16 REPRODUCTION

2 ORGANISATION OF THE ORGANISM

YOUR NOTES
CONTENTS:

16.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

16.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
16.3 GERMINATION
16.4 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
16.5 PREGNANCY & BIRTH
16.6 HUMAN SEX HORMONES
16.7 CONTRACEPTION & FERTILITY
16.8 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

VIEW EXAM QUESTIONS

16.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction
/bacteria 1 Describe asexual reproduction
-
• Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilisation

·
as a process resulting in the
• Only one parent
parent is required so there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of genetic production of genetically identical
information offspring from one parent

~
• As a result, the offspring are genetically identical
identical to the parent and to each other (clones)

• Asexual
Asexual reproduction is defined as a process resulting in genetically identical offspring
from one parent

Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction called
binary fission:
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YOUR NOTES
16.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION cont...

2 Identify examples of asexual

reproduction in diagrams, images
and information provided

identical
Bacterial binary fission
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16.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION cont...

Plants can reproduce asexually using bulbs and tubers; these- are food storage organs from which 2 Identify examples of asexual
budding can occur, producing new plants which are genetically
genetically identical to the parent plant: reproduction in diagrams, images
and information provided

egg cell = ovule

~
Asexual
Asexual reproduction in plants using bulbs or tubers
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YOUR NOTES
16.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION cont...

Some plants grow side shoots called runners that contain tiny plantlets on them (a good example
of this are strawberry plants. These will grow roots and develop into separate plants, again being 2 Identify examples of asexual
genetically identical
identical to the parent plant: reproduction in diagrams, images
and information provided

A runner and plantlet

EXTENDED ONLY

Advantages & Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction 3 Discuss the advantages and

disadvantages of asexual
reproduction:
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
(a) to a population of a species in
POPULATION CAN BE INCREASED lation IN POPULATION
LIMITED GENETIC VARIATION the wild
pidly WHEN CONDITIONS ARE RIGHT
RAPIDLY - OFFSPRING ARE GENETICALLY IDENTICAL
TO THEIR PARENTS (b) to crop production

CAN EXPLOIT SUITABLE ENVIRONMENTS POPULATION IS VULNERABLE TO CHANGES IN

QUICKLY CONDITIONS AND MAY ONLY BE SUITED FOR
ONE HABITAT

MORE TIME AND ENERGY EFFICIENT DISEASE IS LIKELY TO AFFECT THE WHOLE
pulation AS THERE IS NO GENETIC
POPULATION
aviation
VARIATION

REPRODUCTION IS COMPLETED MUCH

FASTER
aster THAN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Specifically in crop plants, asexual reproduction can be advantageous as it means that a

ield disease-resistant,
plant that has good characteristics (high yield, sistant hardy) can be made to

reproduce asexually and the entire crop will show the same characteristics
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16.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION cont...

Sexual Reproduction 1 Describe sexual reproduction as

a process involving the fusion of
• Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei
uclei of two gametes
a metes (sex
the nuclei of two gametes to
cells) to form a zygote
ygote (fertilised egg cell) and the production of offspring that are form a zygote and the production
genetically different
different from each other
of offspring that are genetically
• Fertilisation
ertilisation is defined as the fusion of gamete nuclei, and as each gamete comes from a
different from each other
different parent, there is variation in the offspring
2 Describe fertilisation as the
fusion of the nuclei of
gametes

EXTENDED ONLY

Gametes & Zygotes

• A gamete
ametes is a sex cell (in animals: sperm and ovum; in plants pollen nucleus and ovum) 3 State that nuclei of gametes
half
are haploid and that the nucleus
• Gametes differ from normal cells as they contain half the number of chromosomes found of a zygote is diploid
in other body cells – we say they have a haploid
haploid nucleus
Diploid 2 sets of chromosomes (2)= 46
• This is because they only contain one
23 copy of each chromosome, rather than the two
:

copies found in other body cells Haploid 7

:
set of chromosome (n) =
23

• In human beings, a normal body cell contains 46

46 chromosomes but each gamete contains

23
25 chromosomes

• When the male and female gametes fuse, they become a zygote
zygote (fertilised egg cell)

