ketkar, C. M., M. S. Ketkar: Versatile neem – a source for plant protection. – In: Chari, M. S.,
G. Ramaprasad (eds.): Botanical pesticides in integrated pest management, pp. 118–124. Pro-
ceedings of a National Symposium, Indian Society of Tobacco Science, Rajamundri, 5331105,
India, 1993.
Korunic, Z.: Diatomaceaus earth, a group of natural insecticides. – J. Stored Prod. Res. 34, 87–97,
1998.
Kumar, R., N. O. Okonronkwo: Effectiveness of plant oils against some Bostichidae infesting cereals
in storage. – Insect Sci. Applic. 12, 77–85, 1991.
La Hue, D. W.: Insecticidal dusts: grain protectants during high temperature – low humidity storage.
– J. econom. Entomol. 71, 230–232, 1978.
Malik, M. M., S. H. M. Naqvi: Screening of some indigenous plants as repellants or antifeedants for
stored grain insects. – J. Stored Prod. Res. 20, 41–44, 1984.
McFarlane, J. A., P. Dobie: The susceptibility of tef (Eragrostis abyssinica Schrad.) to infestation to
some insect pests of stored grain. – J. Stored Prod. Res. 8, 177–182, 1972.
McLaughlin, A.: Laboratory trials on desiccant dust insecticides. – In: Highly, E., E. J. Wright, H.
J. Banks, B. R. Champ (eds.): Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Stored Product
Protection, pp. 638–645. Canberra, Australia. Cambige, U. K. (University Press), 1994.
Messina, F. J., J. A. A. Renwick: Effectiveness of oils in protecting stored cowpeas from the cowpea
weevil (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). – J. econom. Entomol. 76, 634–636, 1983.
Mewis, I., Ch. Ulrichs: Auswirkungen von Diatomeenerde auf den Wasserhaushalt des Kornkäfers:
Sitophilus granarius (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) und möglicher Einsatz innerhalb des Vorrats-
schutzes. – J. appl. Entomol. 125, 351–360, 2001a.
Mewis, I., Ch. Ulrichs: Treatment of rice with diatomaceaus earth and effects on the mortality of the
red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). – Anz. Schädlingskunde, Pflanzen- und Umweltschutz
74, 13–16, 2001b.
Novo, R. J., A. Viglianco, M. Nassetta: Repellent activity of different plant extracts on T. canstaneum
(Herbst). – Agriscientia 14, 31–36, 1997.
Pantenius, C. U.: Storage losses in traditional maize granaries in Togo. – In: Study workshop on post-
harvest losses of cereal crops in Africa due to pests and disease, pp. 87–93. Report, UNECA and
ICIPE, 1987.
Pereira, J., R. Wohlgemuth: Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) of west African origin as a protectant
of stored maize. – Z. angew. Zool. 94, 208–214, 1982.
Obeng-Ofori, D.: Plant oils as grain protectants against infestations of Cryptolestes pusillus and
Rhizopertha dominica in stored grain. – Entomol. experim. applic. 77, 133–139, 1995.
Richter, A.: Storage methods in relation to post-harvest losses in cereals in farm and village level. – In:
Study workshop on post-harvelt losses of cereal crops in Africa due to pests and diseases, pp. 95–100.
Report (UNECA and ICIPE), 1987.
Saxena, R. C.: Pests of stored products. – In: Schmutterer, H. (ed.), The neem tree, Azadirachta
indica A. Juss. and other meliaceous plants. Source of unique natural products for integrated pest
management, medicine, industry and other purposes, pp. 418–432. VCH (Weinheim, Germany),
1995.
Saxena, R. C., G. Jilani, A. Abdul Kareem: Effects of neem on stored grain insects. – In: Jacobson,
M. (ed.): Focus on phytochemical pesticides. – Vol. I. The neem tree. Florida (CRC Press Inc.),
1988.
Schmutterer, H. (ed.): The Neem Tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and other meliaceous plants.
Source of unique natural products for integrated pest management, medicine, industry and other
purposes. VCH (Weinheim, Germany), 1995.
Schmutterer, H. (ed.): The neem tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and other meliaceous plants.
Source of unique natural products for integrated pest management, medicine, industry and other
purposes. 2nd Edition. Mumbai, India: Neem Faundation, 2000.
