PYTHON INTRODUCTION

What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van
Rossum, and released in 1991.

It is used for:

 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.

What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.

 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and
modify files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.

Why Python?

 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux,

Raspberry Pi, etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with
fewer lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be
executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be
very quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way
or a functional way.

Good to know

 The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall

be using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being
updated with anything other than security updates, is still quite
popular.
 In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to
write Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as
 Thonny, Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful
when managing larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to

the English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope;
such as the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other
programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example
print("Hello, World!")

PYTHON SYNTAX

Execute Python Syntax

As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by

writing directly in the Command Line:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py

Python Indentation

Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for

readability only, the indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, the most common

use is four, but it has to be at least one.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code,
otherwise Python will give you an error:

Example

Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")
Python Variables
In Python, variables are created when you assign a value to it:

Example

Variables in Python:

x = 5
y = "Hello, World!"

Python has no command for declaring a variable.

You will learn more about variables in the Python Variables chapter.

Comments

Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code

documentation.

Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:
Example

Comments in Python:

#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")
PYTHON COMMENTS

Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

Creating a Comment

Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the
rest of the line:

Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment

A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be
used to prevent Python from executing code:

Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")
Multi Line Comments
Python does not really have a syntax for multi line comments.
To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:
Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")
Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.
 Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable,
you can add a multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your
comment inside it:
Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")
PYTHON VARIABLES

Variables are containers for storing data values.

Creating Variables

Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can
even change type after they have been set.

Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with
casting.
Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0
Get the Type
You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

Single or Double Quotes?

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:

Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
Case-Sensitive

Variable names are case-sensitive.

Example

This will create two variables:

a = 4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a
VARIABLES NAMES

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three
different variables)

Example

Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"
Try it Yourself »
Example

Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"
Multi Words Variable Names
Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.

There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:

Camel Case

Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:

myVariableName = "John"
Pascal Case

Each word starts with a capital letter:

MyVariableName = "John"
Snake Case

Each word is separated by an underscore character:

my_variable_name = "John"
ASSINGING MULTIPLE VARIABLES

Many Values to Multiple Variables

Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values,
or else you will get an error.

One Value to Multiple Variables

And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to
extract the values into variables. This is called unpacking.
Example

Unpack a list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
OUTPUT VARIABLES

The Python print() function is often used to output variables.

Example
x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)
In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a
comma:
Example
x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)

You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:

Example
x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)

Notice the space character after "Python " and "is ", without them the
result would be "Pythonisawesome".

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)

In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number
with the + operator, Python will give you an error:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

The best way to output multiple variables in the print() function is to

separate them with commas, which even support different data types:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x, y)

GLOBAL VARIABLES

Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples
above) are known as global variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and

outside.

Example

Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()
If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable
will be local, and can only be used inside the function. The global variable
with the same name will remain as it was, global and with the original
value.

Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global
variable

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

The global Keyword

Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is

local, and can only be used inside that function.

To create a global variable inside a function, you can use

the global keyword.

Example

If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable
inside a function.

Example

To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the

variable by using the global keyword:

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()
print("Python is " + x)
PYTHON DATA TYPES

Built-in Data Types

In programming, data type is an important concept.
Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do
different things.
Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these
categories:
Text Type: str
Numeric Types: int, float, complex
Sequence list, tuple, range
Types:
Mapping Type: dict
Set Types: set, frozenset
Boolean Type: bool
Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview
None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:

Example

Print the data type of the variable x:

x = 5
print(type(x))
Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example Data Type

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int Try it »

x = 20.5 float
x = 1j complex Try it »

x = ["apple", "banana", list T

"cherry"]

x = ("apple", "banana", tuple Try it »

"cherry")

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : dict Try it »

36}

x = {"apple", "banana", set

"cherry"}

x = frozenset({"apple", frozenset Try it »

"banana", "cherry"})

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes Try it »

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview Try it »

x = None NoneType T

Setting the Specific Data Type

If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor
functions:

Example Data Type Try it

x = str("Hello World") str

x = int(20) int Try it »

x = float(20.5) float
x = complex(1j) complex Try it »

x = list(("apple", "banana", list

"cherry"))

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", tuple Try it »

"cherry"))

x = range(6) range

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict Try it »

x = set(("apple", "banana", set

"cherry"))

x = frozenset(("apple", frozenset Try it »

"banana", "cherry"))

x = bool(5) bool

x = bytes(5) bytes Try it »

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview Try it »

PYTHON NUMBERS

Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:
Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals,
of unlimited length.
Example

Integers:

x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative,
containing one or more decimals.