• This contains the full 46 chromosomes, half of which came from the father
male and half from

the mother – we say the zygote has a diploid nucleus

female

Advantages & Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

4 Discuss the advantages and

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES disadvantages of sexual
reproduction:
ariation
INCREASES GENETIC VARIATION TAKES TIME AND ENERGY TO FIND
at e
MATES (a) to a population of a species in
the wild
THE SPECIES CAN ADAPT TO NEW DIFFICULT FOR ISOLATED MEMBERS
ENVIRONMENTS DUE TO VARIATION, GIVING eproduce
OF THE SPECIES TO REPRODUCE
(b) to crop production
THEM A SURVIVAL ADVANTAGE

DISEASE IS LESS LIKELY TO AFFECT

aviation
POPULATION (DUE TO VARIATION)

• Most crop plants reproduce sexually and this is an advantage as it means variation
is increased and a genetic variant may be produced which is better able to cope with
weather changes, or produces significantly higher yield

• The disadvantage is that the variation may lead to offspring that are less successful than
the parent plant at growing well or producing a good harvest
 16 REPRODUCTION

YOUR NOTES
16.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Flowers & Pollination

• Flowers are the reproductive
productive organ of the plant

• They usually contain both male and female reproductive parts

• Plants produce pollen which contains a nucleus inside that is the male gamete
a met

• Unlike the male gamete in humans (sperm), pollen is not capable of locomotion (moving
from one place to another)

• This means plants have to have mechanisms in place to transfer pollen from the anther
other

to the stigma
tigma

• This process is known as pollination

ollination and there are two main mechanisms by which it
occurs: transferred by insects
nsect (or other animals like birds) or transferred by wind
ind

• The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are slightly different as each is
adapted for their specific function

Parts of a Flower

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION
2 State the functions of the
SEPAL
Sepal PROTECTS UNOPENED FLOWER
following parts of an insect-
PETALS
petal BRIGHTLY COLOURED IN INSECT-POLLINATED FLOWERS TO pollinated flower:
ATTRACT INSECTS
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments,
ANTHER
anther PRODUCES AND RELEASES THE MALE SEX CELL (POLLEN GRAIN)
anthers, carpels, style, stigma,
STIGMA TOP OF THE FEMALE PART OF THE FLOWER WHICH COLLECTS ovary and ovules
stigma
POLLEN GRAINS

OVARY
Ovary PRODUCES THE FEMALE SEX CELL (OVUM)

OVULE
Ovule CONTAINS THE FEMALE SEX CELLS (FOUND INSIDE THE OVARY)

General flower structure

petal

carpel
stamen
Identify in diagrams and images
stigma
and draw the following parts of
an insect-pollinated flower:
style
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments,
anther anthers, carpels, style, stigma,
ovary and ovules
ovary Filament

sepal
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YOUR NOTES
16.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS cont...

Adaptations for pollination

Identify in diagrams and images

FEATURE INSECT-POLLINATED and draw the following parts of
an insect-pollinated flower:

sepals, petals, stamens, filaments,

stamen anthers, carpels, style, stigma,
petal ovary and ovules
Anther
2
types of pollination :

Filament
· self pollination
·
cross pollination
Stigma

Gamete formation & pollination

ovary
ovule &
& Fertilisation -
> Seed

fruit formation- > seed dispersal

sepal
- Germination

insect

7 Describe the structural

petal
PETALS LARGE AND BRIGHTLY COLOURED TO ATTRACT INSECTS adaptations of insect-pollinated
and wind-pollinated flowers
SCENT AND NECTAR PRESENT - ENTICES INSECTS TO VISIT THE FLOWER AND
PUSH PAST STAMEN TO GET TO NECTAR

NUMBER OF POLLEN MODERATE - INSECTS TRANSFER POLLEN GRAINS

GRAINS EFFICIENTLY WITH A HIGH CHANCE OF SUCCESSFUL
Ilination
POLLINATION

POLLEN GRAINS
Pollen grain LARGER, STICKY AND / OR SPIKY TO ATTACH TO INSECTS
AND BE CARRIED AWAY

anthers
ANTHERS INSIDE FLOWER, STIFF AND FIRMLY ATTACHED TO BRUSH
AGAINST INSECTS

STIGMA
Stigma INSIDE FLOWER, STICKY SO POLLEN GRAINS STICK TO IT
WHEN AN INSECT BRUSHES PAST
 16 REPRODUCTION

YOUR NOTES
16.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS cont...

