IPE-3207: ROBOT AND COMPUTER CONTROL MACHINES

LECTURE-01: FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT TECHNOLOGY

Introduction to Robotics
The field of robotics has its origins in science fiction. The term robot was
derived from the English translation of a Czechoslovakian fantasy play
named "Rossum's Universal Robots" written by 'Karl Capek' in around
1920s. The Czech word 'robot' means servitude or forced worker.
Among science fiction writers, Issac Asimo has contributed a number of
stories about robots, starting in 1939, and indeed coined the termRobotic'.
The picture of a robot in his view is a well-designed, fail-safe machine that
performs according to three principles. These principles were called the three
laws of robotics by Asimov and they are:
A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a
human being to come to harm.
A robot must obey orders given it by human beings except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does
not conflict with the First or Second Law.
It is interesting to note that in the real world, Industrial robots obey laws that
are the opposite to the ones stated above. A robot may injure a human, it may
not obey humans and it also may not protect its own existence.
Robotics and Industrial Robot
Robotics is an applied engineering science that has been referred to as
a combination of machine tool technology and computer science. It
includes machine design, production theory, microelectronics,
computer programming and artificial intelligence.
OR
Robotics is defined as the science of designing and building Robots
which are suitable for real-life application in automated manufacturing
and other non-manufacturing environments.
Industrial Robot: The official definition of an industrial robot is
provided by the Robotics Industries Association (RIA) in 1979. An
industrial robot is defined as an automatic, freely programmed, servo-
controlled, multi-purpose manipulator to handle various operations of
an industry with variable programmed motions.
Automation and Robotics
Automation and Robotics are two closely related technologies. In an
industrial context, we can define automation as a technology that is
concerned with the use of mechanical, electronic and computer-based
systems in the operation and control of production. Examples of this
technologies include: Transfer lines, Mechanized assembly machines,
Feedback control systems (applied to industrial processes) and numerically
controlled machine tools .
Robotics consists of a branch of technology that predominantly deals with
the design, construction and operation of robots. An industrial robot is
typically a standard machine controlled by an internal or external computer
that is able to carry out a complex series of movements automatically. There
are a wide range of robots available; from basic robot arms through to
completely autonomous vehicle mounted robots. Robots are often equipped
with audio, visual and tactile sensors.
Types of Automation
There are three broad classes of industrial automation:
Fixed Automation
Programmable Automation and
Flexible Automation
Fixed Automation: Fixed automation is used when the volume of production
is very high and it is therefore appropriate to design specialized equipment to
process the product (or a component) very efficiently and at high production
rates. A good example of fixed automation can be found in the automobile
industry, where highly integrated transfer lines consisting of several dozen
workstations are used to perform machining operations on engine and
transmission components. The typical features of fixed automation are:
High initial investment for custom–engineered equipment;
High production rates; and
Relatively inflexible in accommodating product change
Programmable Automation: It is the automation in which the equipment is
designed to accommodate various product configurations in order to change
the sequence of operations or assembly operations by means of a control
program. Different types of programs can be loaded into the equipment to
produce products with new configurations (new products). It is employed for
the batch production of low and medium volumes. For each new batch of
differently configured product, a new control program corresponding to the
new product is loaded into the equipment. A good example of programmable
automation can be found in the Industrial robot, NC machines tools etc. The
typical features of programmable automation are:
High investment in general-purpose equipment;
Low production rates relative to fixed automation;
Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration; and
Most suitable for batch production.
Flexible Automation: A computer integrated manufacturing system which is
an extension of programmable automation is referred to as flexible
automation. It is developed to minimize the time loss between the
changeover of the batch production from one product to another while
reloading. The program to produce new products and changing the physical
setup i.e., it produces different products with no loss of time. This
automation is more flexible in interconnecting workstations with material
handling and storage system. A good example of flexible automation can be
found in the flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). The typical features of
flexible automation are:
High investment for a custom-engineered system.
