Chapter-2: Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

2.1. Defining Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy: is a set of purposefully designed plan of actions and decisions that
the state takes in its external relation to promote its national interests
 It consists of the means and strategies used to achieve those desired
core national objectives.
 Thus, the foreign policy of any state should always directed towards promoting
the national interest and the prestige of its citizens.
2.2. Understanding National Interests
National Interests: are the fundamental goals and objectives that a nation strives
to achieve in its domestic and foreign relations.
 They are the claims, objectives, and demands which a state aspires to attain in
its foreign relation.
 It is what the state:
a) seeks to protect or achieve in its relation with other states.
b) feels to be necessary to its security and well being
2.2.1. Foreign Policy Objectives: Core National Interests
 Foreign policy objectives: are a range of actions and a set of strategies
designed by the state to attain in its international relations.
 Based on the:
a) The value we placed on those objectives, and
b) Time-length placed on their achievement, foreign policy objectives can
be classified as:
1) Short Term/Core Objectives
2) Middle Term Objectives
3) Long Term Objectives

1. Short Term/Core Objectives

 It is the primary objective of any states in which no one can compromise
 They are very vital for the existence of states
 Thus, it needs to be preserved at all time by any cost.
  Most people are accepting without any question and willing to make
ultimate sacrifices and.
 Other goals cannot be achieved unless the state maintains its existence.
 Which may include:
a) Self-preservation: Ensuring sovereignty and territorial integrity
b) Crisis management and maintaining anarchy.
 Such as: A sudden military conflict, a natural disaster requiring
humanitarian aid, or a major economic shock needing immediate
intervention
c) Preserving Cultural identity /historical values of the state.
2. Middle Term Objectives
 Varies across states due to the difference in the level of economic, technological
progress, and military capability.
 It can be seen in three ways
a) Promoting economic development and social welfare.
 Increasing exports to a target market or
 Attracting a significant amount of foreign investment.
 Encouraging foreign investment and
 Protecting the rights of nationals who live abroad
 Promoting social welfare
b) Promoting the prestige of the state at international stage
 This can be achieved by enhancing:
 Industrial development,
 Scientific and technological skill
 Nuclear capacity building, and
 Strengthening alliances via military cooperation and provision of aid
c) Self-extension/imperialism
 Resolving a protracted regional conflict: facilitating reconciliation
between conflicting parties.
 Ensuring prosperity, Peace, Justice, Power, and etc.
3. Long Term Objectives
 They are persistent interest /rarely changed
 Its purpose is to reconstruct the entire international system according to
states plan/vision.
 Long range objectives have not time frame.
 States normally make universal demands
  Maintaining international peace and order
 Promoting a specific ideological agenda such as promoting democracy
and/or human rights.
 Self-reliance in economy and military power
 Creating a stable and secure international environment
2.3. Foreign Policy Behaviors (Law)
Foreign Policy Behaviors: are the patterns and actions states take towards each
other.
 Arnold Wolfers categorized all foreign policy behavior into three possible
patterns:
(1) Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);
(2) Self-extension (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor);
(3) Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else‘s favor).
1) Self-preservation: the primary focuses of the state is maintaining its existing
power, territory, and security.
 The core objective is to prevent any significant change in the international
system that might threaten its well-being.
 To ensure their status quo, states might take actions such as:
a) Maintaining strong defenses
b) Protecting existing economic interests
c) Conducting diplomatic efforts to maintain stability:
 States like U.S.A has become the primary loyal supporter of the existing
international order.

2) Self-extension: is the desire and an act of restructuring the international

system by newly emerging powerful states in a way that promote their national
interests.
 Actions might include:
a) Military aggression: Launching attacks to conquer territory or
impose its will on other nations.
b) Economic expansion: Using economic power to exert influence over
other countries, through trade agreements that favor the dominant
power, or economic sanctions against rivals.
 c) Ideological expansion: Promoting its ideology or political system
through propaganda, subversion, or direct intervention in other
countries' affairs.
 Such as China, India, Brazil, Israel and others
3) Self-abnegation: it is an act of compromising ones national interest.
 It is a less common but still important pattern.
 This can be happen by various reasons:
a) Visionless of leaders: seeking temporary and immediate benefits
b) Altruism: A genuine commitment to helping other nations based on
humanitarian concerns or shared values.
c) Strategic considerations: Making cost benefit analysis to avoid
conflict against or gain favor from powerful states.
NB: Nations often pursue a mix of these patterns simultaneously.