3 Identify in diagrams and images

FEATURE WIND-POLLINATED and describe the anthers and
stigmas of a wind-pollinated
flower

Stigma

wind

7 Describe the structural

PETALSpetals SMALL AND DULL, OFTEN GREEN OR BROWN IN COLOUR
adaptations of insect-pollinated
and wind-pollinated flowers
SCENT AND NECTAR ABSENT - NO NEED TO WASTE ENERGY PRODUCING THESE
AS NO NEED TO ATTRACT INSECTS

NUMBER OF POLLEN LARGE AMOUNTS - MOST POLLEN GRAINS ARE NOT

GRAINS TRANSFERRED TO ANOTHER FLOWER SO THE MORE
PRODUCED, THE BETTER THE CHANCE OF SOME SUCCESSFUL
POLLINATION OCCURRING 4 Distinguish between the pollen
grains of insect-pollinated and
pollen GRAINS
POLLEN grains SMOOTH, SMALL AND LIGHT SO THEY ARE EASILY BLOWN BY
wind-pollinated flowers
THE WIND

anthers
ANTHERS OUTSIDE FLOWER, SWINGING LOOSE ON LONG FILAMENTS TO
RELEASE POLLEN GRAINS EASILY

STIGMA
stigma OUTSIDE FLOWER, FEATHERY TO CATCH DRIFTING
POLLEN GRAINS

• The pollen produced by insect and wind-pollinated flowers is also different:

• Insect-pollinated flowers produce smaller amounts of larger, heavier pollen grains

that often contain spikes or hooks on the outside so they are better able to stick to
insects

• Wind-pollinated flowers produce large amounts of small, lightweight pollen grains

that are usually smooth
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YOUR NOTES
16.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS cont...

Here is an example of a multiple-choice question asking students to use their

knowledge to identify types of pollen grain:

4 Distinguish between the pollen

grains of insect-pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers

A multiple-choice question asking students to use their knowledge

to identify types of pollen grain

EXTENDED ONLY 5 Describe pollination as the

transfer of pollen grains from an
anther to a stigma
Self & Cross-Pollination
9 Describe self-pollination as the
• Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen
pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of
stigma transfer of pollen grains from the
another plant of the same species
species anther of a flower to the stigma
• This is the way most plants carry out pollination as it improves genetic variation
ariation
of the same flower or a different
flower on the same plant
• Occasionally, the pollen from a flower can land on its own stigma or on the stigma of
another flower on the same plant – this is known as self-pollination
self-pollination 10 Describe cross-pollination as
the transfer of pollen grains from
• Self-pollination reduces
reduces genetic variety of the offspring as all the gametes come from the
the anther of a flower to the
same parent (and are therefore genetically identical)
stigma of a flower on a different
• Lack of variation in the offspring is a disadvantage if environmental conditions change, as plant of the same species
it is less likely that any offspring will have adaptations
adaptions that suit the new conditions
well 11 Discuss the potential effects of
self-pollination and cross-
• On the other hand, cross-pollination relies completely on the presence of pollinators
pollinators and
pollination on a population, in
this can be a problem if those pollinators are missing (eg the reduction in bee numbers terms of variation, capacity to
is of great importance to humans as bees pollinate a large number of food crops) – this
respond to changes in the
doesn’t apply to wind-pollinated plants
environment and reliance on
pollinators
 16 REPRODUCTION

YOUR NOTES
16.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS cont...

