Name: ______________________________ Class: __________

5090 BIOLOGY TOPIC 1: CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

Introduction to Biology

The word Biology is derived from the Greek language: bios means life and logos means knowledge.
Biology is an organised study of living things and the theories that humans have devised to describe and
explain the word of life. Biologists call a living thing an organism – these include green plants, non-green
plants, animals and micro-organisms.

The characteristics common to most living things are movement, excretion, reproduction, irritability, growth,
respiration, adaptability and nutrition.

Practical skill - Using a hand lens

A hand lens is a convex lens generally mounted in a frame. In order for it to be used as a magnifier, hold
the lens close to your eye and move towards the specimen or object until details come into sharp focus.

A typical school laboratory hand lens gives a x10 magnification which allows you to observe details of a
specimen that is difficult to see with the naked eyes. The magnifying power of the lens is an indication of
how much larger the image has been made with the help of the lens; then the magnification of the drawing
in relation to the size of the object must be calculated.

Magnification of drawing = Length of drawing

Length of object

Practical skill – Using a light microscope

The structure of the light microscope is essentially that of an instrument using two convex lenses to obtain
a greatly enlarged image of a very small object.

A microscope is a very expensive instrument and should be handled with great care in order to maintain its
precision.
1. The instrument should be placed on the bench or table with the arm towards you and the stage away
from you. Sit behind the microscope in a comfortable position.
2. Clean the eyepiece lens and objective lenses with lens paper. Never touch the lenses with the fingers
or use a coarse cloth for cleaning purposes. The lenses should never be wetted.
3. Adjust the mirror (if present) and iris diaphragm to give a clear but not too bright view through the
eyepiece.
4. Place the specimen slide on the stage and secure it in place with the clips.
5. Using the coarse adjustment, lower the body tube until the objective lens is close to but not touching the
slide.
6. Look through the eyepiece and use the fine adjustment to raise the body tube until the object on the
slide is brought to focus.
7. Always start with the x10 objective lens to locate the structures or parts of the specimen you want to
observe, and then switch to an objective lens of a higher magnification to observe the details.

The total magnification using the combination of the eyepiece lens and objective lens is obtained by
multiplying the magnification of the eyepiece lens by that of the objective lens.

Note: To see even smaller structures inside a cell, an electron microscope is used. This uses a beam of
electrons instead of light and can magnify up to 500,000 times. This means that a lot of details can be seen
inside a cell. An electron microscope can provide a detailed picture of cell structure and organelles.
(a) Examine under the microscope an animal cell (e.g. from fresh liver) and a plant cell (e.g. from Elodea, a
moss, onion epidermis, or any suitable, locally available material), using an appropriate temporary staining
technique, such as iodine or methylene blue
(b) Draw diagrams to represent observations of the plant and animal cells examined above

Microscopic image Representative diagram

Plant cells
(Onion
epidermal cells)

Animal cells
(Human cheek
cells)

(c) Identify, from fresh preparations or on diagrams or photomicrographs, the cell membrane, nucleus and
cytoplasm in an animal cell
(d) Identify, from diagrams or photomicrographs, the cellulose cell wall, cell membrane, sap vacuole,
cytoplasm, nucleus and chloroplasts in a plant cell

*Only found in plant cells

(f) State the function of the cell membrane in controlling the passage of substances into and out of the cell
(g) State the function of the cell wall in maintaining turgor (turgidity) within the cell

Structure Function(s)
cell (plasma) membrane • Envelopes the cell, so preventing its contents from spilling out
• It is partially permeable. This means that this wall has pores which are big
enough only for certain substances to move into or out of the cell. So, it
controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells
cytoplasm • Jelly-like substance which is made up 90% of water and dissolved food
substances such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates and mineral salts
• Site of chemical reactions (metabolic reactions) where organelles can be
found e.g. nucleus, mitochondria
• Temporary food storage e.g. oil globules, starch granules (in plants only)
nucleus • Contains genetic materials called DNA chromosomes which carry genetic
information of the cell; chromosomes possess genes for programming the
cytoplasm to manufacture particular proteins
• Controls all chemical reactions within the cell and cell division
mitochondrion • Often called the ‘power houses’ of the cell
(plural: mitochondria) • Releases energy by carrying out a chemical reaction called respiration
ribosome • Produces proteins by carrying out a chemical reaction called protein
synthesis
endoplasmic reticulum, • an extensive system of membranes running through the cytoplasm
ER • site of protein and lipid synthesis
Golgi body / Golgi • involved in protein modification
apparatus • often involved in making lysosomes
(cellulose) cell wall • Envelopes the outer part of the plant cell; cell membrane attaches next to it.
(Cellulose is a type of carbohydrate)
• It is a tough wall which supports and protects the plant cell from
bursting; i.e. maintain turgor (turgidity) within the cell
• Give shape to the cell
• It is fully permeable. This means that this wall has big pores which allow all
sizes of substances to move in or out of the cell
• Supports non-woody plant organs
chloroplast • Produces glucose by carrying out a chemical reaction called photosynthesis
• Contains green pigments called chlorophylls. Chlorophylls absorb
light energy needed in photosynthesis
(sap) vacuole • Fluid filled area enveloped by a membrane. The fluid filled area is called cell
sap. It contains water and dissolved food substances; i.e. food storage
• Unlike cytoplasm, it does not contain organelles
• Important in maintaining the turgidity of the cells, which helps in
maintaining the shapes of the cells; osmoregulation (regulation of water
content by osmosis)

