22PH102 - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT V & ENERGY IN MATERIALS

1.INTRODUCTION TO ELASTIC ENERGY

Elastic energy is the potential energy stored in an object when it is deformed (stretched,
compressed, bent, etc.) and then released. It is a form of mechanical energy. Elastic energy is
observed in materials that return to their original shape after being deformed, such as springs,
rubber bands, and elastic materials.

For example; Rubber Bands-Store energy when stretched and release it when they snap
back.

Factors Affecting Elastic Energy

Material Properties: The amount of elastic energy a material can store depends on its
elasticity, which is governed by the material's Young's modulus (a measure of stiffness).

Extent of Deformation: The greater the deformation (within elastic limits), the more elastic
energy is stored.

Spring Constant (k): A higher spring constant means a stiffer spring, which requires more
force to deform and thus can store more energy for the same displacement.

Summary

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  Elastic energy is a fundamental concept in physics and engineering, describing the
energy stored in deformed elastic objects.

 It is governed by Hooke's Law, which defines the relationship between force,

displacement, and energy storage in elastic materials.

 Understanding elastic energy is crucial in various applications, from mechanical

engineering to everyday tools and sports equipment.

2. CRYSTALLINE AND NON-CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

Matter can be subdivided into two states-solid and fluid, of which the later is subdivided
into liquid and gaseous state. Matter can also be subdivided into condensed stated and gaseous
state where condensed state is subdivided into the solid and liquid state. Although very little of the
matter in the universe is in the solid state, solids constitute much of the physical world around us
and a large part of the modern technology is based on the special characteristics of the various
solid materials.

Nature favors the crystalline state of the solids, because the energy of the ordered atomic
arrangement is lower than that of an irregular packing of atoms.

2.1 CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

A solid in general is said to be a crystal if the constituent particles (atoms, ions or

molecules) are arranged in a three dimensional periodic manner or simply it has a reticular
structure. In crystalline solids the atoms are stacked in a regular manner, forming a 3-D pattern
which may be obtained by a 3-D repetition of a certain pattern unit. It has long-range orderness and
thus has definite properties such a sharp melting point. Thus we can say, crystal is a three
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dimensional periodic array of atoms.

When the crystal grows under constant environment, the external geometrical shape of the
crystal often remains unchanged. Thus, the shape is a consequence of the internal arrangement of
constituent particles. The ideal crystal has an infinite 3D repetition of identical units, which may be
atoms or molecules. All ionic solids and most covalent solids are crystalline. All solid metals,
under normal circumstances, are crystalline.

SINGLE CRYSTAL

When the periodicity in crystal pattern extends throughout a certain piece of materials, one
speaks of a single crystal or unit crystal or mono-crystal. Rock salt, calcites, quartz, etc. are
examples of common single crystal.

Figure 1.1: Difference in structure between (a) crystalline and (b) noncrystalline materials

2.2 POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

When the periodicity in the crystal structure is interrupted at so-called grain boundaries, the
crystal is said to be polycrystalline. In this case the size of the grains or crytallites is smaller than
the size of the pattern unit which forms the periodicity. The size of the grain in which the structure
is periodic may vary from macroscopic dimensions to several angstroms.

In general, the grains in such a solid are not related in shape to the crystal structure, the
surface being random in shape rather than well-defined crystal planes. Rock, sand, metals, salts,
etc. are some examples of polycrystalline solids.

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 Figure 1.2: Single crystal, polycrystalline, amorphous
2.3 NONCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

It is the opposite extreme of a single crystal. These types of solids have neither reticular nor
granular structure. At most causes exhibit short range orderness in their structure. Glass and plastic
are common example of this class. When the size of the grains or crystallites becomes comparable
to the size of the pattern unit, we speak of amorphous substances.

A typical feature of these substances is that they have no definite melting points. As their
temperature is increased, they gradually become soft; their viscosity drops, and begins to behave
like ordinary viscous liquids. Amorphous solids have no long-range order. The atoms or molecules
in these solids are not periodically located over large distances. An amorphous structure is shown
below.

Figure 1.3: Amorphous structure

Many amorphous materials have internal structures similar to liquids. In fact, the only
obvious distinction between amorphous materials, such as glass, and liquids is the high viscosity
(resistance to flow) of the amorphous solids.