2.4. Foreign Policy Dimensions/Orientations

 Dimensions are approaches and strategies that states choose to interact with the
outside world.
 It includes:
1. Alignment
2. Scope
3. Modus operandi
1) Alignment
 Alignment: it is a state of whether national leaders choose to ally with certain
countries or to remain neutral
 A country‘s alignment behavior can vary across time in response to a
changing circumstances
 The form of states alignment could be:
a) Alliance
b) Neutrality
c) Non-alliance
a. Alliance: is formal agreements to provide mutual military or economic
assistance
 States may seek to construct diplomatic relations or alliances(partnership) when
they assume that they cannot:
 achieve their objectives,
 defend their interests or
 deter perceived threat by mobilizing their own capabilities
 Hence, states with common problems and common enemies make diplomatic
and military alliances.
b. Neutrality: It is a stance of formal nonpartisanship on certain issues.
 It is a means to secure state from generating of potential enemies and counter
alliances
 Why states prefer Neutrality??
 To gain security and independence

c. Non-alignment: It is an act disregarding both the West and East bloc

politics and alliances.
 Emerged after 1945 as an independent policy
 The assumption is that alliance or counter alliance may breed tension and
ultimately lead to disaster.
 It is a movement mostly held by the developing countries, as Non-
Alignment Movement (NAM) in which they called for a new foreign
policy path/choice/ to be followed disregarding both the West and East
bloc politics and alliances.
1. Scope: Some countries have extensive, far-reaching international contacts,
while other countries have more limited activities abroad.
a. Global terms: USA, China etc. make diplomatic communication in
every part of the world
b. Regional terms: South Africa, India etc. interacting primarily with
neighboring states in the same geographical area.
c. Isolationism: Few countries like Burma, have ever been totally cut off
from the outside world due to different reasons(geographic remoteness)
 2. Modus operandi: - is the ways of interacting the state to achieve its foreign
policy objectives at the international system.
 The MO can be characterized in terms of:
i) Multilateral: it involves participation in various international
organizations, alliances, and collaborative agreements.
 It is characterized by cooperation, diplomacy, negotiation, and the
building of consensus.
ii) Bilateral: it focuses on direct, one-to-one interactions between two
states.
 It is characterized by direct negotiations, treaties, and agreements
between two countries.
iii) Unilateral: it involves a state acting independently, without the consent
or cooperation of other actors.
 It is characterized by focusing on national power plan, independent
action, and a disregard for international norms or constraints.
 It prioritizes national interests above all else.
Important Note:
1. Many states employ a mix of these approaches, adapting their MO to specific
circumstances and goals.
 A state might favor a multilateral approach in economic matters but a
bilateral or even unilateral one in security or human rights issues.
Ethiopian Foreign Policy and Diplomatic Relations
Source: Excerpts from "Development of Ethiopian Foreign Policy and Diplomatic
Relations.pdf"
Main Themes:
 Continuity and Change:
 Ethiopian foreign policy, despite regime changes, consistently aimed to protect
sovereignty, secure territorial integrity, and gain international support.
 Strategies, however, evolved with shifts in domestic politics and the
global landscape.
 Internal and External Drivers:
 Both domestic factors (leadership styles, internal conflicts, national goals) and
external factors (regional powers, colonial ambitions, global alliances)
significantly influenced the direction and nature of Ethiopian foreign policy.
 Quest for Modernization and Development:
 From Emperor Tewodros II onwards, Ethiopian leaders sought technological
assistance in Quest for Modernization and Development
 Shifting Alliances: Ethiopia's foreign relations saw dramatic shifts, from
seeking Christian solidarity with European powers to navigating the Cold
War by aligning with the Soviet Union, and finally embracing globalization
and democracy under the EPRDF.
Key Ideas and Facts:
Ancient and Medieval Period:
 Ethiopia boasts a long history of foreign relations, primarily focused on
trade and cultural exchange with countries around the Red Sea,
Mediterranean, and Indian sub-continent.
 Formal diplomacy emerged during Empress Elleni's regency, marked by the
request for Portuguese military aid against Ahmed Gragn.
 The trauma of religious wars and the Jesuit controversy led to Fassiledes'
