Ch- 2 methods of enquiry in psychology

●​ Goals of Psychological Enquiry

➔​ Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
➔​ Alternative Paradigms of Research
●​ Nature of Psychological Data

●​ Some Important Methods in Psychology

➔​ Observational Method
➔​ Experimental Method
➔​ Correlational Research
➔​ Survey Research
➔​ Psychological Testing
➔​ Case Study

●​ Analysis of Data
➔​ Quantitative Method
➔​ Qualitative Method

●​ Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

Ethical Issues

5 Goals of Psychological Enquiry

Description
Prediction
Explanation
Control
Application
Description : In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a
phenomenon as accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular
behaviour from other behaviours.Within a particular category there may be
further minute descriptions. The researcher needs to describe her/his meaning of
study habits. The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which
helps in its proper understanding.
Prediction : The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you
are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know
the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events,
or phenomena. You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular
behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error.Prediction becomes more
accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed.
Explanation : The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal
factors or determinants of behaviour. Interest in knowing the factors that make
behaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particular
behaviour does not occur. This goal is concerned with identifying the
determinants or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that led to the particular
behaviour) of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship
between two variables (objects) or events could be established.
Control : If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can
control that behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control
refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or
enhancing it.The change brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment
in terms of therapy in persons, is a good example of control.
Application : The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive
changes in the lives of people.For example, applications of yoga and meditation
help to reduce stress and increase efficiency.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Science is not so defined by what it investigates as by how it investigates. The
scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an
objective, systematic, and testable manner. Objectivity refers to the fact that if two
or more persons independently study a particular event, both of them, to a great
extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
The second characteristic of scientific research is that it follows systematic
procedure or steps of investigation. It includes the following steps:
conceptualisation of a problem
collection of data
drawing conclusions
revising research conclusion and theory
1.conceptualisation of a problem-The process of scientific research begins when
a researcher selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he narrows down the focus
and develops specific research questions or problems for the study. This is done
on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences.
After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a
tentative answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis.
2.Collecting Data : The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data
collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study.
It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects:
(a) participants in the study
(b) methods of data collection
(c) tools to be used in research
(d) procedure for data collection.
Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would
be the participants (or informants) in the study. The participants could be
children, adolescents, college students, teachers, managers, clinical patients,
industrial workers, or any group of individuals in whom/ where the phenomenon
under investigation is prevalent.
The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as
observation method, experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc.
The researcher needs to decide about appropriate tools (for example, interview
schedule, observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) for data collection. The
researcher also decides about how the tools need to be administered to collect
data (i.e. individual or group). This is followed by actual collection of data.
3. Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the
use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean.This can be
achieved through graphical representations such as preparation of pie-chart,
bar-diagram, cumulative frequencies, etc.
The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions
accordingly.
4.Revising Research Conclusions : The researcher may have begun the study
with a hypothesis that there exists a relationship between viewing violence on
television and aggression among children. S/he has to see whether the
conclusions support this hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is
confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or state an alternative hypothesis/theory and
again test it based on new data and draw conclusions which may be verified by
future researchers. Thus, research is a continuous process.

Nature of Psychological Data

Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing
diverse methods. The information, also called data.
Data forms an important input in psychological enquiry. They in fact approximate
reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas,
hunches, notions, etc. It should be understood that data are not independent
entities. They are located in a context, and are tied to the method and theory that
govern the process of data collection
The method of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc.) used and the
characteristics of respondents (such as, individual or group, young or old, male or
female, rural or urban, etc.) also influence the nature and quality of data. Another
important feature of data is that it does not in itself speak about reality. Inferences
have to be made from data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it
in its proper context.

Different types of data in psychology

Demographic Information : This information generally includes personal
information like name, age, gender, birth order, number of siblings, education,
occupation, marital status, number of children, locality of residence, caste,
religion, parental education, occupation, and family income.
Physical Information : This category includes information about ecological
conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of economy, housing conditions, size of
rooms, facilities available at home, in the neighbourhood, in the school, mode of
transportation.
Physiological Data : In some studies physical, physiological and psychological
data are collected about height, weight, heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin
Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the brain measured by
Electro-encephalograph (EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time, duration of
sleep, blood pressure, pattern of dream, amount of salivation, running and
jumping rates (in case of animal studies), etc., are collected.
Psychological Information : Psychological information collected, may relate to
such areas as intelligence, personality, interest, values, creativity, emotions,
motivation, psychological disorders, illusions, delusions, hallucinations,
perceptual judgement, thought processes, consciousness, subjective experiences,
etc.