Example

Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of
10.
Example

Floats:

x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:
Example

Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:
Example

Convert from one type to another:

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))
Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.
Random Number
python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but
Python has a built-in module called random that can be used to make
random numbers:
Example

Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and
9:
import random

print(random.randrange(1, 10))
PYTHON CASTING

The conversion of one data type into the other data type is known as type casting in
python or type conversion in python. Python supports a wide variety of functions or
methods like: int(), float(), str(), ord(), hex(), oct(), tuple(), set(), list(), dict(), etc. for the
type casting in python.
Specify a Variable Type
There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This
can be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as
such it uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float

literal (by removing all decimals), or a string literal (providing the
string represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float
literal or a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an
integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types,
including strings, integer literals and float literals

Example

Integers:

x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3
Example

Floats:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2
Example

Strings:

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

PYTHON STRINGS
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or
double quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')
Assign String to a Variable
Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by
an equal sign and the string:
Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)
Multiline Strings

You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example

You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

Note: in the result, the line breaks are inserted at the same position as in
the code.

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are
arrays of bytes representing unicode characters.
However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character
is simply a string with a length of 1.

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example

Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])
Looping Through a String
Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string,
with a for loop.

Example

Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)
String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example

The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))
Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use
the keyword in.

Example

Check if "free" is present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)

Use it in an if statement:

Example
Print only if "free" is present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")
Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can
use the keyword not in.
Example

Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)

Use it in an if statement:

Example

print only if "expensive" is NOT present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "expensive" not in txt:
print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")
SLICING STRINGS

Slicing

You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.

Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return
a part of the string.

Example

Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])

Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start

By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:

Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])
Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:

Example

Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])
Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example

Get the characters:

From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)

To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])
MODIFY STRINGS

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Upper Case
Example

The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())
Lower Case
Example

The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())
Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often
you want to remove this space.

Example

The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the
end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"
Replace String
Example

The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))
Split String

The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified
separator becomes the list items.

Example

The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of
the separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

String Methods
CONCATE STRINGS

String Concatenation

To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.

Example

Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + b
print(c)
Example
To add a space between them, add a " ":

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + " " + b
print(c)
FORMAT STRINGS

String Format

As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings

and numbers like this:

Example
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)

But we can combine strings and numbers by using the format() method!

The format() method takes the passed arguments, formats them, and
places them in the string where the placeholders {} are:

Example

Use the format() method to insert numbers into strings:

age = 36
txt = "My name is John, and I am {}"
print(txt.format(age))

The format() method takes unlimited number of arguments, and are

placed into the respective placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item {} for {} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

You can use index numbers {0} to be sure the arguments are placed in the
correct placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want to pay {2} dollars for {0} pieces of item {1}."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))
ESCAPE CHARACTERS

Escape Character

To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want

to insert.

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is

surrounded by double quotes:

Example

You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is
surrounded by double quotes:

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":
Example

The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally
would not be allowed:

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Escape Characters

Other escape characters used in Python:

Code Result Try it

\' Single Quote

\\ Backslash Try it »

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return Try it »

\t Tab

\b Backspace Try it »
\f Form Feed

\ooo Octal value Try it »

\xhh Hex value

STRING METHODS

String Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the
original string.

Method Description

capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs

in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns

the position of where it was found
format() Formats specified values in a string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns

the position of where it was found

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are

alphanumeric

isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the

alphabet

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower

case

isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are

printable

isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are

whitespaces

istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper

case

join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the

 string

ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

lower() Converts a string into lower case

lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string

maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations

partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three

parts

replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced

with a specified value

rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns

the last position of where it was found

rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns

the last position of where it was found

rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three

parts

rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns

a list

rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns

a list

splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

 startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified
value

strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice
versa

title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case

translate() Returns a translated string

upper() Converts a string into upper case

zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at

the beginning

Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.

Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression
is True or False.

You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two
answers, True or False.

When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and

Python returns the Boolean answer:

Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)

When you run a condition in an if statement, Python

returns True or False:

Example

Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give
you True or False in return,
Example

Evaluate a string and a number:

print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))
Example

Evaluate two variables:

x = "Hello"
y = 15
print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Most Values are True

Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.

Any string is True, except empty strings.

Any number is True, except 0.

Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.

Example

The following will return True:

bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except
empty values, such as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the
value None. And of course the value False evaluates to False.

Example

The following will return False:

bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})

One more value, or object in this case, evaluates to False, and that
is if you have an object that is made from a class with
a __len__ function that returns 0 or False:

Example
class myclass():
def __len__(self):
return 0

myobj = myclass()
print(bool(myobj))

Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:
Example
Print the answer of a function:

def myFunction() :
return True

print(myFunction())

You can execute code based on the Boolean answer of a function:

Example

Print "YES!" if the function returns True, otherwise print "NO!":

def myFunction() :
return True
if myFunction():
print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")

Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value,
like the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an
object is of a certain data type:

Example

Check if an object is an integer or not:

x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))

Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two

values:

Example
print(10 + 5)

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
  Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform
common mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python assignment operatorsAssignment operators are used to

assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5
 += x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y
 != Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal x >= y

to

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both x < 5 and x <

statements are true 10

or Returns True if one of the x < 5 or x < 4

statements is true

not Reverse the result, returns not(x < 5 and

False if the result is true x < 10)

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are
equal, but if they are actually the same object, with the same
memory location:
 Operator Description Example

is Returns True if both variables are x is y

the same object

is not Returns True if both variables are x is not y

not the same object

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in
an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the x in y

specified value is present in the
object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the x not in y

specified value is not present in the
object

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operato Name Description

r

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1

 ^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is
1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits

<< Zero fill Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right
left shift and let the leftmost bits fall off

>> Signed Shift right by pushing copies of the

right shift leftmost bit in from the left, and let the
rightmost bits fall off

Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of
data, the other 3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities
and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example

Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Items

List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of
the list.

Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in
general: the order of the items will not change.

Changeable

The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove
items in a list after it has been created.

Allow Duplicates

Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example

Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example

Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:

Example

String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]
A list can contain different data types:

Example

A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

type()

From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type
'list':

<class 'list'>

Example

What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example

Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double

round-brackets
print(thislist)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and
unindexed. No duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No
duplicate members.
*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items
whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and
earlier, dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties

of that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or
security.

Python - Access List Items

Access Items

List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the
index number:

Example

Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing

Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example

Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and
where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the
specified items.

Example

Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"
]
print(thislist[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5
(not included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example

This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT
including, "kiwi":

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"
]
print(thislist[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the
list:

Example

This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"
]
print(thislist[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the
end of the list:
Example

This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT
including "mango" (-1):

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"
]
print(thislist[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use
the in keyword:

Example

Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Python - Change List Items

Change Item Value
To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index
number:

Example

Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range,

define a list with the new values, and refer to the range of
index numbers where you want to insert the new values:
Example

Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values

"blackcurrant" and "watermelon":

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"
]
thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

If you insert more items than you replace, the new items
will be inserted where you specified, and the remaining
items will move accordingly:

Example

Change the second value by replacing it with two new

values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Note: The length of the list will change when the number
of items inserted does not match the number of items
replaced.

If you insert less items than you replace, the new items
will be inserted where you specified, and the remaining
items will move accordingly:

Example

Change the second and third value by replacing it

with one value:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the
existing values, we can use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified

index:

Example

Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)

Python - Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use
the append() method:

Example

Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use
the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified

index:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now

contain 4 items.

Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list,
use the extend() method.

Example

Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)

The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you
can add any iterable object (tuples, sets, dictionaries
etc.).

Example

Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
Python - Remove List Items
Remove Specified Item
The remove() method removes the specified item.

Example

Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.

Example

Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes

the last item.

Example

Remove the last item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop()
print(thislist)

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

Example
Remove the first item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Example

Delete the entire list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.

The list still remains, but it has no content.

Example

Clear the list content:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.clear()
print(thislist)

Python - Loop Lists

Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

Example

Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x)

Learn more about for loops in our Python For

Loops Chapter.

