EXPERIMENT NO.

1(a)

Aim: To determine the focal length of a concave mirror by obtaining image of a distant object.

Material required: A concave mirror, a mirror holder, a screen fixed on a stand, and a scale.

Theory: When parallel rays of light fall on a concave mirror the rays meet at a point in front
of the mirror after reflection from it. This point is the focus of the mirror.
For a parallel beam of light coming from a distant object, a real, inverted and very small
image size is formed at the focus of the mirror Since the image formed by the mirror is real, it
can be obtained on a screen. The distance between the pole O of the concave mirror and the
focus F is the focal length of the concave mirror. Thus, the focal length of a concave mirror
can be estimated by obtaining a real image of a distant object at its focus.

DRAW ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE

Observation and Calculation:
S.NO. Name of Position of Position of Distance Distance Mean focal
the distant Mirror on Screen on between between length of a
object Optical Optical concave concave concave
Bench P Bench S mirror and mirror and mirror f
screen f = S-P screen f
(cm) (cm) (cm) (m) (m)
1 Sun light 60 45 -15 -0.15
2 coming 60 45 -15 -0.15 - 0.15 m
3 through 60 45 -15 -0.15
Window

Result: The approximate value of focal length of the given concave mirror is _ -0.15___ m.

Precautions:
1. Concave mirror should be placed near window through which sufficient sunlight enters,
there should be no obstacle in the path of light from the distant object, on the concave mirror.
2. The image of the sun should be focused only on the screen.
3. The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the scale and
the mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring scale.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1(b)
Aim: To determine the focal length of a thin convex lens by obtaining image of a distant
object.

Material required: A thin convex lens, a lens holder, screen fixed to a stand, scale.

Theory: The light rays coming from a distant object can be considered to be parallel to each
other. When a parallel beam of light falls on a convex lens, the rays, after refraction, converge
at a point on its other side. This point is one of the two foci of the lens and form real, inverted
diminished image.

DRAW ON LEFT HAND SIDE PAGE

Observation and Calculation:

S.NO. Name of Position of Position of Distance Distance Mean focal
the distant Lens on Screen on between between length of a
object Optical Optical convex lens convex convex lens
Bench P Bench S and screen f = lens and f
S-P screen f
(cm) (cm) (cm) (m) (m)
1 Sun light 40 58 18 0.18
2 coming 40 58 18 0.18 0.18 m
3 through 40 58 18 0.18
Window

Result: The approximate value of focal length of the given convex lens is __0.18__ m.
Precautions and sources of error:
1. The principal axis of the lens should be horizontal (the lens should be placed vertically) and
there should be no obstacle in the path of light from the distant object on the convex lens.
2. The image of the sun formed by the lens should be focused only on the screen. The image of
sun should never be seen directly with the naked eye.
3. Adjust the position of convex lens such that the light rays coming from the distant object
fall on the lens without any obstruction.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Aim: To trace the path of a ray of light passing obliquely through a rectangular glass slab for
different angles of incidence and to measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, the angle
of emergence.
Material required: A rectangular glass slab, drawing board, white sheet of paper, protractor,
a measuring scale, pins, and drawing pins.
Theory: When a ray of light passes from air to glass through a rectangular glass slab, it bends
towards the normal at the surface of the air-glass boundary (AD). The phenomenon of change
in the direction of a ray of light when it enters from one medium to the other is known as
refraction. Then, the refracted ray strikes the face BC of the glass slab that forms the glass-air
boundary at the opposite face of the glass slab ABCD. It undergoes refraction again. The
deviation of the ray of light this time is away from the normal at the point of incidence .The
refracted ray is known as the emergent ray with respect to the incident ray incident at the face
AD. The angle between the emergent ray and the normal to the face BC is known as angle of
emergence ( e).