Some Important Methods in Psychology

Psychologists use a variety of methods like Observation, Experimental,
Correlational, Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study to collect data.
1.​ Observational Method
2.​ Experimental Method
3.​ Correlational Research
4.​ Survey Research
5.​ Psychological Testing
6.​ Case Study
Observational Method
Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective
method of describing behaviour.
A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many respects.
These are :
1.​ Selection
2.​ Recording
3.​ Analysis of Data
Selection
Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they
select a particular behaviour for observation.
Recording
While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means,
such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur,
taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using shorthand or symbols,
photographs, video recording, etc.
Analysis of Data
After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have
recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it.
Types of Observation
1.​ Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation
2.​ Non-Participant vs Participant Observation
Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation
When observations are done in a natural or real-life setting it is called
naturalistic observation.In this case the observer makes no effort to
control or manipulate the situation for making an observation.
A controlled laboratory situation. This type of observation, called
Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually, is obtained in laboratory
experiments.

Non-Participant vs Participant Observation

Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe
the person or event from a distance. Two, the observer may become part
of the group being observed.
The person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed.
For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between
teachers and students in a particular class. There are many ways of
achieving this goal. You can install a video camera to record the classroom
activities, which you can see later and analyse. Alternatively, you may
decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in
their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant
observation

In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or

the group of people being observed. In participant observation, the
observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they
start accepting her/him as one of the group members. However, the degree
 of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary
depending upon the focus of the study.

Advantages of observation method

The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study
people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs.
Disadvantages of observation method
The observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to
the observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about
the person or the event.Because of our biases we may interpret things in a different
way than what the participants may actually mean.
The observer should keep in mind that-The observer should record the
behaviour as it happens and should not interpret the behaviour at the time of
observation itself.
Controlled observation experiment example
Two American psychologists, Bibb Latane and John Darley, conducted a study in
1970. In order to participate in this study, the students of Columbia University
arrived individually at a laboratory. They were given the impression that they
would be interviewed on a certain topic. Each student was sent to a waiting room
to complete a preliminary questionnaire. Some of them found two other people
already seated in the room, while others sat down alone. Soon after the students
had started working on the questionnaire, smoke began filling the room through
a wall vent. The smoke could hardly be Box 2.1 Example of an Experiment
Example of an Experiment Example of an Experiment ignored; within four
minutes the room contained enough smoke to interfere with vision and
breathing. Latane and Darley were primarily interested in knowing how
frequently students simply got up and left the room to report the emergency.
Most (75 per cent) of the students who were waiting alone reported the smoke,
but those reporting in groups were far less. Groups consisting of three naïve
students reported it only 38 percent of the time. When the students waited with
two other confederates, who were instructed beforehand by the researchers to do
nothing, only 10 percent of students reported smoke.
Experimental Method
●​ Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship
between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting.
 ●​ It is a carefully regulated procedure in which changes are made in one factor
and its effect is studied on another factor, while keeping other related factors
constant.
●​ In the experiment, the cause is the event being changed or manipulated.
Effect is the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation.
Main topics under experimental method:
1.​ The Concept of Variable
2.​ Experimental and Control Groups
3.​ Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments
The Concept of Variable
Any stimulus or event which varies, that is, it takes on different values (or changes)
and can be measured is a variable.An object by itself is not a variable. But its
attributes are. For example, the pen that you use for writing is NOT a variable. But
there are varieties of pens available in different shapes, sizes, and colours, All of
these are variables.
Types of variable
1.​ Independent variables
2.​ Dependent variables
Independent variables
Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its
strength varied by the researcher in the experiment. It is the effect of this change
in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or note in the study.
Dependent variables
The variables on which the effect of an independent variable is observed is called
a dependent variable. Dependent variable represents the phenomenon the
researcher desires to explain. It is expected that change in the dependent variable
will ensue from changes in the independent variable.
(Extra)
The independent variable is the cause, and the dependent variable the effect in any
experimental situation.t independent and dependent variables are
interdependent.Neither of them can be defined without the other. Also, the
independent variable chosen by the researcher is not the only variable that
influences the dependent variable. Any behavioural event contains many variables.
It also takes place within a context. Independent and dependent variables are
chosen because of the researcher’s theoretical interest.extraneous variables need to
be controlled in an experiment so that a researcher is able to pin-point the cause
and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Experimental and Control Groups

An experimental group is a group in Control group that is treated in every

which members of the group are way like the experimental group except
exposed to independent variable that the manipulated variable is absent
in it.
manipulation.