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to
their index number.

Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable

iterable.

Example

Print all items by referring to their index number:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

Use the len() function to determine the length of the list,

then start at 0 and loop your way through the list items by
referring to their indexes.

Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

Example

Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the

index numbers
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
i = 0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i = i + 1

Learn more about while loops in our Python While

Loops Chapter.

Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping
through lists:

Example

A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[print(x) for x in thislist]

Python - List Comprehension

List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want
to create a new list based on the values of an existing list.

Example:

Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing

only the fruits with the letter "a" in the name.

Without list comprehension you will have to write

a for statement with a conditional test inside:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []
for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)

print(newlist)

With list comprehension you can do all that with only one
line of code:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)

The Syntax
newlist =
[expression for item in iterable if condition == True]

The return value is a new list, leaving the old list

unchanged.

Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items
that valuate to True.

Example

Only accept items that are not "apple":

newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]

The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all
elements other than "apple", making the new list contain
all fruits except "apple".

The condition is optional and can be omitted:

Example

With no if statement:

newlist = [x for x in fruits]

Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple,
set etc.

Example

You can use the range() function to create an iterable:

newlist = [x for x in range(10)]

Same example, but with a condition:

Example

Accept only numbers lower than 5:

newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is
also the outcome, which you can manipulate before it
ends up like a list item in the new list:

Example

Set the values in the new list to upper case:

newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]

You can set the outcome to whatever you like:

Example

Set all values in the new list to 'hello':

newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]

The expression can also contain conditions, not like a

filter, but as a way to manipulate the outcome:

Example

Return "orange" instead of "banana":

newlist = [x if x !
= "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]

Try it Yourself »

The expression in the example above says:

"Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana return

orange".

Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list
alphanumerically, ascending, by default:

Example

Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist =
["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Example

Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse =
True:

Example

Sort the list descending:

thislist =
["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Example

Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the
keyword argument key = function.

The function will return a number that will be used to sort

the list (the lowest number first):

Example

Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:

def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting
in all capital letters being sorted before lower case letters:

Example

Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions

when sorting a list.

So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use

str.lower as a key function:

Example

Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)

Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless
of the alphabet?
The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order
of the elements.

Example

Reverse the order of the list items:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)

Python - Copy Lists

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1,
because: list2 will only be a reference to list1, and
changes made in list1 will automatically also be made
in list2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the

built-in List method copy().

Example

Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in

method list().

Example

Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
Python - Join Lists
Join Two Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or
more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Example

Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)

Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items

from list2 into list1, one by one:

Example

Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)

Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to

add elements from one list to another list:

Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)

Python - List Methods

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on
lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the

specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable),

to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with

the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified
position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single
variable.

Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to

store collections of data, the other 3 are List, Set,
and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.

Tuples are written with round brackets.

Example

Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow
duplicate values.

Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the
second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the
items have a defined order, and that order will not
change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot
change, add or remove items after the tuple has been
created.

Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the
same value:
Example

Tuples allow duplicate values:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")
print(thistuple)

Python - Access Tuple Items

Access Tuple Items
You can access tuple items by referring to the index
number, inside square brackets:

Example
Print the second item in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item

etc.

Example

Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to
start and where to end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new

tuple with the specified items.

Example

Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon"
, "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end

at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the
first item:

Example

This example returns the items from the beginning to, but
NOT included, "kiwi":

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon"
, "mango")
print(thistuple[:4])

Python - Update Tuples

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot
change, add, or remove items once the tuple is created.

But there are some workarounds.

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values.
Tuples are unchangeable, or immutable as it also is called.

But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into

a list, change the list, and convert the list back into a
tuple.

Example

Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)
print(x)

Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a build-
in append() method, but there are other ways to add items
to a tuple.

1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround

for changing a tuple, you can convert it into a list, add
your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.

Example

Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it

back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to

tuples, so if you want to add one item, (or many), create a
new tuple with the item(s), and add it to the existing
tuple:

Example

Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that
tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)
Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember
to include a comma after the item, otherwise it will not be
identified as a tuple.

Remove Items

Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.

Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items

from it, but you can use the same workaround as we used
for changing and adding tuple items:

Example

Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert

it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Example

The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the
tuple no longer exists