*Either Draw Figure on a blank sheet and attach in the practical record or attach the sheet
when you have attempted practical offline
Observation:
S No. Angle of Angle of Angle of Deviation
incidence i refraction r emergence e i-e
1 30 degree 20 degree 30 degree 0 degree
2 40 degree 25 degree 40 degree 0 degree
3 50 degree 30 degree 50 degree 0 degree
Result:
The paths of different rays of light through a glass slab are shown in figure As i = e , the
emergent ray emerging out of the rectangular glass slab, is parallel to, but laterally displaced
with respect to the incident ray. Angle of refraction r increases with increase in angle of
incidence i.
Precautions and sources of error:
1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth, thin lines should
be drawn, using a sharp pencil and the angles should be measured accurately, using a good
quality protractor having clear markings, by keeping the eye above the marking.
2. The tips of pins P1, P2, P3, and P4 should be sharp and while viewing the collinearity of
pins , the eye should be kept at some distance from the pins so that the feet of all of them can
be seen simultaneously in the same straight line.
3. The angle of incidence should preferably be between 30º and 60º.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Aim: To trace the path of a ray of light through a glass prism.
Material required: A glass prism, drawing board, paper, drawing pins, pins, scale
protractor.
Theory: When a light from air strikes on a face AB of a prism ABC, it gets refracted and
bends towards the normal to the plane. The refracted ray travels inside the prism until it strikes
its other face AC. Here again, the ray gets refracted into air but bends away from the normal
towards the face BC.
The angle between the incident ray (when extended) and the emergent ray, when produced
backwards to meet at a point H, is known as the angle of deviation.

Either Draw Figure on a blank sheet and attach in the practical record or attach the sheet
when you have attempted practical offline

Result: The path of ray of light incident on a glass prism is shown by the ray DE .

Precautions:
(i) While viewing the collinearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance
from the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously.
(ii) The pins P1, P2, P3 and P4 fixed on the paper may not be exactly perpendicular to the
plane of paper. It is therefore desirable to look at the feet of the pins or their images while
establishing their collinearity.
(iii) In order to locate the direction of incident ray and refracted ray with a greater accuracy,
the distance between the pins P1 and P2; and that between P3 and P4 should not be too short
or too large. A separation of nearly 6 cm between the pins would be sufficient.
EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Aim: To study the dependence of the potential difference across a resistor on the current

through it and to determine its resistance and to verify the Ohm’s law.

Material required: A resistor of about 5 Ω, an ammeter ( 0 - 3 A), a voltmeter (0 - 10 V), 4 dry cells of
1.5 V each a battery eliminator, a plug key, connecting wires, sand paper.

Theory: According to the Ohm’s law, the potential difference (V) across the ends of a resistor is directly
proportional to the current (I) through it provided its temperature remains the same.

V=IR

R is a constant for the given resistor at a given temperature and is called its resistance.

A graph between the potential difference across the two ends of a resistor and the current through it is
a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of this graph gives the resistance R of the resistor.

Procedure:

1. Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.

2. Set up the circuit by connecting different components with the help of connecting wires.

3. Initially connect only one cell in the circuit . In case a battery eleminator is used, keep the

rating of the eliminator at the minimum

4. Insert the key in the plug and note the readings of ammeter and voltmeter and record them.

5. Now instead of using one cell in the circuit, connect two cells in the circuit.

6. Note and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings.

7. Repeat the experiment by connecting three and four cells in the circuit.

Observation and calculation:

(i) Range of the ammeter = _0__ - _1__ A.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 5(a)
Aim: To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in series
combination.
Material required: Two resistors of (each of 2 Ω resistance), an ammeter (range 0 – 5 A),
a voltmeter (range 0 – 5 V), three dry cells of 1.5 V each a plug key, connecting wires.
Theory: When two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 respectively are connected in a series
combination. then their equivalent resistance Rs is given by
Rs = R1 + R2 ------------------------ eq. 1

Procedure:
1. Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.
2. Place the given resistors one after the other and join the ends.
3. Set up the circuit by connecting different components with the help of connecting wires
as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure that the positive and negative terminals of the ammeter and voltmeter are
correctly connected in the circuit.
5. Insert the key in the plug and note the readings of ammeter and voltmeter and record
them.
6. Repeat the activity for three different values of current through the circuit and record
the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter in each case.
Observation and calculation:
Range of the ammeter = _0__ - __1.5_ A.
Least count of the ammeter = __0.1_ A.
Range of the voltmeter = __0_ - _1.5__ V.
Least count of the voltmeter = 0.1_ V.
Resistance of first resistor R1 = 2___ Ω
Resistance of second resistor, R2 = __3_ Ω
R1 = __2__ Ω, R2 = ___3__ Ω
Equivalent resistance = R1 + R2 = _5__ Ω
S. No. Current through Potential Equivalent Average value of
the series difference Resistance of Rs
combination, Is across the series combination, Rs= Vs
Vs / Is
(A) (V) (Ω) (Ω)
1 0.1 0.5 0.5/0.1 5
2 0.2 1.0 1/0.2 5
3 0.3 1.5 1.5/0.3 5