closed-door policy in 1632, isolating Ethiopia from the outside world.
Modern Period:
 Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1868):Focused on modernization and sought
technological assistance from Europe.
 Sought Christian solidarity, particularly with Britain, to counter threats from
Egypt and the Ottoman Empire.
 His plea for assistance, captured in his letter to Queen Victoria, remained
unanswered, leading to the Magdala expedition and his tragic demise.
 Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-1888):Prioritized diplomacy over military
confrontation, evident in his agreements with Menelik of Shewa and the
Hewett Treaty with Anglo-Egyptians.
 Faced threats from Egypt, Italy, and the Mahdists, driven by British
influence and the opening of the Suez Canal.
 Achieved military victories at Gundet and Gura against Egyptian forces but
gained limited diplomatic benefits due to British betrayal and Italian
ambitions in Massawa.
 Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913):Established the modern Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and engaged in extensive diplomacy with European powers.
  The Treaty of Wuchale with Italy initially aimed for friendship but
ultimately led to conflict due to contradictory interpretations regarding
Italian protectorate claims.
 Menilik's decisive victory at the Battle of Adwa secured Ethiopia's
sovereignty and international recognition.
 Lij Iyasu (1913-1916):Faced a turbulent international landscape due to
World War I, and his policies aimed to challenge colonial powers in the
Horn of Africa.
 His support for the Central Powers and Somali resistance against British and
Italian rule led to his downfall, orchestrated by Allied powers.
 Emperor Haile Selassie (1930-1974):Focused on centralizing power and
building a strong military force, navigating a complex post-liberation period
after the Italian occupation.
 Championed collective security at the League of Nations, evident in his
famous speech denouncing Italy's aggression.
 Guided by principles of peaceful co-existence, non-alignment, and Pan-
Africanism, Ethiopia played a key role in supporting African liberation
movements.
 The Derg Regime (1974-1991):Initially focused on maintaining territorial
integrity and securing regime survival.
 The US refusal to provide arms against Somali aggression pushed the Derg
towards the Soviet Union, leading to a dramatic shift in alliances.
 The Derg's socialist policies and human rights abuses led to strained
relations with the West and ultimately contributed to its downfall.
 EPRDF Regime (1991-present):The EPRDF's rise coincided with the end
of the Cold War and the emergence of a new global order emphasizing
democracy, free markets, and human rights.
 Embraced globalization and development as key foreign policy pillars,
recognizing the need for integration into the world economy.
 Prioritized building a democratic system and fostering national pride, aiming
to restore Ethiopia's historical standing and achieve socio-economic
progress.
Quotes:
  Emperor Tewodros II: "He restores his historic domain from the
illegitimates and he will expel the Turks from Jerusalem by the help of
God."
 Ras Tessema Nadaw (Regent): "[His] position…. would be much
weakened, and he would certainly be accused of having sold his country."
 Emperor Haile Selassie: "Menelik successfully achieved in war would be
accomplished by a mere putting signature in a piece of paper."
 EPRDF Foreign Policy Document: "Ethiopia cannot attain development
and democracy by closing its doors and taking refuge in our mountains. It is
only when the country accept the fact that there is no choice but to enter the
global economy, and when we aim to transform from the state of
dependency to that of being a producer, and a better producer in time, that
can be realize democracy and development."
Conclusion:
This document provides a concise overview of the evolution of Ethiopian foreign
policy and diplomatic relations, highlighting key themes, actors, and events. It
reveals a consistent pursuit of national interests intertwined with changing
domestic and international dynamics. The document showcases Ethiopia's unique
position in Africa, marked by its resistance to colonialism, its leadership in Pan-
Africanism, and its continued quest for development and modernization in an
increasingly globalized world.
Ethiopian Foreign Policy: FAQ
1. How has Ethiopian foreign policy evolved over time?
Ethiopian foreign policy has demonstrated remarkable continuity in its core
objectives: safeguarding sovereignty, territorial integrity, and seeking international
collaboration. However, the strategies employed to achieve these goals have
evolved in response to shifting domestic political landscapes and global dynamics.
