Handout: Physics Class-9

Section 7: Radioactivity and particles

a) Units
7.1 use the following units: Becquerel (Bq), centimetre (cm), hour (h), minute (min),
second (s).
Unit of radioactivity: Becquerel (Bq)

Unit of length: centimetre (cm)

Unit of time: hour (h)

Unit of time: minute (min)

Unit of time: second (s)

b) Radioactivity
7.2 describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons and
use symbols such as 146 Cto describe particular nuclei

An atom is a tiny particle with nucleus in the centre and electrons orbiting it. A nucleus
is made up of proton and neutron.

An atom is presented in this way = XYZ

Z=Symbol of the atom

X=Mass Number

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Y=Atomic Number

7.3 understand the terms atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and isotope
Atomic Number: Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom

Mass number: Mass number is the addition number of protons and neutrons

Isotope: Isotope is an element which has the same atomic number as the original atom
but different mass number.

7.4 understand that alpha and beta particles and gamma rays are ionising radiations
emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process
Stability of isotopes: The protons are held in a nucleus by nuclear force. Nuclear force is
strong short ranged force. On the other hand, the protons try to repel away from each
other due the electric force formed by the similar charges of protons. So the presence of
neutrons help nucleus to stabilize. Too many or too few of neutrons can cause instability
and may eventually decay, thus giving out ionising radiation along with energy.

Ionising radiation: Whenunstable nuclei decay they gives out ionising radiation. Ionising
radiation causes atom to gain or lose electrons to form ions. Basically there are three
types of ionizing radiation: alpha, beta and gamma.

Alpha radiation: Alpha radiation consists of fast-moving helium nucleus.

Beta radiation: Beta radiation consists of fast-moving electron.

Gamma rays: Gamma ray is an electromagnetic wave.

7.5 describe the nature of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays and recall that they
may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power
Nature of radiation
Alpha radiation has been identified as a stream of helium nuclei. In other words, an
alpha particle is actually a positively-charged helium nucleus comprising two protons
and two neutrons. It is a very stable particle.

Beta radiation has been identified as a stream of high-energy electrons. In other words,
a beta particle is actually a negatively-charged electron. It is formed by a nucleus decay
process.

Gamma radiation has been identified as high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. In

other words, they are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength.

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Ionising power
When a fast-moving particle such as an alpha or beta particle collides with an atom, an
electron may be ejected from the atom, resulting in a charged ion. Alpha particles have
the greatest ionising power compared to beta and gamma radiation because it is
heavier and large and is more likely to collide with atoms, resulting the greatest number
of ions in their tracks. Compared with gamma rays, beta particles are more ionizing.

Penetrating power

The Figure shows the relative penetrating power of three kinds of radiation. The alpha
particles can be stopped by a sheet of paper whereas beta particles and gamma rays
penetrate it easily. This shows that alpha particles have the least penetrating power.
Infact, it has a range of only few centimeters in air. Beta particles have a range of
several metres in air but can be stopped by a 5mm tick aluminium sheet. Gamma rays
are the most penetrating, having a range of a few hundred metres in air and can only be
stopped by a 2 cm-thick lead shield.

Radiation Ionising power Penetrating Example of Radiation

range in air range in air stopped by
Alpha,α strong weak 5-8cm paper
Beta, β medium medium 500-1000 cm Thin aluminium
Gamma, γ weak strong Virtually infinite Thick lead
sheet

7.6 describe the effects on the atomic and mass numbers of a nucleus of the emission
of each of the three main types of radiation
Alpha (α) decay:

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In alpha decay,alpha particles takes away 4 nucleons with itself which reduce the mass
number of the element by 4. Alpha particles have 2 protons with it, which reduce the
atomic number of the element by 2.

Example:

Beta (β)decay:

Beta particle is formed when a neutron splits to form a proton and an electron. Beta
particle practically has no mass, so it doesn’t affect the mass number of the element. As
beta particles have a charge of -1, the elements atomic number is increased by +1.

Example:

Gamma (γ) decay:

After an unstable nucleus has emitted an alpha or beta particle it sometimes has
surplus energy. It emits this energy as gamma radiation. Gamma ray is an
electromagnetic wave and doesn’t affect the mass number or atomic number of the
element.

7.7 understand how to complete balanced nuclear equations

In a nuclear equation, in the left hand side the total mass number should be equal to the
mass number in the right hand side. And the atomic number should be equal in both
sides.

Here, Uranium experienced an alpha decay:

Here, Lithium faced beta decay:

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7.8 understand that ionising radiations can be detected using a photographic film or a
Geiger-Muller detector
Photographic film: Photographic film is a traditional way to detect presence of ionising
radiation nearby. Ionising radiations imprints photographic plates. That is the film
becomes foggy when it is exposed to a certain amount of radiation.