All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent
variable need to be controlled. These are of three major types: organismic variables
(such as anxiety, intelligence, personality, etc.), situational or environmental
variables operating at the time of conducting the experiment (such as noise,
temperature, humidity), and sequential variables.The sequence related variables
assume significance when the participants in experiments are required to be tested
in several conditions.
Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or practice
effects, which may influence the results of the study and make the interpretation
of the findings difficult
In order to control relevant variables, experimenters use several control
techniques that are-
●​ The best way to handle this problem is to eliminate them from the
experimental setting.
●​ Effort should be made to hold them constant so that their effect remains
the same throughout the experiment.
●​ For controlling organismic (e.g., fear, motivation) and background
variables (such as rural/urban, caste, socioeconomic status) matching is
also used. In this procedure the relevant variables in the two groups are
equated or are held constant by taking matched pairs across conditions of
the experiment.
●​ Counter-balancing technique is used to minimise the sequence effect.
●​ Random assignment of participants to different groups eliminates any
potential systematic differences between groups.
 Limitations of experimental and control groups-
experiments are often conducted in a highly controlled laboratory situation. In this
sense, they only simulate situations that exist in the outside world. They are
frequently criticised for this reason. The experiments may produce results that do
not generalise well, or apply to real situations. In other words, they have low
external validity. Another limitation of the laboratory experiment is that it is not
always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally. The third problem is
that it is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables.
Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments
If a researcher wants to have high method of quasi (the Latin word
generalisability or to conduct studies meaning “as if”) experimentation. In
which are not possible in laboratory such types of experiments, the
independent variable is selected rather
settings, s/he may go to the field or the
than varied or manipulated by the
natural setting where the particular experimenter. The quasi experiment
phenomenon actually exists. In other attempts to manipulate an independent
words, s/he may conduct a field variable in a natural setting using
experiment. naturally occurring groups to form
experimental and control groups.
Correlational Research
●​ In psychological research, we often wish to determine the relationship
between two variables for prediction purposes.You simply find out the
relationship between the two variables to determine whether they are
associated, or covary or not.
●​ The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is
represented by a number, known as correlation coefficient. Its value can
range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
positive correlation -A positive negative correlation-A zero correlation-It is also
correlation indicates that as the negative correlation tells us possible that sometimes no
value of one variable (X) that as the value of one correlation may exist
increases, the value of the other variable (X) increases, the between the two variables.
variable (Y) will also increase. value of the other (Y) This is called zero
Similarly when variable X decreases. correlation. Generally, it is
decreases, a decrease in Y too difficult to find zero
takes place. correlation but the
correlations found may be
close to zero, e.g., -.02 or
+.03. This indicates that no
significant relationship
exists between two
variables or the two
variables are unrelated.

Survey Research
Survey research came into existence to study opinions, attitudes and social facts.
Their main concern initially was to find out the existing reality or baseline. So they
were used to find out facts such as the literacy rate at a particular time, religious
affiliations, income level of a particular group of people, etc.They were also used to
find out the attitude of people towards family planning.
The survey research uses different techniques for collecting information. Included
among these techniques are:
1.​ Personal interviews
2.​ Questionnaires
3.​ Telephonic surveys
4.​ Controlled observations

Personal Interviews
The interview method is one of the most frequently used methods for obtaining
information from people. It is used in diverse kinds of situations. It is used by a
doctor to obtain information from the patient, an employer when meeting a
prospective employee etc..Two or more persons sit face-to-face with each other, in
which one person (generally called interviewer) asks the questions and the other
person (called interviewee or respondent) answers the questions related to a
problem. An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual
information, opinions and attitudes, and reasons for particular behaviour, etc. from
the respondents.
can be two broad types of interviews:
1.​ Structured or standardised
2.​ Unstructured or non-standardised
Structured or standardised
As we have to ask questions during the interview, it is required that we prepare a
list of questions before-hand. The list is called an interview schedule. A structured
interview is one where the questions in the schedule are written clearly in a
particular sequence. The interviewer has little or no liberty to make changes in
the wordings of the questions or the order in which they are to be asked. The
responses to these questions are also, in some cases, specified in advance. These
are called close-ended questions.
Unstructured or non-standardised
unstructured interview The interviewer has the flexibility to make decisions
about the questions to be asked, the wording of the questions, and the sequence
in which questions are to be asked. Since responses are not specified in such types
of interviews, the respondent can answer the questions in the way s/he chooses
to. Such questions are called open-ended questions.

