UNIT – 4

Operational Amplifiers and its Applications

INTRODUCTION

Op-Amp (operational amplifier) is a direct coupled multistage voltage amplifier with

an extremely high gain. Opamp is basically an amplifier available in the IC form. The
word “operational” is used because the amplifier can be used to perform a variety of
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc.

Figure 4.1 below shows the symbol of an Op-Amp.

+VCC
V1

Inverting input

V2
Noninverting input
-VEE

Fig.4.1 Symbol of Op-Amp

It has two inputs and one output. The input marked “-“ is known as Inverting input
and the input marked “+” is known as Non-invertinginput.If a voltage V i is applied
at the inverting input ( keeping the non-inverting input at ground) as shown below.

Vi

VO

Vi VO

Fig.4.2 Op-amp in inverting mode

The output voltage Vo= -AVi is amplified but is out of phase with respect to the input
signal by 1800.If a voltage Vi is fed at the non-inverting input ( Keeping the inverting
input at ground) as shown below.

Vo

VO

Vi

Fig 4.3 Op-Amp in Non-inverting mode

The output voltage Vo= AVi is amplified and in-phase with the input signal.

If two different voltages V1 and V2 are applied to an ideal Op-Amp asshown

below.

V1
VO

V2

Fig.4.4 Ideal Op-Amp

The output voltage will be Vo = A(V1 – V2)

i.e the difference of the two voltages is amplified. Hence an Op-Amp is also called as
a High gain differential amplifier.
Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp

An ideal Op-Amp has the following characteristics.

1.
Infinite voltage gain ( ie AV =∞)
2.
Infinite input impedance (Ri = ∞)
3.
Zero output impedance(Ro =0)
4.
Infinite Bandwidth (B.W. = ∞)
 5.
Infinite Common mode rejection ratio (ie CMRR =∞)
6.
Infinite slew rate (ie S=∞)
7.
Zero power supply rejection ratio ( PSRR =0)ie output voltage is
zero when power supply VCC =0
8.
Zero offset voltage(ie when the input voltages are zero, the output
voltage will also be zero)
9.
Perfect balance (ie the output voltage is zero when the input voltages at
the two input terminals are equal)
10.
The characteristics are temperature independent.

Typical Values of Op-amp [Specifications]

Ideal Typical or
Parameter Practical
Value
Voltage Gain ∞ 2*105
[Av]
Output 0 75Ω
Impedance
Input Impedance ∞ 2MΩ
Input Offset 0 2mV
CMRR ∞ 90dB
Slew Rate ∞ 0.5V/μs
Bandwidth ∞ 1MHz
PSRR 0 30μV/V
Input Bias 0 80nA
Current

Definitions

1. Slew rate(S): It is defined as “ The rate of change of output voltage per

unit time”

𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝑅 =
𝑑𝑡
volts /  sec

SR=fmax 2 Π Vm

Ideally slew rate should be as high as possible. But its typical value is s=0.5 V/μ-sec.
2.Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR): It is defined as “ The ratio

𝐴𝑑
of differential voltage gain to common-mode voltage gain”.
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐𝑚
3. Open Loop Voltage Gain (AV): It is the ration of output voltage to input voltage
in the absence of feed back. Its typical value is 2*105

4. Input Impedance (Ri): It is defined as “The impedance seen by the input(source)

applied to one input terminal when the other input terminal is connected to ground”.
Ri ≈ 2MΩ
5.Output Impedance (RO): It is defined as “ The impedance given by the output
(load) for a particular applied input”.
Ro ≈ 75Ω

Concept of Virtual ground

We know that, an ideal Op-Amp has perfect balance (ie output will be zero when
input voltages are equal).

Hence when output voltage Vo = 0, we can say that both the input voltages are equal ie
V1= V2.

V1
Vo
Ri
V2

Fig. 4.5a Concept of Virtual ground

Since the input impedances of an ideal Op-Amp is infinite ( Ri =∞ ). There is no current
flow between the two terminals. Hence when one terminal (say V2 ) is connected to
ground (ie V2 = 0) as shown.

VCC

V1 =V2 =0
Ri VO

V2=0

VEE

Fig. 4.5b Concept of Virtual ground

Then because of virtual ground V1 will also be zero
Pin Configuration of IC 741

1. Offset Null - Rarely used. It can be used to to adjust for small errors in the
two inputs so zero volts in gives zero volts out.
2. Inverting Input - If this voltage goes up, the output voltage
will go DOWN unless the Op Amp is already saturated.
3. Non-Inverting Input - If this voltage goes up, the output voltage
will go UP unless the Op Amp is already saturated.
4. The minus supply - Sometimes this is connected to zero volts ( ground ).
Sometimes it's connected to a voltage between -5V and -18V or more for a
few specialised op amps.
5. Offset Null - Rarely used. It can be used to to adjust for small errors in the
two inputs so zero volts in gives zero volts out.
6. The Output - In an ideal Op Amp, the maximum and minimum output voltage
is equal to the power supply voltages.
In a real life Op Amp, these voltages are 2 to 3 Volts less.
7. The plus supply - Voltages from +5V to +18V are common.
There are specialist and more expensive Op Amps with a higher voltage ratings.
8. No Connection - This pin is not used