Equivalent resistance experimentally = R1 + R2 = __5_ Ω

Result: Resistance of the series combination (from observation table) :______5_______ Ω
Resistance of the series combination (calculated by using Eq. 1 ) :_______5______ Ω
Precaution:
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends
should be removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the combination of resistors such that
the current enters at the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the
ammeter.
4. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to the combination of resistors.
5. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current
flows through the circuit..
6. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change
the resistance of resistors.

EXPERIMENT NO. 5(b)

Aim: To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in parallel
combination.
Material required: Two resistors of (each of 2 Ω resistance), an ammeter (range 0 – 5
A), a voltmeter (range 0 – 5 V), three dry cells of 1.5 V each , a plug key, connecting wires
Theory: When two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 respectively are connected in a parallel
combination then their equivalent resistance RP is given by
Equivalent resistance(RP) = R1R2 / (R1+ R2)

Procedure:
1. Note the range and least count of the given ammeter and the voltmeter.
2. Place the given resistors side by side and join end A with the end C, and end B with
end D.
3. Set up the circuit by connecting different components with the help of connecting wires
as
shown in the circuit diagram .
4. Note the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.
5. Repeat the activity for three different values of current through the circuit and record
the
readings of the ammeter and voltmeter in each case.
Observation and calculation:
(i) Range of the ammeter = _0___ - _1.5___ A.
(ii) Least count of the ammeter = _0.1___ A.
(iii) Range of the voltmeter = __0__ - __1.5__ V.
(iv) Least count of the voltmeter = __0.1__ V
(v) Resistance of first resistor, R1 = 2____ Ω
(vi) Resistance of second resistor, R2 = ___2_ Ω
Equivalent resistance = R1R2 / (R1+ R2) = 1 ohm

S.No. Current through the Potential difference Equivalent Average

parallel across the parallel Resistance of value of
combination, IP combination, VP combination, RP RP
RP = VP / IP
(A) (V) (Ω) (Ω)
1 0.2 0.2 1
2 0.4 0.4 1 1 ohm
3 0.6 0.6 1

R1 = __2__ Ω, R2 = ___2__ Ω

Equivalent resistance = R1R2 / (R1+ R2) = 1 ohm

Result and discussion: Resistance of the parallel combination (from observation

table):___1 ohm___
Resistance of the parallel combination (calculated by using Eq. 1):____1 ohm___

Precautions:
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends
should
be removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the combination of resistors such that
the
current enters at the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the
ammeter.
4. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to the combination of resistors.
5. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current
flows
through the circuit..
(ii) Least count of the ammeter = 0.1 A.

(iii) Range of the voltmeter = _0__ - _5__ V.

(iv) Least count of the voltmeter = _0.1__ V.

Mean value of resistance R of the resistor = _5_ Ω

S.No Current through Potential difference across Resistance of the

the resistor I the end of resistor V resistor R = V/I

(A) (V) (Ω)

1 0.4 2 5

2 0.6 3 5

3 0.8 4 5

4 1 5 5

Graph: Plot the graph with I and V along the x- and y-axes respectively on the graph paper.

Find the slope of this graph by choosing two points P and Q on it.

Slope = QM/MP
 Graph between V and I

Result: Resistance obtained from the calculations = 5 Ω

Resistance obtained from the graph = 5 Ω

• The value of resistance R of resistor for all values of current through it remains the same (or almost
same). The graph between V and I is a straight line and passes through the origin. This verifies the
Ohm’s law.

Precautions:

1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be

removed using the sand paper.

2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.

3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that the current enters at

the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.

4. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.

5. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current through

the circuit.