CE 331/AE421

Geotechnical Engineering
 Course objectives 13-22
13. Discuss how moisture content influences the shape of the dry
unit weight versus moisture content curve for a compacted soil.
14. Given data from a Proctor compaction test, construct the dry
unit weight versus moisture content curve and determine the
maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Be able to
apply relative compaction specifications to the laboratory
compaction curve and assess whether compaction specifications are
being met in the field compacted soil structure.
15. Be able to derive the relationship relating the dry unit weight
corresponding to the zero air voids condition to the specific gravity
and moisture content of the soil.
16. Given the specific gravity of a soil and the relationship in
Objective 15 above, be able to construct the zero air voids curve.

2
Course objectives 13-22
17. Discuss the influence of soil type and compaction energy on the
optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit weight of soils.
18. Discuss the influence of moisture content on the soil structure,
hydraulic conductivity, volume change potential, and shear strength
of a compacted cohesive soil.
19. Discuss field compaction methods for cohesive versus
cohesionless soils.
20. Discuss field compaction specifications and the conduct of field
compaction quality control measurements with the water balloon,
sand cone, and nuclear instruments to assess the suitability of
compaction relative to specifications.
21. Given the results of a sand cone test, be able to calculate the in-
place density of the compacted soil.
22. Be able to describe “overcompaction” of cohesive soils.
3
Review: WEIGHT/VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS (In-Class
Examples)

• An undisturbed soil sample has a dry unit weight of

112 pcf and specific gravity of 2.68 determine the
void ratio and porosity.
Review: WEIGHT/VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS (In-Class
Examples)

• A moist soil sample weighting 5 lb has a moisture

content of 2%. How many mL of water must be
added to the sample to increase the moisture
content to 10%.
Review: WEIGHT/VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS (In-Class
Examples)

• Given a soil with a moist nit weight of 123.6 pcg,

moisture content of 27.3%, and specific gravity of
2.75, Fill in the blanks on the phase diagram and
find the following:
• A) Void ratio
• B) Dry unit weight
• C) Degree of saturation
see text for other useful relations

7
 Geotechnical Engineering
Properties of Soil Loading Response of Soil
• Sampling/field methods • Compaction
• Index properties • Stresses in soil
• Classification • Consolidation
• Seepage • Stresses under load
• Ground improvement • Shear strength of soil
• Retaining walls
• Slope stability
Earthwork

(Coduto, 1999)
Soil As a Construction Material
Earth Fill Dam, Oroville, CA Why use Soil?
It’s Cheap and Available!

Highway Embankment, Alligator Alley, FL

http://www.westwindcontracting.com/rdconst.htm
Landfill, Buford, Georgia
 Construction of highway off-ramp
As soil embankments are constructed, the fill is spread in layers and compacted in order to
increase strength and reduce compressibility of the soil. The loose lift thickness is usually 8
inches to 12 inches. Fill maybe fine-grained (clayey) or coarse-grained soils (sands and gravels).

The cat spreads the material out evenly and compacts it at the
same time.
http://cee.engr.ucdavis.edu/faculty/boulanger/geo_photo_album
Construction of highway off-ramp

The water truck sprays the earth during compaction to condition

the soil to near its optimum moisture content for compaction, and
to control dust at the site.
Construction of highway off-ramp

The operators of the water truck and cat sequence

their passes across the site. A grader was later
used for final shaping of the roadway surface.
Soil Volume Changes During
Earthwork (Clayey Soils)
Changes in volume as soil is excavated, transported, and
compacted. The numerical values are examples and would be
different for each soil.
Compaction Theory

Mechanical Particle Improved

Energy Rearrangement Soil
(Densification) Properties
 Mechanism of Soil Compaction

http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~tawfiq/soilmech/lecture.html
Theory of Compaction
• Original work on compaction done by R.R. Proctor in early 1930s.
Proctor was involved in dam construction for old Bureau of
Waterworks and Supply in Los Angeles

• Proctor established that compaction is a function of:

• Dry unit weight (d) → Best indicator (dependent variable)
• Compactive effort
• Water content (w)
• Soil type (gradation, plasticity, presence of clay minerals)
Theory of Compaction
• Compactive effort
– Measure of mechanical energy input into soil
– Field → f (# of passes, weight of roller)
– Lab → calculated based on type of equipment & procedure

• Compaction water content

– for a given compactive effort and soil type, changes in
compaction water content result in changes in dry unit weight
Compaction – Proctor Tests
• In the early days of compaction, construction
equipment was small and gave relatively low
compaction densities. Proctor tried to mimic highest
compaction energy (of that era) → “Standard” Proctor
test
• During World War II, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
used heavier equipment to compact airfields
supporting heavy aircraft. Can’t write specification for
compaction greater than 100%, so they developed
“Modified” Proctor test
Proctor Test Equipment

http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~tawfiq/geo
http://www.mbt.co.id/equipment/index.html tech/IndexProperties.htm
Compaction – Standard Proctor Test

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CEE 380, Topic 6 © Spring 2015 Y. Hashash, S. Olson, C. Rutherford & Others
Standard vs. Modified Proctor
Compaction
Test ASTM AASHTO Mold Size Hammer
Energy
25 blows
5.5lb 3 layers
Standard D698 T99 1/30ft3
12 in. drop (E/V=12,375
ft-lb/ft3)
25 blows
10 lb 5 layers
Modified D1557 T180 1/30ft3
18in. drop (E/V=56,250
ft-lb/ft3)

Energy (# blows/layer)(# layers)(hammer weight)(drop height)

=
Unit Volume Volume 23
Compaction – Proctor Test Procedure
• Several samples of the same soil, but at different water contents, are
compacted according to the compaction test specifications.

The first four blows

Successive blows

• The total or wet unit weight and the actual water content of each
compacted sample are measured.

