Science & tech

by
Ankit Tiwari

[email protected]

ankit_tiwari_cse
 Chemistry
1. Matter in our surrounding
2. Solution
3. Atoms & Molecule
4. Acid, Base and Salt
5. Structure of Atom
6. Elements & their compounds
7. Chemistry in Everyday life
8. Chemistry in Agriculture & Medicine
9. Polymerization
10.Classification of Elements
11.Chemical Reactions and Equation
12.Matters & its Nature
13.Some Important Metals & their Uses
14.Chemical Bonding
15.Pollution
16.Gases .
 4. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

• In general, an electron is represented as ‘e– ’ and a proton as ‘p+ ’.

• The mass of a proton is taken as one unit and its charge as plus one.

• The mass of an electron is considered to be negligible and its charge is minus one.
THOMSON’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
• Thomson proposed that:

i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded
in it.
ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude.

iii) So, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
• α-particles are doubly-charged helium ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the fast-
moving α-particles have a considerable amount of energy
• The following observations were made:

i) Most of the fast moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.
Rutherford concluded from the α-particle scattering experiment that

i) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α-particles
passed through the gold foil without getting deflected.

ii) Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive
charge of the atom occupies very little space.

iii) A very small fraction of α-particles were deflected by 1800 ,indicating that all the
positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small
volume within the atom
• Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an atom, which had the following
features:

i) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the
mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
• Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom:

• The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit is not expected to be stable. Any
particle in a circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration,
charged particles would radiate energy.

• Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus. If
this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and hence matter would not exist
in the form that we know. We know that atoms are quite stable.
 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

• In order to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford’s model of the atom,
Neils Bohr put forward the following postulates about the model of an atom:

i) Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed
inside the atom.
ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
• These orbits or shells are called energy levels. These orbits or shells are
represented by the letters K,L,M,N,… or the numbers, n=1,2,3,4,….
• NEUTRONS: In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle which had
no charge and a mass nearly equal to that of a proton.
• It was eventually named as neutron.

• In general, a neutron is represented as ‘n’.

• The mass of an atom is therefore given by the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons present in the nucleus
How are Electrons Distributed in Different Orbits (Shells)?

i) The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2𝑛2 ,
where ‘n’ is the orbit number or energy level index, 1,2,3,….
ii) Hence the maximum number of electrons in different shells are as follows: first
orbit or K-shell will be = 2, second orbit or L-shell will be = 8, third orbit or M-shell
will be = 18, fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 32, and so on.
iii) The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost
orbit is 8.

iv) Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled.
That is, the shells are filled in a step-wise manner.
• It was observed that the atoms of elements, completely filled with 8 electrons in
the outermost shell show little chemical activity. In other words, their combining
capacity or valency is zero.

• An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons was said to possess an octet.

• Atoms would thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell. This was
done by sharing, gaining or losing electrons.

• The number of electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make the octet of electrons
in the outermost shell.
• For example, hydrogen/ lithium/sodium atoms contain one electron each in their
outermost shell, therefore each one of them can lose one electron. So, they are
said to have valency of one.

• Magnesium has two electrons in its outermost shell and aluminium has three
electrons in its outermost shell.
• ATOMIC NUMBER:

• We know that protons are present in atom, which determines its atomic number. It
is denoted by ‘Z’.
• In fact, elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.
• For hydrogen, Z = 1, because in hydrogen atom, only one proton is present in the
nucleus.
• Similarly, for carbon, Z = 6.
• Therefore, the atomic number is defined as the total number of protons present in
the nucleus of an atom.
• MASS NUMBER:
• mass of an atom is practically due to protons and neutrons alone. These are
present in the nucleus of an atom.

• Hence protons and neutrons are also called nucleons.

• Therefore, the mass of an atom resides in its nucleus.

• For example, mass of carbon is 12 u because it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, 6 u +

6 u = 12 u.
• The mass number is defined as the sum of the total number of protons and
neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
• It is denoted by ‘A’.
• Isotopes: In nature, a number of atoms of some elements have been identified,
which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.

• For example, take the case of hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species, namely
protium, deuterium (D) and tritium ( 3 1H or T).

• The atomic number of each one is 1, but the mass number is 1, 2 and 3,
respectively.

• Other such examples are carbon

• Isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element, having the same atomic
number but different mass numbers
• The chemical properties of isotopes are similar but their physical properties are
different. But some isotopes have special properties which find them useful in
various fields. Some of them are:
i) An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
ii) An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goiter

• Radioactive isotopes Arsenic–74 → detect tumors

• Sodium–24 → Blood clot
• Iodine–131 → Activity of thyroid gland
• Cobalt–60 → Treat of cancer

• Isotones – Atoms having same number of neutrons.