Key Trends:
 Transition from seeking Christian solidarity with European powers to
navigating the Cold War through alignment with the Soviet Union.
 Embrace of globalization and democracy in the post-Cold War era under
the EPRDF regime.
 Consistent focus on modernization and development, beginning with
Emperor Tewodros II and continuing to the present.
2. What were the major internal drivers of Ethiopian foreign policy?
Internal factors have significantly shaped the direction and nature of Ethiopian
foreign policy. These include:
 Leadership Styles: The personalities and ambitions of individual leaders
like Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, Menelik II, and Haile Selassie I profoundly
influenced foreign policy decisions.
 Internal Conflicts: Power struggles between regional leaders and the
central government, as well as internal rebellions, have impacted Ethiopia's
interactions with external powers.
 National Goals: The pursuit of modernization, economic development, and
national unity has driven Ethiopia's engagement with the world, shaping its
quest for technological assistance, financial aid, and international
recognition.
3. What external factors have influenced Ethiopian foreign policy?
Ethiopia's foreign policy has been deeply intertwined with external forces,
including:
 Regional Powers: Interactions with neighboring states like Egypt, Somalia,
and Sudan have been crucial, often involving conflicts over territory,
resources, and regional influence.
 Colonial Ambitions: Ethiopia's resistance to European colonialism,
culminating in the victory over Italy at the Battle of Adwa, has been a
defining element of its foreign policy.
 Global Alliances: Ethiopia's strategic alignments during the Cold War, first
with the West and later with the Soviet Union, reflected its efforts to
navigate the global power balance and secure its interests.
4. What was the significance of Emperor Tewodros II's foreign policy?
Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1868) marked a turning point in Ethiopian foreign
policy by initiating a quest for modernization and technological assistance from
Europe. He sought Christian solidarity, particularly with Britain, to counter
threats from Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. His unanswered plea for assistance
from Queen Victoria ultimately led to the Magdala expedition and his tragic
demise, highlighting the challenges of engaging with European powers on an
unequal footing.
5. How did Emperor Menelik II navigate Ethiopia's foreign relations?
Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913) is renowned for his diplomatic acumen and
military achievements. He established the modern Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
skillfully engaged in diplomacy with European powers. The Treaty of Wuchale
with Italy, while initially intended for peaceful relations, led to conflict due to
differing interpretations of its provisions. Menelik's decisive victory at the Battle of
Adwa in 1896 secured Ethiopia's sovereignty and garnered international
recognition.
6. What role did Emperor Haile Selassie I play on the world stage?
Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930-1974) became a prominent figure in international
affairs. He championed collective security at the League of Nations, famously
denouncing Italy's aggression in 1935. He guided Ethiopia's foreign policy based
on principles of peaceful co-existence, non-alignment, and Pan-Africanism.
Ethiopia played a crucial role in supporting African liberation movements during
his reign.
7. How did the Derg regime's foreign policy differ from previous eras?
The Derg regime (1974-1991) initially focused on maintaining territorial integrity
and regime survival. However, the US refusal to provide arms against Somali
aggression pushed the Derg towards the Soviet Union, marking a dramatic shift in
alliances. The Derg's socialist policies and human rights abuses strained relations
with the West and ultimately contributed to its downfall.
8. What are the key pillars of the EPRDF regime's foreign policy?
The EPRDF regime, which came to power in 1991, ushered in a new era of
Ethiopian foreign policy. Its foreign policy is characterized by:
 Embrace of Globalization and Development: Recognizing the need for
integration into the world economy, the EPRDF has prioritized economic
development as a key foreign policy objective.
 Focus on Democracy and Human Rights: The EPRDF has sought to build
a democratic system and improve human rights, aligning its foreign policy
with the prevailing global norms.
 Promoting National Pride and Prestige: The regime aims to restore
Ethiopia's historical standing and achieve socio-economic progress,
leveraging foreign policy to enhance national pride.