Wt γt
γt = , γd = Derive d from the known t and w
Vt 1+ w
• Plot the dry unit weight, d, versus water content, w, for each
compacted sample. The curve is called as a compaction curve.
Compaction (Moisture-Density) Curves

d max
To Plot Zero Air Voids Curve
w W
Sr = or d =
W 1 w 1
− +
 d Gs S R GS
Derivation of
Zero
W
Air Voids Curve
d = S
 WS =  dVT [1]
VT
S WS
GS =   S = GS  W and  S =
W VS
WS
 VS = [2] VW VW
GS  W Recall that S R = = [8]
VV VT − VS
 dVT
Substitute [1] into [2]  VS = [3] Substitute [2] and [7] into [8]
GS  W
w dVT
WW
w=  WW = wWS [4] W w d
WS SR = =
 V 
 WW = w dVT VT − d T W − d
Substitute [1] into [4] [5] GS  W GS
WW
W =  WW =  W VW [6]
VW
w W
Combine [5] and [6] and rearrange Sr = or d =
W 1 w 1
 VW =
w dVT − +
W
[7]
 d Gs S R GS
Shape of Compaction Curve

d Dry of optimum Wet of optimum

Increase in w tends to wopt Water starts replacing
“lubricate” particles soil particles in mold.
and/or reduce suction Since w << s, the dry
so that it’s easier to density d decreases
reorient particles into
a denser configuration

w
Excavation/Grading
Motor
Grader

Dozer

Scraper
Excavation/Grading
Motor
Grader

Dozer

Scraper
Transport Equipment
Wheel
Loader

Scraper

Off Road
Haul Truck

Dump Truck
(Dual Tandem)
Pneumatic rubber-tired roller
A pneumatic rubber-tired
roller is compacting clay
soil. Clays are more
difficult to compact than
sands and gravels,
because they must be
brought to the right range
of water content before
they can be compacted to
high densities. Static
pressure, as exerted by
the wheels of this rubber-
tired roller, compacts clays
well.
Vibratory padded drum (sheepsfoot) roller
 Vibratory Steel Drum Roller

Compacting sand. Vibration is more effective for compacting sands and

gravels than static pressure. Water conditioning is not as important for
compacting sands and gravels as it is for compacting clays.
Other Compaction Equipment
Mesh (or grid) roller
Used for compacting rocky soil
or other granular soils

• Websites for Compaction Equipment:

– http://www.mbw.com/
– http://www.ircmg.com/roadmachinery/soilcomp.html
– http://www.cat.com/cgi-bin/equipment_family.cgi

Hand tamper (jumping jack)

Used for compacting in tight quarters
 Compaction Equipment
SOIL LABORATORY
STRUCTURE EQUIVALENT

100%
Clay Kneading
Disperse
(Harvard Miniture)

Dense ?
Dense / Vibratory
Flocculated? (shake table)

Flocculated Static pressure

Flocculated Static pressure

Flocculated Static pressure

Flocculated Impact
to dispersed (Proctor)
Static weight, kneading, Flocculated Impact
impact, vibration to dispersed (Proctor)
 Field Compaction Control/Specifications
End Product Specification
• Fine grained soils & coarse grained soils with some fines (SM–GC)
– Relative Compaction
 d , field
Relative Compaction , RC = (%)
 d ,max(lab)
– Allowable moisture content (± __% of wopt)

– Commonly (almost always?) don’t allow:

– Medium to high plasticity soils (LL > 35 – 40; PI > ~ 20)
– Organic materials, topsoil, roots, branches, etc.
– Cobbles or boulders (they can nest)
– Construction debris, trash, or refuse
– Frozen soils
 Field Compaction Control/Specifications
End Product Specification
• Coarse-grained soils with little or no fines
– Relative Density [Dr > ~ 80% is common ]

– No water content criterion (but commonly compacted dry)

– Don’t allow items same as before
Field Compaction Control/Specifications
Method Specification

• Engineer specifies contractor means and methods

– Specific Roller (model)
– speed
– frequency of vibration (if applicable)
– number of passes
– Add/remove water from borrow

• Typically only used for large projects, often where

test “pads” can be performed prior to construction
Field Compaction Control Tests
• Sand Cone Test
• Balloon Test
• Water/Oil Test
• Drive Tube Test
Sand Cone
Sand Cone Test Equipment

Balloon

Oil Method
Field Density Determination (cont’d)
• Nuclear Density Gauge

Direct Transmission

Back scatter

http://www.troxlerlabs.com/index.html Air Gap

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) is an
instrument which can be used for the rapid
measurement of the in situ strength of existing
flexible pavements constructed with unbound
materials.

http://www.transport-links.org/ukdcp/docs/Technical%20Information%20Note.pdf
 Intelligent compaction
• Used for soils, aggregate bases, asphalt pavements
• Typically used with vibratory smooth drum rollers
• Machine variables (MV) are monitored to provide real-time feedback
and control of machine-ground interaction for evaluation of the degree
and uniformity of compaction
• Position (GPS) and speed
• Acceleration
• Machine drive power (MDP)…
• Provides much greater measurement coverage compared to point-tests
such as nuclear gauge, sand cone, balloon, DCP, LWD, Clegg impact
hammer
• Color-coded map informs driver when desired compaction is obtained,
avoiding unnecessary passes
 Pass 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0

20

40 Lane
1
2
60
3
4
5
Distance (m)

80

100

120

140

160

180

Localized Wet Area

Measured acceleration can be integrated to give

displacement for calculation of a stiffness value
intelligent compaction

• Compaction energy continuously

optimized by controlling vibration amplitude

• Machine provides display/mapping of

vibration modulus Evib (MN/m2), related to
degree of compaction of soil or asphalt
Thank You