ISOBARS

• Let us consider two elements — calcium, atomic number 20, and argon, atomic
number 18.
• The number of protons in these atoms is different, but the mass number of both
these elements is 40.

• Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same
mass number, are known as isobars
 5. Acids, Bases and Salts

• Curd, lemon juice, orange juice and vinegar taste sour.

• These substances taste sour because they contain acids.

• The chemical nature of such substances is acidic. The word acid comes from the
Latin word acere which means sour.

• The acids in these substances are natural acids.

• The substances which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching are known as
bases.

• The nature of such substances is said to be basic.

• Special type of substances are used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic.
These substances are known as indicators.

• The indicators change their colour when added to a solution containing an acidic or
a basic substance.

• Turmeric, litmus, China rose petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the naturally
occurring indicators.
• The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus.

• It is extracted from lichens.

• When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic solution,
it turns blue.

• It is available in the form of a solution, or in the form of strips of paper, known as

litmus paper.
• Generally, it is available as red and blue litmus paper.
• The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus are
known as neutral solutions.
• These substances are neither acidic nor basic.

• We have learnt that acids turn blue litmus red and bases turn red litmus blue.
• When an acidic solution is mixed with a basic solution, both the solutions
neutralise the effect of each other.
• When an acid solution and a base solution are mixed in suitable amounts, both the
acidic nature of the acid and the basic nature of the base are destroyed.
• The resulting solution is neither acidic nor basic.
• In neutralisation reaction, heat is always produced, or evolved. The evolved heat
raises the temperature of the reaction mixture.

• In neutralisation reaction a new substance is formed. This is called salt.

• The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation.

• Salt and water are produced in this process with the evolution of heat.

• Acid+Base → Salt+Water (Heat is evolved)

• The following reaction is an example:

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) + Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) → Sodium chloride (NaCl) +

Water (H2O)
• Indigestion: Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid. It helps us to digest food

• But too much of acid in the stomach causes indigestion.

• To relieve indigestion, we take an antacid such as milk of magnesia, which contains

magnesium hydroxide.
• It neutralises the effect of excessive acid
• Ant bite: When an ant bites, it injects the acidic liquid (formic acid) into the skin.
The effect of the acid can be neutralised by rubbing moist baking soda (sodium
hydrogencarbonate).

• Soil treatment: Excessive use of chemical fertilisers makes the soil acidic. Plants do
not grow well when the soil is either too acidic or too basic. When the soil is too
acidic, it is treated with bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide).
• If the soil is basic, organic matter (compost) is added to it. Organic matter releases
acids which neutralises the basic nature of the soil.
How do Acids and Bases React with each other?

• The reaction taking place is written as – NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

• The reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and water is known as a
neutralisation reaction.

• In general, a neutralisation reaction can be written as – Base + Acid → Salt +

Water
• Bases generate hydroxide (OH– ) ions in water. Bases which are soluble in water
are called alkalis.

• Mixing an acid or base with water results in decrease in the concentration of ions
(H3O+/OH– ) per unit volume.
• Such a process is called dilution and the acid or the base is said to be diluted.
• A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called pH scale
has been developed.
• The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power.
• On the pH scale we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very
alkaline).
• pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicates the acidic or basic
nature of a solution.
• Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value.
• The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values less than 7 on the pH scale represent an
acidic solution.
• As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an increase in OH– ion
concentration in the solution, that is, increase in the strength of alkali.
• Acids that give rise to more H+ ions are said to be strong acids, and acids that give
less H+ ions are said to be weak acids.

• Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.

• Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change.

• When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.

• When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water.
• The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.
• It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps
in the digestion of food without harming the stomach.
• During indigestion the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain and
irritation.
• To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids.

• These antacids neutralise the excess acid. Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of

magnesia), a mild base, is often used for this purpose.
• Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
• Tooth enamel, made up of calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline form of calcium
phosphate) is the hardest substance in the body.
• It does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below
5.5.
• Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food
particles remaining in the mouth after eating.

• The best way to prevent this is to clean the mouth after eating food. Using
toothpastes, which are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth can neutralise the
excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
Sodium hydroxide:

• When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called

brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide.

• The process is called the chlor-alkali process because of the products formed–
chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.

• 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2

Bleaching powder:

• Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime

[Ca(OH)2 ].

• Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2 , though the actual composition is

quite complex. Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
Bleaching powder is used –

i) for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in
paper factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry

ii) as an oxidising agent in many chemical industries;

iii) to make drinking water free from germs.

Baking soda:

• The chemical name of the compound is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3 ).

• It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.

Uses of Baking soda

i) For making baking powder, which is a mixture of baking soda (sodium hydrogen
carbonate) and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid.

ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it

neutralises excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.

iii) It is also used in fire extinguishers.

Washing soda:

• Another chemical that can be obtained from sodium chloride is Na2CO3 .10H2O
(washing soda).
Uses of washing soda

i) Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.

ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.

iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.

iv) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.

Plaster of Paris

• On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes calcium

sulphate hemihydrate.

• This is called Plaster of Paris, the substance which doctors use as plaster for
supporting fractured bones in the right position.

• Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it changes to gypsum
once again giving a hard solid mass.

• Plaster of Paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and for making
surfaces smooth.
 6. MATERIALS: METALS AND NON-METALS

• The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is called
malleability. This is a characteristic property of metals.

• The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called ductility.
• Since metals produce ringing sounds, they are said to be sonorous. The materials
other than metals are not sonorous.

• Some materials are hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous and good
conductors of heat and electricity. The materials which generally possess these
properties are called metals.
• The examples of metals are iron, copper, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, etc.

• In contrast, materials like coal and sulphur are soft and dull in appearance. They
break down into a powdery mass on tapping with a hammer. They are not
sonorous and are poor conductors of heat and electricity. These materials are
called non-metals. The examples of non-metals are sulphur, carbon, oxygen,
phosphorus, etc.
• Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife. Mercury is
the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature.

• The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.

• Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.

• Examples of non-metals are carbon, sulphur, iodine, oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
• The non-metals are either solids or gases except bromine which is a liquid.
• All metals except mercury exist as solids at room temperature.

• Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.

• Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms. Each form is called an
allotrope.
• Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the hardest natural substance known and has
a very high melting and boiling point.
• Graphite, another allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of electricity.
• Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft that they can be cut with a
knife. They have low densities and low melting points.
• Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.

Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide

• Metal oxides are basic in nature.

• But some metal oxides, such as aluminum oxide, zinc oxide show both acidic as
well as basic behavior.

• Such metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts
and water are known as amphoteric oxides.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

• Calcium starts floating because the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick to the
surface of the metal.
• Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all

• Metals react with acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas.

• Metal + Dilute acid → Salt + Hydrogen

• Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’) is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated
hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1.
• It can dissolve gold, even though neither of these acids can do so alone.

• Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid.

• It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve gold and platinum.
• General properties for ionic compounds—
i) Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids and are somewhat hard because of
the strong force of attraction between the positive and negative ions. These
compounds are generally brittle and break into pieces when pressure is applied.
ii) Melting and Boiling points: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling
points. This is because a considerable amount of energy is required to break the
strong inter-ionic attraction.
iii) Solubility: Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble
in solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
iv) Conduction of Electricity: Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct
electricity because movement of ions in the solid is not possible due to their
rigid structure. But ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state. This
is possible in the molten state since the elecrostatic forces of attraction
between the oppositely charged ions are overcome due to the heat.
OCCURRENCE OF METALS:

• The earth’s crust is the major source of metals.

• Seawater also contains some soluble salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium
chloride, etc.
• The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust, are
known as minerals.

• At some places, minerals contain a very high percentage of a particular metal and
the metal can be profitably extracted from it. These minerals are called ores.
• Gold, silver, platinum and copper are found in the free state.
• Copper and silver are also found in the combined state as their sulphide or oxide
ores.
• The metals at the top of the activity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are so reactive
that they are never found in nature as free elements.
• The metals in the middle of the activity series (Zn, Fe, Pb, etc.) are moderately
reactive. They are found in the earth’s crust mainly as oxides, sulphides or
carbonates.
• on the basis of reactivity, we can group the metals into the following three
categories –

i) Metals of low reactivity

ii) Metals of medium reactivity
iii) Metals of high reactivity
• Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of
impurities such as soil, sand, etc., called gangue.

• The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal.
• Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series: Metals low in the activity series are
very unreactive.
• The oxides of these metals can be reduced to metals by heating alone.

• For example, cinnabar (HgS) is an ore of mercury. When it is heated in air, it is first
converted into mercuric oxide (HgO).
• Mercuric oxide is then reduced to mercury on further heating.
• Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series: The metals in the middle of
the activity series such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, are moderately reactive.
• These are usually present as sulphides or carbonates in nature.