Geiger Muller: Geiger Muller tube is used to measure the level of radiation. It is a glass
tube with an electrically conducting coating on the inside surface. The tube has a thin
window made of mica. The tube contains low pressured gases. In the middle of the
tube, there is an electrode which is connected to a high voltage supply via a resistor.
When ionising radiation enters the tube through the glass, it causes the low pressured
gas to form ions. As ions are charged particle they allow to flow a pulse of current in the
electrode which is detected by an electronic circuit.

Counting circuit is fitted with a GM tube so that it can measure how many ionising
particles entered GM tube. Rate meters are fitted with GM tube to measure the number
of ionising events per second, and so give a measure of the radioactivity in Becquerels.
Rate meters have a loudspeaker output so the level of radioactivity is indicated by the
rate of clicks produced.

7.9 explain the sources of background radiation

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Background radiation is low-level ionizing radiation that is produced all the time. The
background radiation has many sources including natural and artificial ones.

Natural sources:
Cosmic rays: Violent nuclear reactions in stars and exploding stars called supernovae
produce very energetic particles and cosmic rays that continuously bombard the Earth.
Lower energy cosmic rays are given out by the Sun. Our atmosphere gives us fairly
good protection from cosmic rays.

Rocks and soil: Some of the radiation comes from rocks in the Earth’s crust. When the
Earth was formed, around 4.5 billion years ago, it contained many radioactive isotopes.
Some decayed very quickly but others are still producing radiation. Some of the decay
products of these long-lived radioactive materials are also radioactive, so there are
radioactive isotopes with much shorter half-lives still present in the Earth’s crust.

Living things: Plants absorb radioactive materials from the soil and these pass up the
food chain. Also we breathe small amount of radioactive isotopes of carbon, carbon –
14. We continuously renew the amount of radioactive isotopes in our bodies.

Artificial sources:
Human activity has added to background radiation by creating and using artificial
sources of radiation. These include radioactive waste from nuclear power stations,
radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing and medical x-rays.

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Artificial sources account for about 15 percent of the average background radiation
dose. Nearly all artificial background radiation comes from medical procedures such as
receiving x-rays for x-ray photographs.

7.10 understand that the activity of a radioactive source decreases over a period of time
and is measured in Becquerels
Radioactive substance keeps decaying in a random process. As it decays, its activity is
reduced over a period of time. The unit of Radioactivity is Becquerels.

If we plot a graph of activity of a radioactive isotope against time we will get something
like the one above. The graph falls steeply at first and more slowly after time. This is
because the activity gets smaller, and the smaller the activity the slower the activity will
decrease. This kind of decrease proportional of activity to time is called exponential
decay.

7.11 understand the term ‘half-life’ and understand that it is different for different
radioactive isotopes
“Half-Life” is the amount of time taken for the activity of any radioactive substance to
reduce to half. Each radioactive isotope decays in different speeds. So half life is
different for different types of isotopes.

7.12 use the concept of half-life to carry out simple calculations on activity

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To find half life, plot graph of the activity against time. Point out the half of the activity
and draw line to match the time as done in the figure. The time is your half-life.

Half life calculation:

Example: The half life of an isotope is 3 hours. If the initial activity of the isotope is 544
Bq, what will be the count rate after 15 hours?

Ans:
15 hours = 3 x 5 hours
Therefore, the activity will be halved 5 times.
544× 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 17
2 2 2 2 2
The activity will be 17 Bq after 15 hours.

Experiment: How to find the Half-life of a radioactive isotope.

Apparatus: Geiger-Muller tube

Procedure: To measure the half-life of a radioactive material we must measure the

activity of the sample at regular times. This is done using a Geiger – Muller tube linked
to a rate meter. Before taking measurements from the sample, we must measure the
local background radiation. We must subtract the background radiation from
measurements taken from the sample so we know the radiation produced by the
sample itself. We then measure the rate of decay of the sample at regular time intervals.
The rate of decay is shown by the count rate on the rate meter. The results should be
recorded in a table.

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The rate of decay corrected from background radiation is proportional to the amount of
radioactive isotope present. If we plot a graph of rate of decay against time, we can
measure the half-life from the graph.

7.13 describe the uses of radioactivity in medical and non-medical tracers, in

radiotherapy, and in the radioactive dating of archaeological specimens and rocks
Radioactive materials are being used in many different ways in medicine, industry and
agriculture. There are five main uses of radioactive materials. They are used in tracers,
as penetrating radiation, as power sources, for medical treatment and for dating
archaeological specimens.

1. Tracers
The ability of detectors to measure small concentrations of a radioactive material
is made use of in tracer applications. Tracers are used extensively in medicine.
Iodine, for example accumulates readily in the thyroid gland. By using radioactive
iodine – 131 and finding out the rate at which it accumulates in the thyroid, the
thyroid functions may be monitored.

In industry, a typical use of tracers is in the study of the wear and tear of the
moving parts of machinery. This can be done by tagging a radioisotope onto the
surfaces of the moving parts under investigation and then finding the amount
rubbed off. Another major use in industry is in the detection of leaks in
underground pipe.