Applications of Op-Amp
An Op-Amp can be used as
1. Inverting Amplifier
2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
3. Voltage follower
4. Adder ( Summer)
5. Integrator
6. Differentiator
7. Difference Amplifier(Subtractor)
8. Comparator
9. Schmitt Trigger
10. Instrumentation Amplifier
 1. Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is out of phase by

1800 with respect to the input

Rf

If
R1

V1 i1 G=0
VO

Fig 4.6 Inverting Amplifier

The point “G” is called virtual ground and is equal to zero.

Inverting Op-amp
 Input Signal Vi is applied to the inverting input terminal through resistor R1.

Non inverting terminal is grounded.
 The feedback from output is given to the inverting terminal through Rf.

Vd = V2 –V1 = Vo = 0
From the concept of Virtual ground,
𝑉1=V2=0
Due to high input impedance of Op-amp, current flowing into inverting input terminal is
zero. Thus same current flows through R1 and Rf.
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹 (1)

By KCL we have

𝐼 =
𝑉𝑖

=
𝑉 ------------------(2)
1 −𝑉1 𝑅1
𝑅1 −𝑉0
=
𝐼
------------------(3)
=
𝑉1
−𝑉0
𝑓
𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓

𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉0
From (1),(2) and (3),

𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
 𝑽𝒐 −𝑹𝒇-----------
𝑨 = =
𝒗 𝑹𝟏
Gain for Inverting Op-amp

𝑽𝒊
Rf
is the gain of the amplifier and negative sign indicates that the output is
Where R1

inverted with respect to the input.

VO
Vi

Fig 4.7 Waveforms of Inverting Amplifier

2. Non- Inverting Amplifier

A non-inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is in-phase withthe

input.

Rf

i2
R1

V1 i1 G=Vi
VO

Vi

Fig 4.8 Non Inverting Amplifiers

Non Inverting Op-amp

 Input Signal Vi is applied to the non - inverting input terminal.

 Inverting terminal is grounded through resistor R1.
 The feedback from output is given to the inverting terminal through Rf.

𝑉2=Vi (1)
Due to virtual ground,
 𝑉1=V2 (2)
𝑉𝑖=V1=V2
Due to high input impedance of Op-amp, current flowing into inverting input terminal is
zero. Thus same current flows through R1 and Rf.

𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹 (3)
𝐼 =
−𝑉𝑖

=
0−𝑉1 ------------------(4)
1 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑖−𝑉0
=
𝐼 −𝑉
= 0
𝑉1
------------------(5)
𝑓
𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓

Using (3),equating (4)

− 𝑉𝑖− 𝑉𝑜
and(5),

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑅𝑓
1 1
𝑅
1
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 [ + ]
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅 𝑓
1 1
𝑉0 = 𝑅𝑓 [+ ]
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑖
𝑹𝒇--------
𝑨 = =𝟏+
𝑽𝟎
Gain for non inverting Op-amp
𝒗 𝑽𝒊 𝑹𝟏

3. Voltage follower

VO

Vi VO
Vi

Fig. 4.9 Voltage follower

Voltage follower is one whose output is equal to the input. The voltage follower
configuration shown above is obtained by short circuiting “Rf”and open circuiting
“R1” connected in the usual non-inverting amplifier.Thus all the output is fed back to
the inverting input of the op-Amp
Consider the equation for the output of non-inverting amplifier

When Rf = 0 short
circuiting R1= ∞
open circuiting
 Input Signal Vi is applied to the non - inverting input terminal.
𝑉2=Vi (1)
 Inverting terminal is directly connected to the output..
𝑉0=V1 (2)
From (1) and (2)
𝑉0=Vi
𝑽
𝟎 =𝟏
𝑨𝒗 =
𝒊
�
Feedback factor for Voltage Follower
β =1
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽

𝑨 =
𝑨------------
Since β =1

𝒇
Gain for Voltage Follower
𝟏+𝑨

𝑨
𝟏+𝑨
Error =[ 1 - ] x 100%

Therefore the output voltage will be equal and in-phase with the input voltage. Thus
voltage follower is nothing but a non-inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of unity.
4. Summer(Inverting Adder)
Inverting adder is one whose output is the inverted sum of the constituentinputs

R1
Rf
i1
If
R2

V2 i2 G=0
VO

V3 R3i3

Fig 4.10 Summer (Inverting Adder)