An interview may have the following combinations of participants in an interview

situation:
(a) Individual to Individual : It is a situation where one interviewer interviews
another person.
(b) Individual to Group : In this situation, one interviewer interviews a group of
persons. One variant of it is called a Focus Group Discussion (FGD).
(c) Group to Individuals : It is a situation where one group of interviewers
interview one person. You may experience this type of situation when you appear
for a job interview.
(d) Group to Group : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview
another group of interviewees.
(Extra)
Interviewing is a skill which requires proper training. A good interviewer knows
how to make the respondent at ease and get the optimal answer. S/he remains
sensitive to the way a person responds and, if needed, probes for more information.
If the respondent gives vague answers, the interviewer may try to get specific and
concrete answers.
Advantages of personal interviews-The interview method helps in obtaining
in-depth information. It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations, and can
often be used when no other method is possible or adequate. It can be used even
with children, and non-literate persons. An interviewer can know whether the
respondent understands the questions, and can repeat or paraphrase questions.
Disadvantages of personal interviews-Interviews require time. Often getting
information from one person may take an hour or more which may not be
cost-effective.
Questionnaire Survey
The questionnaire is the most common, simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report
method of collecting information. It consists of a predetermined set of questions.
The respondent has to read the questions and mark the answers on paper rather
than respond verbally to the interviewer. They are in some ways like highly
structured interviews.
Two types of questions are used in the questionnaire: open-ended and closed ended.
With open-ended questions, the respondent is free to write whatever answer s/he
considers appropriate. In the closed ended type, the questions and their probable
answers are given and the respondent is required to select the correct answer. The
questionnaire is used for collecting background and demographic information,
information about past behaviour, attitudes and opinions, knowledge about a
particular topic, and expectations and aspirations of the person.
Telephone Survey
Surveys are also conducted through telephone, and now-a-days you must have seen
programmes asking you to send your views through mobile phones’ SMS. The
telephone survey helps in reducing time. However, since the respondents do not
know the interviewer, the technique is fraught with uncooperativeness, reluctance,
and superficial answers by the respondents. There is also a possibility that those
responding may differ from those not responding.
Advantages of telephonic surveys-
The survey method has several advantages. First, information can be gathered
quickly and efficiently from thousands of persons. Second, since surveys can be
conducted quickly, public opinions on new issues can be obtained almost as soon as
the issues arise.
Limitations of telephonic surveys-
There are some limitations of a survey too. First, people may give inaccurate
information because of memory lapses or they may not want to let the researcher
know what they really believe about a particular issue. Second, people sometimes
offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.
Psychological Testing
●​ Assessment of individual differences has remained one of the important
concerns of psychology from the very beginning. Psychologists have
constructed different types of tests for assessment of various human
characteristics, such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, interest, attitudes,
values, educational achievement, etc. These tests are used for various
purposes, such as personnel selection, placement, training, guidance,
diagnosis, etc., in multiple contexts including educational institutions,
guidance clinics, industries, defence establishments.
●​ The test contains a number of questions, called items, with their probable
responses, which are related to a particular human characteristic or
attribute.
●​ A psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument which is used
to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on some mental or
behavioural characteristics.
●​ Two things are worth noting in this definition: objectivity and
standardisation.
Objectivity-Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer
a psychological test on the same group of people, both of them would come up with
more or less the same values for each person in the group.In order for a
psychological test to become an objective measure, it is essential that items should
be worded in such a manner that they communicate the same meaning to different
readers. Also, the instructions to the test takers about how to answer the test items
should be specified in advance. The procedure of administering the test such as
environmental conditions, time limit, mode of administration (individual or group)
should be spelt, and the procedure for scoring of the participants’ responses need to
be described.
The construction of a test is a systematic process and involves certain steps. It
involves detailed analysis of items, and estimating reliability, validity, and norms
of the whole test.