• It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide, as compared to its sulphides and
carbonates.
• Therefore, prior to reduction, the metal sulphides and carbonates must be
converted into metal oxides.
• The sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the presence of
excess air. This process is known as roasting.

• The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by heating strongly in limited air. This
process is known as calcination.
• Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series: The metals high up in the
reactivity series are very reactive.
• They cannot be obtained from their compounds by heating with carbon.
• For example, carbon cannot reduce the oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium,
aluminium, etc., to the respective metals. This is because these metals have more
affinity for oxygen than carbon.

• These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction. For example, sodium,

magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.
The metals are deposited at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode),
whereas, chlorine is liberated at the anode (the positively charged electrode).
 7. Carbon and its Compounds

BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND

• Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity

i) It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for the
nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons

ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large
amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with
six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two electrons
• Such bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two
atoms are known as covalent bonds.

• Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within the molecule,

• Since the electrons are shared between atoms and no charged particles are
formed, such covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.
• Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving
rise to large molecules. This property is called catenation.
• These compounds may have long chains of carbon, branched chains of carbon or
even carbon atoms arranged in rings.
• In addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.
• Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bonds between the carbon
atoms are called saturated compounds.
• Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their carbon atoms
are called unsaturated compounds.
• No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon
compounds.
• The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable. This gives us the large
number of compounds with many carbon atoms linked to each other.
• Such compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are
called structural isomers.

• In addition to straight and branched carbon chains, some compounds have carbon
atoms arranged in the form of a ring.

• For example, cyclohexane has the formula C6H12 and the following structure –
• All these carbon compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons.
• Among these, the saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.

• The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds are
called alkenes.

• Those containing one or more triple bonds are called alkynes.

• In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogens can be replaced by these
elements, such that the valency of carbon remains satisfied.

• In such compounds, the element replacing hydrogen is referred to as a

heteroatom.

• These heteroatoms and the group containing these confer specific properties to
the compound, regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain and hence
are called functional groups.
• The chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all very
similar. Hence, such a series of compounds in which the same functional group
substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
• Combustion: Carbon burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the
release of heat and light.

• Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
• Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated
carbon compounds will give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke.

• The gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a sufficiently
oxygen-rich mixture is burnt to give a clean blue flame
• We see that some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others.
• These substances are known as oxidising agents.

• Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate are oxidising

alcohols to acids, that is, adding oxygen to the starting material. Hence they are
known as oxidising agents.
• Substitution Reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert
in the presence of most reagents.

• However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very

fast reaction.

• Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a substitution
reaction because one type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place of
another.
• A number of products are usually formed with the higher homologues of alkanes.
Compounds of Carbon

• Carbon monoxide (CO): Carbon monoxide (CO) combines with haemoglobin to

form carboxyhaemoglobin which is not able to absorb oxygen and as a result of
this, suffocation takes place (Asphyxia).

• The death of persons in closed rooms with wood, coal or coke fires and in closed
bathrooms with gas geyser is due to the formation of carbon monoxide
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): 0.03-0.05 percent in atmosphere.

• Solid CO2 is known as dry ice.

• It is used in refrigerators under the name drikold.

• It is used in transport of perishable food materials as it provides cold as well as the

inert atmosphere.
• Nitrogen: Nitrogen is a neutral gas and is neither combustible nor a supporter of
combustion.

• In air - 79% of Nitrogen is present (by volume).

• In combined state, nitrogen is found as nitrates (Chile saltpetre—sodium nitrate
(NaNO3), Indian saltpetre—potassium nitrate (KNO3) Ammonia

• It has pungent odour.

• Ammonia is used in manufacturing fertilizers and explosives etc.

• Nitrogen fixation involves the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate by

lightning and by nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobia.
• Oxygen: Oxygen is an important constituent of atmosphere (21% by volume).
• Supporter of combustion.

• Liquid oxygen mixed with freshly divided carbon, is used in place of dynamite in
coal mining.

• Ozone(O3) - It protects the life on the earth by not allowing UV rays to reach the
Earth. The common refrigerants, chlorofluorocarbons deplete this ozone layer.
• Phosphorus (P): It is highly reactive non-metal, so it occurs only in combined state.

• Phosphorus is an essential constituent of bones, teeth, blood and nerve tissues.

• Bone ash contains about 80% of phosphorus.

• Sulphur (S): It occurs in free state in volcanic region.

• Rhombic sulphur is the most stable form at ordinary temperature and all other
forms gradually change into this form.