𝑉𝐵= 0
Since non inverting terminal is grounded,

𝑉𝐴=VB = G= 0 [Virtual Ground]

And

𝑉1 − = 𝑉1
𝐼1 =
𝑉 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑉2
=
𝐼2 = 𝑅2
𝑉2 −
𝑉𝐴 𝑉3
𝑅2 =
𝐼3 = 𝑅3
𝑉3 − −𝑉𝑜
𝑉 =
𝐼𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓
𝑅3

𝑉𝐴 −
𝑉𝑜
𝑅
𝑓

𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
Applying KCL at node
A

−𝑉𝑜 𝑉1 𝑉2
= + + 𝑉3
𝑅 𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅
3

𝑅𝑓 𝑅 𝑅𝑓
𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = [ 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3]
𝑅+ 𝑅+ 𝑅
1 3
2
If Rf=R1 =R2 =R3

𝑽𝑶 = −[𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑]

Hence it can be observed that the output is equal to the inverted sum of the inputs.
5. Integrator

i
R

V i G=
V

Fig 4.11a. Integrator Circuit

𝑉2=V1 = 0 [Virtual

𝐼1 =
Ground]

𝐼𝐹
𝑉𝑖
𝐼1 𝑉𝑖 − =𝑅
=1
𝑉
�
𝑑 𝑑𝑉𝑜
�
𝐼 =𝐶 (𝑉 − 𝑉 ) = −𝐶
𝑓
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑜 𝑑𝑡

Since 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹,

= −𝐶𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝑅
𝑑𝑉𝑜 −1
= 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝑖

−1
Integrate both the sides to
t 𝑡

𝑉= ∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑉(0)
𝑅𝐶 0

𝑽 = ∫ 𝑽𝒅𝒕------------Output Voltage for Integrator

−𝟏 𝒕
Vo(0) is the initial voltage on capacitor at t=0,which is a constant.

𝒐 𝑹𝑪 𝟎
𝒊

Output is -1/RC times the integral of input. There is phase shift of 180 degree
between input and output.RC is called the time constant of integrator. The main
advantage of integrator is large time constant. Due to large effective
capacitance, time constant is very large and thus a perfect integration results due
to such circuits.
 6. Differentiator

A differentiator is one whose output is the differentiation of the input

R

i2

V1 i1 G=0
VO

Fig 4.11b. Differentiator Circuit

𝑉1= V2 = 0 [Virtual Ground]

𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹
𝑑 𝑑𝑉
𝐼 =𝐶 (𝑉 − 𝑉 ) = 𝐶
𝑖

1
𝑑𝑡 𝑖 1 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑓
𝑉1 − 𝑉 −𝑉𝑜
= 𝑅 =𝑅
𝑑𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑜
𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑽𝒐 = −𝑹𝑪
𝒅𝑽𝒊------

𝒅𝒕
Output Voltage of Differentiator.

Output is -RC times the differential of input. There is phase shift of 180 degree
between input and output. The main advantage of differentiator is small time
constantis required for differentiation.
 7. Difference Amplifier [Sub tractor]

Fig 4.12 Difference Amplifier circuit

Circuit is a combination of inverting and non-inverting amplifier.R1 ,R2 and Op-amp
constitutes inverting amplifier for Vi1.R1,R2 and Op-amp constitutes inverting amplifier
for VR4 .VR4 is derived from Thevenin’s Theorem.
VR4 is obtained from the voltage divider of Vi2 by R3 and R4
To understand circuit operation consider the output produced by each input when the
other input is zero.
CASE 1 :- Vi2 = 0
V01 = V x Gain of inverting Op-amp
𝑉01
𝑋 [𝑅 ]---------(1)
−𝑅2
=
𝑉𝑖1
1

CASE 2 :- Vi1 = 0
V02 = V x Gain of Non-inverting Op-amp
𝑉02
𝑋 [1 + ]---------(2)
𝑅2
= 𝑅
𝑉𝑅4
1

𝑉𝑅4 =
𝑉𝑖2𝑋𝑅4
[Thevenin’s Voltage]-----(3)
𝑅3+
𝑅4

Substitute (3) in (2),

𝑉02 =
𝑉𝑖2𝑋𝑅4 𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑅3+𝑅4 X𝑅1
With R3=R1 and R4=R2
𝑉02 = 𝑉𝑖2 𝑋 [ ]---------(4)
𝑅2
𝑅1