Continuous production of variable mixtures of products.
Medium production rates.
Flexibility to deal with product design variations.
Advantages flexible automation
High production rates
Lead time decreases
Storing capacity decreases
Human errors are eliminated.
Labor cost decreases.
Disadvantages flexible automation
The initial cost of raw material is very high,
Maintenance cost is high,
Required high skilled labor
Indirect cost for research development and programming increases.
Relationship of fixed automation, programmable automation and flexible
automation as a function of production volume and product variety.
Reasons for implementation of automated systems in manufacture
industries:
To increase the productivity rate of labor
To decrease the cost of labor
To minimize the effect of shortage of labor
To obtain high quality of products
A non-automation high cost is avoided
To decrease the manufacturing lead time
To upgrade the safety of workers.
Need for using robotics in industries
Industrial robot plays a significant role in automated manufacturing to
perform different kinds of applications.
Robots can be built a performance capability superior to those of
human beings. In terms of strength, size, speed, accuracy...etc.
Robots are better than humans to perform simple and repetitive tasks
with better quality and consistency.
Robots do not have the limitations and negative attributes of human
works such as fatigue, need for rest, diversion of attention....etc.
Robots are used in industries to save time compared to human beings.
Robots are in value poor working conditions
Improved working conditions and reduced risks.
Essential Characteristics of Industrial Robots
A hand, capable of gripping and releasing parts
An Arm, which can move the hand in 3-planes
A Wrist for the arm, that allow the hand/wrist assembly reach anywhere in workspace
Sufficient muscle power, to lift and do work
Positioning repeatability to 0.3 mm
Manual controls enabling one operate the robot
A built in memory which can learn human’s instruction
Auto system which enable operation in absence of human
A speed of operation, at least as fast as a person
A library of programs which can be selected at will and can bring the manipulator back
to the past operations
Facilities for safety and interlock with machine work
A computer compatible interface
Reliability of at least 400 hours in interrupted work
Configurations which allow access for maintenance interchangeability, diagnosis etc.
CAD/CAM and Robotics
CAD/CAM is a term which means computer-aided design and computer-
aided manufacturing. It is the technology concerned with the use of digital
computers to perform certain functions in design and production.
CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the
creation modification, analysis or optimization of the design.
CAM can be defined as the use of computer system to plan, manage and
control the operation of a manufacturing plant, through either direct or
indirect computer interface with the plant's production resources.
Specifications of Robotics
Axis of motion
Workstations
Speed and Acceleration
Payload capacity
Accuracy and Repeatability etc.
Overview of Robotics
Robotics is defined as the science of designing and building Robots which
are suitable for real-life application in automated manufacturing and other
non-manufacturing environments. It has the following objectives:
To increase productivity
Reduce production life
Minimize labor requirement
Enhanced quality of the products
Minimize the loss of man-hours, on account of accidents.
Make reliable and high-speed production.
The robots are classified as:
Programmable/Reprogrammable purpose robots
Tele-operated, Man controlled robots
Intelligent robots.
Robots are used in manufacturing and assembly units such as:
Spot or arc welding
Parts assembly
Paint spraying.
Material handling
Loading and unloading
The feature and capabilities of the robots are as follows:
Intelligence
Sensor capabilities
Telepresence
Mechanical design
Mobility and navigation
Universal gripper
System integration and networking.
Applications of Robots
Present Applications of Robots:
Material transfer applications
Machine loading and unloading
Processing operations like,
Spot welding
Continuous arc welding
Spray coating
Drilling, routing, machining operations
Grinding, polishing debarring wire brushing
Laser drilling and cutting etc.
Assembly tasks, assembly cell designs, parts mating.
Inspection, automation or test equipment.