All solids tend to exist in the crystalline state rather than the amorphous state because the
crystalline structure always has a larger binding energy. However, in numerous instances

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amorphous solids are formed when liquids are cooled below the melting temperature. This occurs
for two reasons:

1) The structure of the molecules is so complex that they cannot easily rearrange
themselves to form a crystalline structure, and/or

2) The solid forms so rapidly that the atoms or molecules do not have time enough to
rearrange themselves in a crystalline structure.

2.4 LATTICE

The property that distinguishes crystals from other solids is that the constituent particles in
crystals are arranged in a three dimensional periodic manner. In 1848 Bravais introduced the
concept of space lattice.

A lattice is a regular periodic array of points in space where objects are replaced by points
imaginary points. It may consider as removal of the atom but the centre remains there.

Figure 2.1: Lattice arrangement in 1-D is the line of Lattice, in 2-D is the Lattice plane, in
3-D is the space Lattice.

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 Figure 2.2: Lattice point

2.5 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

A crystal structure is formed when a group of atoms or molecules are attached identically to
each lattice point. This group of atoms or molecules are called basis.

Basis is identical – in composition,

in arrangement,

in orientation .

and repeated periodically in space to form the crystal structure which can be represented by the

logical formula:

Lattice + Basis = crystal structure (Figure 2.3)

2-D noncollinear translation define a plane lattice

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 3-D non-coplanar translation defined a space lattice

2.6 LATTICE PARAMETERS

The lattice constant [or lattice parameter] refers to the constant distance between unit cells
in a crystal lattice. Lattices in three dimensions generally have three lattice constants, referred to as
a, b, and c. However, in the special case of cubic crystal structures, all of the constants are equal
and we only refer to a. Similarly, in hexagonal crystal structures, the a and b constants are equal,
and we only refer to the a and c constants. A group of lattice constants could be referred to as
lattice parameters. However, the full set of lattice parameters consist of the three lattice constants
and the three angles between them.

For example, the lattice constant for a common carbon diamond is a = 3.57Å at 300 K. The
structure is equilateral although its actual shape cannot be determined from only the lattice
constant. Furthermore, in real applications, typically the average lattice constant is given. As lattice
constants have the dimension of length, their SI unit is the meter. Lattice constants are typically of
the order of several angstroms (i.e. tenths of a nanometre). Lattice constants can be determined
using techniques such as X-ray diffraction or with an atomic force microscope (AFM).

Figure 2.4: Lattice parameter

Thus, the tree fundamental translation vectors a, b, c along with opposite angles α, β, γ,
each of between two crystallographic axis as shown in figure 2.4 are the lattice parameters and the
distance between two identical atoms or molecules is the lattice constant.

2.7 LATTICE POINTS PER UNIT CELL

In primitive cell, lattice points are located only at corners, while each corners of the cell is
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common to eight neighboring unit cells and the contribution towards the unit cell per corner is only
one eight. Since there are eight corners, therefore the number of lattice point per unit cell is only
one.

Primitive cell contains one lattice point.

Cubic cell contains one lattice point.

Body centered cubic contains 2 lattice points

and conventional face centered cubic (fcc) cell contains four lattice points.

2.8 UNIT CELL

It is small repeating entity of the atomic structure. The basic building block of the crystal structure.
It defines the entire crystal structure with the atom positions within.

Figure 2.5: Unit Cell

Above, in the first and third pictures, we can see how a crystal actually looks , while in the
second picture ,we can see the structure of a crystal and a cube which is known as a Unit cell.

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 Figure 2.6: Unit Cell in crystal lattice

By repeating the pattern of the unit cell over and over in all directions, the entire crystal
lattice can be constructed.

To define the unit cell parameters or lattice parameters, first we define crystallographic
axes. These axes are obtained by the intersection of the three non-coplanar faces of the unit cell.

Figure 2.7: Crystallographic axes

The angle between these faces or crystallographic axes are known as interfacial or
interaxial angles. The angles between the axes Y and Z is α, between Z and X is β and between X
and Y is γ. The translational vectors or primitives a, b, c of a unit cell along X, Y, Z axes and
interaxial angles α, β, γ are called cell parameters. These cell parameters are shown in Fig. The cell
parameters determine the actual size and shape of the unit cell. The point of intersection of the
three axes is called the AXIAL CROSS.