(e) Compare the visible differences in structure of the animal and the plant cells examined
 Animal cell Plant cell
Cell membrane present

Cytoplasm present

Similarities Nucleus present

Mitochondria present

Ribosomes present

Cellulose cell wall absent Cellulose cell wall present

Sap vacuole absent

Sap vacuole present
*Have many small temporary vesicles

Differences Chloroplasts absent Chloroplasts present

No starch granules; sometimes have
Often have starch granules
glycogen granules
Often irregular in shape Often regular in shape

(h) State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following:
absorption – root hair cells, conduction and support – xylem vessels, and transport of oxygen – red blood
cells
(i) Identify these cells from preserved material under the microscope, from diagrams and from
photomicrographs

In unicellular organisms, one cell must be able to carry out all functions of a living organism. In
multicellular organisms, cells are usually modified to carry out one main function. The appearance
of the cell will vary depending on what that main function is. There is a relationship between the
structure of a cell and its function. This specialisation/adaptation of cells to carry out particular
functions in an organism is referred to as ‘division of labour’.

Below are few examples of cells chosen to illustrate the relationship between cell structures and
their functions within the organism.

Cell structure Function(s) Adaptation(s) to function(s)

Root hair cells • Absorption of water and mineral • Long and narrow projection –
salts from the soil greatly increases the surface area to
volume ratio of the cell for uptake of
water and mineral salts; also form
very close contact with the water film
surrounding many soil particles (able
to penetrate between the soil
particles)

• Has a very concentrated cell sap in

its vacuole - increases the water
potential gradient between the soil
water and the root hair cell so that
water will tend to move into the cell
by osmosis
Xylem vessels • To conduct water and mineral salts• Xylem vessel is a dead structure as
from the roots to the stem, leaves, there is no protoplasm present. They
flowers and fruits i.e. aerial parts of
have hollow lumen i.e. no cytoplasm,
the plant allowing water and its dissolved
mineral salts to pass through
• To provide mechanical support for unimpeded (no obstruction)
the parts of the plant above the
ground, especially the stem • The cell walls of xylem vessels are
strengthened by the strong, rigid and
waterproof substance called lignin –
strengthens the walls and prevents
collapse of the vessel

• Provides mechanical support to the

plant, i.e. help to resist bending
strains caused by the wind.
Red blood cells • Carry oxygen from the heart to all • The cytoplasm in red blood cells
parts of the body contains the pigment haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin, which contains iron,
combines with oxygen in the lungs to
become oxyhaemoglobin. This is a
reversible process

• The absence of nucleus

(enucleated) means space for more
haemoglobin enabling more oxygen
to be transported increasing their
efficiency

• The cells are small and there are

many of them, so they have a very
large surface area for oxygen
absorption

• They have a flat, biconcave shape

which increases the surface area to
volume ratio for faster absorption and
transport of oxygen

• They are flexible, allowing them to

be pushed easily through the small
blood vessels i.e. capillaries whereby
they become bell-shaped.
(j) Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system as illustrated by examples covered in syllabus

One cell working on its own would achieve very little in an individual plant or animal, so we usually find
many similar cells lying side-by-side and working together, performing the same function.

A cell
A cell is a basic unit of all organisms consisting of cytoplasm bounded by a membrane and is usually with a
nucleus.

Examples:
Plant cell : epidermal cell, root hair cell
Animal cell : muscle cell, nerve cell

A Tissue
Many similar cells working together and performing the same function.

Examples:
(i) Xylem tissue in the vascular bundles of a plant
(ii) Muscular tissue in the intestine wall of an animal
(iii) Epidermal tissue of leaves

An Organ
Several different tissues working together to perform a particular function.

Examples:
(i) The leaf of a plant: an organ for the manufacture of carbohydrates during photosynthesis
(ii) The eye of an animal: the organ of sight
(iii) Heart: An organ acting as a pump

An Organ system
A collection of different organs working together to perform a particular function.

Examples:
(i) The sepals, petals, stamens and carpels (i.e. the flowers) of a plant: For reproduction
(ii) The heart, arteries, veins and capillaries in an animal: The circulatory system
(iii) Kidneys, urinary bladder, ureter, urethra: Urinary system

An Organism
A collection of organ systems working together.

Example in human:
Digestive system, circulatory system, respiratory system, urinary system, nervous system,
reproductive system all combine together to form an organism.

The increasing order of cell organisation found within any living organism is:
Cell → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems → Organisms