When both inputs are present ,

Apply the Superposition
principle,
 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02
−𝑅2 𝑅2
= 𝑉𝑖1 𝑋 [ ] + 𝑉𝑖2
𝑋[ �]
1 1
𝑅2
𝑉𝑂 = [ ] [𝑉𝑖1 − 𝑉𝑖2]
1
When R2=R1,
𝑽𝑶 = [𝑽𝒊𝟐 − 𝑽𝒊𝟏] output is proportional to the difference b/w 2 inputs.
Consider when inputs are equal [Common mode]
𝑉𝑖1 = 𝑉𝑖2 = 𝑉𝑐𝑚 =>VO =0
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02
−𝑅2
0 = 𝑉 𝑋[ ] + 𝑉[ 𝑅4
] X[
𝑅1+𝑅2
]
𝑐𝑚
𝑅 1+𝑅 3 4
𝑅1

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒
On simplifying, we get

𝑹𝟏 =𝑹𝟑

𝑅2 𝑅4
Hence output voltage for difference amplifier can be,

𝑉𝑂 = [ ] [𝑉𝑖2 − 𝑉𝑖1] = [ ] [𝑉𝑖2 − 𝑉𝑖1]

1 𝑅3

8.Instrumentation Amplifier

V01 R4
R2
R3
Vi(diff)
R1
R3
R2 R4
V02

𝑅2
Gain of Non Inverting Op-amp = 1 +
Fig 4.13 Instrumentation amplifier circuit

𝑅1
 𝑅2
Gain of 1st Op-amp [A1] = 1 +
𝑅1
𝑅2
Gain of 2nd Op-amp [A2] = 1 +
𝑅1

𝑉𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = [𝑉𝑖2 − 𝑉𝑖1]

𝑉0
𝑋 [1 + ]--------(1)
𝑅2
1 = 𝑅1
𝑉𝑖1
𝑋 [1 + ]--------(2)
𝑅2
𝑉0 𝑅
2 =
𝑉𝑖2
1

𝑉𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = [𝑉02 − 𝑉01]

𝑉 = 1+ [𝑉 − ]-------(3)
𝑅2

𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑅1 𝑖2 𝑖1

𝑉𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓is the i/p to the difference amplifier A3.

𝑋 [1 + ]---------(4)
𝑅2
𝑉0𝑑𝑖 =
𝑅1
𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
We know

𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑅 =𝑅3
1
𝑅 ] [𝑉02 − 𝑉01]
𝑅4
4
𝑉𝑂 = [
𝑅
𝑉𝑂 =3[ ] 𝑉0𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
𝑅
3

𝑅4 𝑅
Using (4)

𝑉𝑂 = 2
] [1 + ]
[ 3 𝑉𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
Overall differential gain 𝑅 𝑅
1
𝑽𝑶 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟐
=[ ] [𝟏 + ]
is
Ad =
𝑽𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏

9.Schmitt Trigger

Schmitt Trigger circuit is a fast operating voltage level detector.When the input voltage
arrives at a level determined by circuit components, the output voltage switches rapidly
between its max positive level and its max negative level.The input voltage Vi is applied
to inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage goes to non-inverting input.The
waveform shows that o/p switches rapidly from positive saturation (+Vosat) voltage to
negative saturation (-Vosat) when the input exceeds a certain positive level. This is
called
Upper Trigger Point.(UTP).Output switches from low to high when the input goes below
a negative trigger point is Lower Trigger Point(LTP).

Fig 4.14 Schmitt Trigger

Feedback factor(β) = 𝑅1
𝑅1+𝑅𝑓

UTP is given by,

VUT = UTP = (+VO) 𝑅1 = +VO X β
𝑅1+𝑅𝑓

(OR)
VUT = UTP = (VCC) 𝑅1 = +VCC X β
𝑅1+𝑅𝑓

LTP is given by,

VLT = LTP = (-VO) 𝑅1 = -VO X β
𝑅1+𝑅𝑓

(OR)
VLT = LTP = (-VEE) 𝑅1 = -VEE X β
𝑅1+𝑅𝑓

Hysteresis = UTP – LTP

VH = VUT - VLT
VH =+VO X β – (-VO X β)
VH =VCC X β – (-VEE X β )
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
VH = VCC – (-VEE )
𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝒇

Graph of Input-Output Characteristics of Schmitt Trigger(Hysteresis Loop)

 Fig 4.15 Input Output Characteristics of Schmitt Trigger

Conditions:
 Positive cycle, At point 1:
Vo<LTP, Vi=+Vosat
 At point 2: Vo>LTP, Vi=+Vosat
 At point 3: Vo=UTP, Vi=+Vosat
 At point 4: Vo=UTP, Vi= switches from
+Vosat to –Vosat
 Negative cycle, At point 5: Vo>UTP, Vi=
-Vosat
 At point 6: Vo=LTP, Vi= -Vosa
 At point 1: Vo<LTP,
Vi=+Vosat(switches from -Vosat to
+Vosat)

10. Comparator

The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that makes use of operational
amplifiers very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no feedback resistor.
The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue
voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal
based on this voltage comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator
compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of
the two.
Fig 4.16 Comparator circuit and waveform