172 Tadesse/Basedow 2/05 PflKrankh.

Schoonhoven, A. V.: Use of vegetable oils to protect stored beans from bruchid attack. – J. econom.
Entomol. 71, 254–256, 1978.
Siddig, S. A.: Efficacy and persistance of powdered neem seeds for treatment of stored wheat against
Trogoderma granarium. – In: Schmutterer, H., K. R. Ascher, H. Rembold (eds.): Natural
pesticides from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.), pp. 251–258. Proceedings of the First
International Neem Conference, 16–18 June, 1980, Rottach-Egern, Germany. Eschborn: GTZ,
1980.
Singh, S. R., R. A. Luse, K. Leuschner, D. Nangju: Groundnut oil treatment for control of
Callosobruchus maculatus during cowpea storage. – J. Stored Prod. Res. 14, 77–80, 1978.
Stroud, A., C. Parker: A weed identification guide for Ethiopia. – Rome (FAO), 1989.
Su, H.: Toxicity and repellancy of chenopodium oil to four species of stored product insects. – J.
Entomol. Sci. 26, 76–80, 1991.
Subramanyam, B. H., C. L. Swanson, N. Madamanchhi, S. Norwood: Effectiveness of Insecto®, a
new diatomaceous earth formulation in suppressing several stored grain insect species. – In: Highley,
E., E. J. Wright, H. J. Banks, B. R. Champ (eds.): Proceedings of the 6th International Conference
on Stored Product Protection, pp. 650–659. Canberra, Australia. Cambige, U. K. (University
Press), 1994.
Tadesse, A.: Arthropods associated with stored maize and farmers’ management practices in the Bako
area. – Pest Mangem. J. Ethiopia 1, 19–27, 1997.
Tadesse, A.: Studies on some non-chemical insect pest management options on farm-stored maize in
Ethiopia. Ph. D. thesis Giessen, 2003.
Tadesse, A., Th. Basedow: Comparative evaluation of SilicoSec, Mexican tea powder and neem oil
against the granary weevil, Sitophilus granarius L., on wheat in the laboratory. – Mitt. dt. Gesellsch.
allgem. angew. Entomol. 14, 343–346; 2004 a.
Tadesse, A., Th. Basedow: A survey of insect pest problems and stored product protection in maize in
Ethiopia in the year 2000. – J. Pl. Dis. Protect. 111, 257–265, 2004 b.
Tanzubil, P. B.: The use of neem products in controlling the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus.
– In: Schmutterer, H., K. R. S. Ascher (eds.): Natural pesticides from the neem tree (Azadirachta
indica A. Juss.), pp. 517–523. Proceedings of the Third International Neem Conference, Nairobi,
Kenya, 10–15 July 1986. Eschborn, Germany (GTZ), 1987.
Tapandjou, L. A., C. Adler, H. Bouda, D. A. Fontem: Eficacy of powder and essential oil from
Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves as post-harvest grain protectants against six stored product beetles.
– J. Stored Prod. Res. 38, 395–402, 2002.
Tembo, E., R. F. A. Murfitt: Effect of combining vegetable oil with pirimiphos-methyl for protection
of stored wheat against Sitophilus granarius (L.). – J. Stored Prod. Res. 31, 77–81, 1995.
Van Huis, A.: Biological methods of bruchid control in the tropics: a review. – Insect Sci. Applic. 12,
87–102, 1991.
Wolfson, J. L., R. E. Shade, P. E. Mentzer, L. L. Murdock: Efficacy of ash for controlling
infestations of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Col. Bruchidae) in stored cowpeas. – J. Stored Prod.
Res. 27, 239–243, 1991.
Yun-Tai, Q., W. E. Burkholder: Protection of stored wheat from the granary weevil by vegetable
oils. – J. econom. Entomol. 74, 502–505, 1981.
Zehrer, W.: The effects of additional preservatives used in northern Togo and neem oil for control of
storage pests. – In: Schmutterer, H., K. R. S. Ascher (eds.): Natural pesticides from the neem tree
(Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) and other tropical plants, pp. 453–460. Proceedings of the Second
International Neem Conference, Rauischholzhausen, Germany, 25–28 May, 1983. GTZ (Eschborn,
Germany), 1984.