Future Applications of Robots: The profile of the future robot based on the
research activities will include the following:
Intelligence and Sensor capabilities
Mechanical design
Mobility and navigation (walking machines)
Universal gripper
Systems and integration and networking
FMS (Flexible Manufacturing Systems)
Hazardous and inaccessible non-manufacturing environments
Underground coal mining and Firefighting operations
Robots in space and Security guards
Garbage collection and waste disposal operations
Household robots
Medical care and hospital duties etc.
Drive Systems
The robot’s capacity to move its body, arm and wrest is provided by
the drive system used to power the robot. The drive system determines
the speed of the arm movements, the strength of the robot and its
dynamic performance. To some extent, the drive system determines the
kinds of applications that the robot can accomplish. Commercially
available industrial robots are powered by one of the three types of
drive systems:
Hydraulic Drive
Electric Drive
Pneumatic Drive
Hydraulic drive and electric drive are the two main types of drives
used on more sophisticated robots.
Hydraulic Drive: Hydraulic drive is generally associated with larger robots.
Hydraulic drive systems can be designed to actuate either rotational joints or
linear joints. Rotary vane actuators can be utilized to provide rotary motion
and hydraulic pistons can be used to accomplish linear motion. Hydraulic
robots are preferred in environments in which the use of electric-drive robots
may cause fire hazards, for example, in spray painting.
Electric Drive: Electrical drive systems do not generally provide as much speed
or power as hydraulic systems. However, the accuracy and repeatability of
electric drive robots are usually better. Consequently, electric robots tend to be
smaller, requiring less floor space and their applications tend towards more
precise work such as assembly. Electric drive robots ideally suited to the
actuation of rotational joints through appropriate drive train and gear systems.
Electric motors can also be used to actuate linear joints by means of pulley
system or other translation mechanism.
Pneumatic Drive: Pneumatic drive systems are generally used for smaller
robots. These robots, with fewer degrees of freedom, carry out simple pick-
and-place material-handling operations, such as picking up an object at one
location and placing it at another location. These operations are generally
simple and have short cycle times. Pneumatic robots are less expensive than
electric or hydraulic robots.
Selecting Criteria for Robot Drive System
Arm configuration and construction
Load carrying capacity desired
Speed of movement of arm
Precision of movement
Dynamic performance
Nature of tasks
Space availability
Control system
Availability and cost
Cost vs. size for electric drive and hydraulic drive
Characteristics of Different Drive Systems
Hydraulic Drive:
Motion
Rotary Actuator: Rotary Vane Actuator, Screw type hydraulic motor,
gear motor, radial piston type hydraulic motor
Linear Actuator: Cylindrical piston (single acting or double acting)
Advantages:
High load carrying capacity
Higher speed of movement
Smooth movement
Self lubricating
Precision control of joints and arm-motions
More economic for larger robot size
Able to deliver large forces directly to the robot joints
 Limitations:
Require pump and reservoir for the fluid
Low accuracy and breakdown problems
High cost
Noisy, dirty, and space intrusive
Applications: Large robots to lift heavy load at high speed within wide
work volume, where precision is not that important. For example,
machine loading and unloading, forging, welding, painting etc.
Electrical Drive:
Motion:
Rotary Actuator: Stepper motor, Servomotor (AC or DC)
Both rotary and linear movements –possible
Advantages:
Higher accuracy (and reliability) of movement
Compact and less floor space required
Precision control of motion (e.g. for assembly)
Clean
Limitations:
Less speed
Less strength
Cost rises with robot size
Applications: Low and medium duty but high precision movement. For
example, inspection, pick and place, welding, assembling, light
machining and grinding etc.
Pneumatic Drive:
Motion:
Rotary and Linear
Advantages:
Very simple in design and operation
High speed
Low maintenance need
Low cost
Limitations:
No precision control on positioning
No control on speed and path
Load carrying capacity is very low
Applications: light duty work, Simple work where precision is not a
concern, Pick and place type of work, Simpler type of robot gripper
Drive Systems
Robot Anatomy
The manipulator or robotic arm has many similarities to the human body.