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 Figure 2.7: Crystal structure (Bravais Lattices)

3. THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF BONDS

Atoms form bonds with other atoms in order to have a full outer shell of electrons like the
noble gases. If an atom has too few or too many valence electrons it will have to gain, lose, or
share those outer electrons with another atom in order to become “happy” or in chemistry terms,
more stable. There are many types of chemical bonds that can form, however the 3 main types are:
ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds. You must become familiar with how they work and the
differences between the 3 types.

I. Ionic bonding:

Ionic bonding occurs strictly between metal and nonmetal atoms. In ionic bonding some of
the valence electrons of a metal atom are transferred to a nonmetal atom so that each atom ends up
with a noble gas configuration. Usually one, two, or three electrons are transferred from one atom
to another. This transfer of an electron causes the metal atom to have a net positive charge (+) and
the nonmetal atom to have a net negative charge (-).

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 The individual atoms in ionic solids are referred to as ions because of their charges. These
opposite charges are attracted to one another. On the right is a drawing of a chunk of salt, NaCl, a
very common ionic substance. Notice how the sodium and chloride ions alternate throughout the
structure. The positive and negative ions alternating in three dimensions make the solid quite
strong because of their strong attractions to one another.

The sodium ion is written Na+ and the chloride ion is written Cl-. When ionic solids are
placed in contact with water, they dissolve. They remain ions, with charges, but now the individual
ions are surrounded by water molecules and distributed throughout the water. Once dissolved,
ionic compounds will conduct electricity.

Figure 3.1: Ionic bonding

II. Covalent Bonding:

The valence electrons are shared between atoms, such that the electrons are attracted to two
nuclei. Non-metal atoms will form covalent bonds with each other. In Figure 3.2, two fluorine
atoms form a stable F2 molecule in which each atom has an octet of valence electrons by sharing a
pair of electrons.

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 Figure 3.2: Covalent bonding

III. Metallic Bonding:

In the metallic bond, metal atoms achieve a more stable configuration by sharing the
electrons in its outer shell with many other metal atoms. The valence electrons in metals are not
tightly bound in the nucleus and each atom in a metal contributes all the electrons in its valence
shell to all other atoms in the structure.

The electrons then form a sort of “sea of electrons” around the atoms. Thus, each atom
becomes essentially positive in charge, having lost some electrons. The atoms in turn are attracted
to the negatively charged "sea". Therefore, the individual atoms can "slip" over one another yet
remain firmly held together by the electrostatic forces exerted by the electrons. This is why most
metals can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable) or drawn into thin wires (ductile).

When electricity is applied, the electrons move freely between atoms, and a current flows.
In figure 3.3b is an artist's rendering of a block of iron, Fe, atoms. The "sea of electrons" is not
visible.

Figure 3.3 Metallic bonding

3.1 SECONDARY BONDING

I. Hydrogen Bonding

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 Compared to ionic and covalent bonding, Hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of chemical
bonding. It is a type of polar covalent bonding between oxygen and hydrogen, wherein the
hydrogen develops a partial positive charge. This implies that the electrons are pulled closer to the
more electronegative oxygen atom.

This creates a tendency for the hydrogen to be attracted towards the negative charges of any
neighbouring atom. This type of chemical bonding is called a hydrogen bond and is responsible for
many of the properties exhibited by water.

Figure 3.4: Hydrogen bonding

II. London Dispersion Forces

Another form of chemical bonding is caused by London dispersion forces. These forces are
weak in magnitude. These forces occur due to a temporary charge imbalance arising in an atom.
This imbalance in charge of the atom can induce dipoles in neighbouring atoms. For example, the
temporary positive charge on one area of an atom can attract the neighbouring negative charge.

Figure 3.5: Chemical Bonding – London Dispersion Forces

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Why are primary bonds generally stronger than secondary bonds?

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2. What are some examples of substances that exhibit ionic, covalent, and metallic
primary bonds?

3. What are the key differences between crystalline and non-crystalline solids?

4. What is a crystal structure, and how does it differ from an amorphous structure?

5. What are the most common types of crystal structures found in metals, and why are
they important?

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