By introducing a suitable radioactive tracer into the pipe, the leak unusually high
count rate at the area of the leak. This will save both time and money in locating

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 and repairing the leak.

In agriculture, radioactive phosphorus-32 is used as a tracer to find out how well

the plants are absorbing phosphates which are crucial to their growth. The
complicated mechanism of photosynthesis has also been studied using tracers.

2. Penetrating radiation
Cobal-60 emits penetrating gamma rays which can be used to penetrate deep
into welding to reveal faults. Normal X-rays are not able to perform this task.
Gamma rays are also used to photograph the inside of an engine to reveal any
cracks.

In the area of manufacturing, suitable radioactive sources are used to check the
thickness of rolled sheets of metal, paper or plastic. In other words, the gamma
radiation source acts as a thickness gauge.

A beta source cannot be used in this case because it is not penetrative enough
when compared to the gamma source. However, a beta source can be used to
check the thickness of rolled sheets of paper or plastic.

In the food industry, the high penetration power of gamma rays is used to kill any
bacteria in pre-packaged or frozen foods. This will sterilize the food and prevent
food poisoning.

3. Power sources
Uranium-235 is the most common fuel in nuclear power stations. Other
radioactive materials can be used as portable sources. For example, some
satellites use radioactive materials as their source of power, which comes from
the energy released when these radioactive materials decay.

Some fire alarms contain a small amount of alpha-emitting substance. The alpha
particles emitted keep the air in the fire alarms slightly ionized and any changes
in the level of ionization caused by smoke in a fire can be detected and the alarm
is set off.

4. Medical treatment
Radioactive cobalt, Co-60, decays with the emission of beta particles and high
energy gamma rays. When properly shielded, the gamma rays can be brought to
bear on deep cancerous growths in a cancer patient. The radiation kills the cell of

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 the malignant tumour in the patient Machines built for this purposes, known as
gammatrons are very useful in radiotherapy.

5. Archaeological dating
Radioactive carbon-14 is present in small amounts in the atmosphere. Living
plants absorb carbon dioxide and therefore become slightly radioactive. This
enables the level of radioactivity of plants to be monitored.

When a tree dies, the radioactive carbon present inside it will begin to decay.
Since the half-life of carbon-14 is nearly 5500 years the age of a dead tree can
be found by comparing the activity of the carbon-14 in the dead tree and a living
tree.

The activity of the carbon-14 of a living tree stays fairly constant as the carbon-14
is being replenished while the carbon-14 in the dead tree is not replenished.
Therefore, by measuring the activity of carbon-14 in an ancient relic, scientists
can calculate its age.

7.14 describe the dangers of ionising radiations, including:

● Radiation can cause mutations in living organisms
● Radiation can damage cells and tissue
● The problems arising in the disposal of radioactive waste
and describe how the associated risks can be reduced.
Hazard of radiation
Overexposure to radioactive radiation may result in radiation burns. These will lead to
sores and blisters which may take a long time to heal. Extreme overexposure can lead
to radiation sickness, and ultimately death. Radioactive radiation can also lead to
delayed conditions such as eye cataracts or leukemia, which may only appear many
years later.

Ionizing radiation causes mutations in the genes which led to offspring bearing
physiological and other abnormalities. They are health hazards to people, livestock and
plants.

Precautions against radiation hazards

To prevent overexposure to radiation or any accidents, following precautions need to be
taken:

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i) Workers working with gamma radiation must wear film badges or pocket
dosimeter in order to keep tract of the accumulated dosage they are exposed to
over given period time.
ii) Always keep radioactive sources in lead-lined boxes. The wall of the storage
rooms of nuclear laboratories are to be built with lead bricks that are 1m thick.
The outside of the room must be labeled “Radioactive Material”
iii) The radiation symbol must be displayed whenever an experiment with a
radioactive source is conducted.
iv) If possible, persons doing radiation experiments should use special, protective
clothing such as lead-lined suits as well as wear lead-lined gloves. Tweezers
must be used to pick up strong sources. After completion of the day’s work, the
contaminated clothing must be changed.
v) Food and drinks are strictly prohibited when a person is doing a radioactivity
experiment. Otherwise, radioactive dust can be taken into the body together with
food.
vi) The nuclear process in a reactor produces a variety of different types of
radioactive material. Some have relatively short half-lives and decay rapidly.
These soon become safe to handle and do not present problems of long-term
storage. Other materials have extremely long half – lives. These will continue to
produce dangerous levels of ionising radiation for thousands of years. These
waste products present a serious problem for long-term storage. They are
usually sealed in containers that are then buried deep underground. The sites of
underground storage have to be carefully selected. The rock must be
impermeable to water and the geology of the site must be stable – storing waste
in earthquake zones or area of volcanic activity would not be sensible.

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