The mechanical structure of a robot is like a skeleton in the human body.
The robot anatomy is, therefore, the study of the skeleton of a robot, that
is, the physical construction of the manipulator structure.
The mechanical structure of a manipulator consists of rigid bodies which
are connected by means of articulations, is segmented into an arm that
ensures mobility and reachability. The rigid bodies and their articulations
resemble the links and joints of a kinematic chain.
A wrist is attached at the end of the arm that confers orientation, and an
end-effector that performs the required task is attached to the wrist.
Most manipulators are mounted on a base fastened to the floor or on the
mobile platform of an Autonomous Guided Vehicle (AGV).
Parts of manipulator: The industrial robot manipulator has a body, arm and wrist.
Links: The mechanical structure of a robotic manipulator is a mechanism,
whose members are rigid links or bars. A rigid link that can be connected, at
most, with two other links is referred to as a binary link. There are other
types of links are being used which have a provision to connect with more
than two links each.
Two rigid binary links 1 and 2, each with two holes at the ends A, B, and C,
D, respectively to connect with each other or to other links in free space. The
connectivity of links can either series or parallel.
Joints: Two links are connected together by a joint. By putting a pin through
holes B and C of links 1 and 2 an open kinematic chain is formed as shown
below. The joint formed is called a pin joint also known as a revolute or
rotary joint. The name was given based on the relative motion provided by
that joint which is a rotational motion.
The robot's motion can be accomplished by means of powered joints. The
links can be connected to form a serial chain or a parallel chain. Majority of
Industrial robots are serial chains.
Classification of Robots
The robots may be classified in the following two broad categories,
Classification by Coordinate System
Classification by Control System
Classification by Co-ordinate System: Industrial robots are available in a
wide variety of sizes, shapes, and physical configurations. These
configurations majorly depend on the robot arm or end-effectors reachability
in the space. The part of the space in which the robot can execute its work is
called as a workspace, work volume or work envelope. The vast majority of
today’s commercially available robots possess one of the basic
configurations:
Polar Configuration
Cylindrical Configuration
Cartesian Coordinate Configurable
Jointed-arm Configuration
Classification by Coordinate System
Polar Configuration: The polar configuration is pictured in Fig. It uses a
telescoping arm that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot. The
pivot is mounted on a mounting base. The various joints provide the robot
with the capability to move its arm within a spherical space, and hence the
name “spherical coordinate robot" is sometimes applied to this type. A
number of commercial robots possess the polar configuration.
Cylindrical Configuration: The cylindrical configuration, as shown in the
figure, uses a vertical column and a slide that can be moved up or down
along the column. The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it can be
moved radially with respect to the column. By routing the column, the robot
is capable of achieving a workspace that approximates a cylinder.
Cartesian Configuration: The Cartesian coordinate robot, illustrated in
Figure, uses three perpendicular slides, giving only linear motions along
three principal axes(x, y, z) directions. Other names are sometimes applied to
this configuration, including xyz robot and rectilinear robot. By moving the
three slides relative to one another, the robot is capable of operating within a
rectangular work envelope.
Jointed-arm Configuration: Following Figure shows jointed-arm robot. Its
configuration is similar to that of the human arm. It is sometimes called as
an articulated arm or anthropomorphic due to the structure. It consists of two
straight components. Corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm,
mounted on a vertical pedestal. These components are connected by two
rotary joints corresponding to the shoulder and elbow. These two links are
mounted on a vertical rotating table corresponding to the human waist.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Configurations
Polar Configuration
Advantages
Fully capable of 360 degree rotations
Long horizontal reach
Disadvantages
Lower profile, no linear actuator for the Z-axis
Small work envelope
Cylindrical Configuration
Advantages
Horizontal reach into production machines is possible
Vertical structure of the machine conserves floor space
Rigid structure, allows large payloads and good repeatability
 Disadvantages
Most cannot rotate a full 360 degrees because of mechanical
design limitations
Cartesian Configuration
Advantages
Very large work envelopes are made possible
Overhead mounting leaves floor space for other uses
Simpler control systems
Disadvantages
Access to the work envelope by overhead crane or other
material handling equipment may be impaired
Maintenance may be difficult
Jointed-arm Configuration
Advantages
Occupies a minimum of floor space
A good size-to-reach ratio, achieves more reach
High positioning mobility of the end-of-arm tooling allows the
arm to reach into enclosures and around obstructions
Disadvantages
Has the need for more sophisticated control requirements
Higher associated costs
Despite any disadvantages, articulated robots dominate the
automated world today. They are known for their speed and
agility.