Fertilisation: Basics

• Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with an ovum nucleus in the ovule

EXTENDED ONLY

6 State that fertilisation occurs

Fertilisation when a pollen nucleus fuses with
a nucleus in an ovule
• As the pollen has no ‘tail’ to swim to the ovary of a plant,~
in order to reach the ‘female’
nucleus in the ovary it has to grow a pollen tube
tube

• This only happens if the pollen grain has landed on the right kind of stigma (i.e. of the 12 Describe the growth of the
same species as the flower the pollen came from) pollen tube and its entry into the
ovule followed by fertilisation
• The nucleus inside the pollen grain slips down the tube as it grows down the style
- (details of production of
towards the ovary endosperm and development are
ovary
↑ not required)
• The ovary contains one or more ovules
which each contain an ovum with a female
ovules

nucleus that a male pollen nucleus can fuse with ~

• Once the nuclei (pl) have joined together, that ovule has been fertilised and a zygote
zygate has
been formed ~
• The zygote will start to divide and eventually form a seed
seed within the ovule

• As different plants have different numbers of ovules, this explains why different fruits
(which develop from the ovary) have different numbers of seeds (which develop from the
ovules)

~
pollen

-
tube

-
style

~
Growth of a pollen
pollen tube
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YOUR NOTES
16.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS cont...

12 Describe the growth of the

pollen tube and its entry into the
EXTENDED ONLY cont... ovule followed by fertilisation
(details of production of
endosperm and development are
not required)

Fertilisation in a flowering plant

EXAM TIP

Students often get confused between pollination and fertilisation in plants, but they
are not the same thing.

Think of pollination as the plant’s equivalent to human sexual intercourse – after sex,
the male sex cells (sperm) have been deposited into the female.

But, for fertilisation to occur, the nucleus from a male sperm cell has to fuse with
the nucleus of a female sex cell (egg) and the sperm has to travel to find the egg
before this happens. It’s exactly the same in plants!

16.3 GERMINATION

Factors Affecting Germination 8 Investigate and describe the

environmental conditions that
• Germination is the start of growth in the seed affect germination of seeds,
limited to the requirement for:
• Three factors are required for successful germination:
ater
• Water – allows the seed to swell up and the enzymes in the embryo to start working water,
so that growth can occur oxygen
~ and a suitable temperature
• Oxygen
xygen – so that energy can be released for germination
~
• Warmth
Warmth – germination improves as temperature rises (up to a maximum) as the
reactions which take place are controlled by enzymes

• As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also does not inhibit it, it makes no
difference whether it is present or not
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YOUR NOTES
16.3 GERMINATION cont...

Investigating Germination

• Set up 4 boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton wool 8 Investigate and describe the
environmental conditions that
• Set each test tube as shown in diagram below affect germination of seeds,
limited to the requirement for:
• Leave tubes in set environment for a period of time: A, B and C incubated at 20°C; D
placed in a fridge at 4°C
water,
• Compare results and see which tube has the greatest number of germinated seeds oxygen
and a suitable temperature

Conditions required for germination

TEST TUBE FACTOR BEING TESTED SEEDS GERMINATED

A water / MOISTURE -
WATER No
NO

B CONTROL (ALL FACTORS YES

PRESENT)

- ~
C OXYGEN
Oxygen NO
No

D WARM TEMPERATURE NO
 16 REPRODUCTION

YOUR NOTES
EXAM QUESTIONS

? QUESTION 1

The diagram below shows a flower.

Which of these processes have taken place?

pollination fertilisation

A no no

B no yes

O
C yes yes

D yes no

? QUESTION 2

The diagrams show 3 different species of pollen grains as they appear under a
microscope. The diagrams are all to the same scale.

Which pollen grains are involved in insect pollination?

A 1 and 2

B 2 and 3

O
C 2 only

D all of them
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EXAM QUESTIONS cont...

? QUESTION 3

The table below shows some advantaged and disadvantages of sexual and asexual
reproduction.

Which row is correct?

advantage of sexual advantage of asexual

reproduction reproduction

A less population growth only one parent needed

B more energy efficient gametes can be transferred by the environment

C no transfer of gametes does not compete with parent for nutrients

O
D more genetic variation faster

? QUESTION 4

Students were discussing how to remember the difference between two groups of
cells, ‘many, minute and motile’ or ‘few, fat and fixed’

What group of cells were they referring to?

A male and female gametes

B animal and plant cells

C red and white blood cells

D xylem and phloem cells