Classification by Control System
In order to operate, a robot must have a means of controlling its drive system
to properly regulate its motions. With respect to robotics, the motion control
system used to control the movement of the end-effector or tool are as:
Limited sequence robots (Non-servo)
Playback robots with point to point (servo)
Playback robots with continuous path control
Intelligent Robots.
Limited Sequence Robots (Non-servo): Limited sequence robots do not give
servo controlled to inclined relative positions of the joints, instead, they are
controlled by setting limit switches and mechanical stops. There is generally
no feedback associated with a limited sequence robot to indicate that the
desired position, has been achieved. Generally, this type of robots involves
simple motion as pick and place operations, machine loading and unloading.
Playback Robots with Point to Point (Servo) : These type robots are capable of
controlling velocity acceleration & path of motion, from the beginning to the end of
the path. It uses complex control programs, PLC’s (programmable logic
controller’s) computers to control the motion.
The point to point control motion robot is capable of performing a motion cycle
that consists of a series of desired point location. The robot is tough & recorded,
unit. Example: Soldering, Spot Welding, Drilling etc.
Playback Robots with Continuous Path Control : In this robots are capable of
performing motion cycle in which the path followed by the robot is controlled. The
robot moves through a series of closely spaced points which describes the desired
path. Example: Spray painting, arc welding & complicate assembly operations.
Intelligent robots: This type of robots have not only programmable motion cycle
but can also interact with its environment. It can make logical decisions based on
sensor data received from the operation. These robots are usually programmed
using an English like symbolic language not like a computer programing language.
Example: Interactive humanoid robots, Fire fighters, AGVs etc.
Major design factors of the Industrial Robot:
Nature of task i.e. production, handling, inspection, assemble etc.
Purpose: Single, Multiple, Special
Field: Foundry, Machine Tools, Welding etc.
Coordinate system: Rectangular, Cylindrical, Spherical etc.
Degree of freedom
Load carrying capacity
Mobility: Stationary or Mobile
Power drive: Electromechanical, Hydraulic, Pneumatic etc.
Layout of power drive: Single Block or Individual Actuator
Program sequence execution: Non-flexible, Flexible andAdaptable
Motion: Point-to-Point or Continuous path
Conditions Justified for Robot Application:
Dull for repetition, monotony and fatigue
Difficult for arduousness and complex of work and desired precision and
consistency
Dirty-Non-workable for human being
Dangerous-Hazardous for chemical, gas, heat, noise, electricity, radio-
activity etc.
Unsafe-Underwater, space, mines etc.
Possible Candidates for Robot Application:
Industry-for manufacturing, inspection and sorting and assembly
Undersea- for mining, exploration and construction
Space- mining, exploration, construction, repair
Mining (Land)-for deep and hazardous work
 Medical-prosthetics and microsurgery
Defense-exploration, inspection and clearing mines
Construction – dangerous work-condition
Household work.
Direct and Indirect Benefits from IR Application:
Flexibility-essential for automation of batch production
Reduced change over time and cost needed for mixed products on high
volume lines
Better quality
Consistency in production rate and quality
Increased productivity for less downtime and rejections
Reduced lead time and capital cost
Increased morale of the workers
Reduction in overall manufacturing cost per piece or unit.