Unit

Young boy from the

island of New Guinea

City of Hong Kong,

China

18
 The World
ou are about to journey
Y to dense rain forests,
bleak deserts, bustling cities
and marketplaces, and remote
villages. In your study of the
earth, you will learn about
different places and different
peoples. Imagine that you could
visit any place in the world.
Where would you want to go?
What would you want to see?

▼
Hot air balloon floating over
cultivated fields, Egypt
NGS ONLINE
www.nationalgeographic.com/education

19
 h
C
apter
Looking at the
1 Earth

To learn more about Earth’s structure Socia l Stu die s

and landforms, view The World and
Its People Chapter 1 video. Chapter Overview Visit The World and Its
People Web site at twip.glencoe.com and
click on Chapter 1—Chapter Overviews to
preview information about Earth.

20
 Spaceship Earth
A famous inventor once compared
the planet Earth to a large spaceship
hurtling through the galaxy. The
spaceship-planet carries all the
resources needed for its journey.
As passengers on this “ship,” we
need to know something about how
it works to avoid costly repairs and
breakdowns.
▼

Skydiving over Key West, Florida

▼

Summarizing Study Foldable To fully understand what you read,

you must be able to identify and explain key vocabulary terms. Use this
foldable to identify, define, and use important terms in Chapter 1.

Step 1 Fold a sheet of Step 2 On one side, cut along every

notebook paper in half from third line.
side to side.
Tabs will form
as you cut.

Step 3 Label your foldable as you read

the chapter. The first vocabulary term is
labeled on the model below.
Geog

You should have

raphy

10 tabs.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter, select and write key
vocabulary terms on the front tabs of your foldable. Then write the definition of
each term under the tabs. After each definition, write a sentence using each
vocabulary term correctly.
Guide to Reading

Main Idea
1 Thinking Like
Geographers use
various tools to
understand the world.
Terms to Know
a Geographer
• geography
• landform
• environment
• Global Positioning
System (GPS)
• geographic
How would you go about making an
information
systems (GIS) accurate map of the world?
• artifact Scientists decided the best way
• fossil to map the earth was to
Reading Strategy see it from space. They
Create a chart like this, placed a radar camera
and write three in a space shuttle and
examples for each took pictures of the
heading.
continent of Africa. By
How Geographers View using radar, the camera
the World was not hampered by
1.
2. clouds or darkness.
3.
Tools of Geography
1.
2.
3.
Uses of Geography
1.
2.
3.
W hy do geographers want to know exactly what the earth looks
like? Think about the following: Mount Etna in Italy is one of the
world’s most active volcanoes. Two eruptions between 2001 and 2003
were the most explosive in the volcano’s history. Scientists who study
volcanoes constantly watch Mount Etna. By doing so, they hope to
learn enough about the volcano to be able to predict eruptions and
warn the people living nearby. Earthquakes, which usually happen
before a volcanic eruption, can also give local residents advance warn-
ing. In addition, scientists study movements under the surface of the
earth to predict volcanic activity.
This is just one example of how people around the world use
geographic knowledge collected from various sources. Geography
is the study of the earth in all its variety. When you study geography,
you learn about the earth’s land, water, plants, and animals. This is
physical geography. You also learn about how the continents were

22 CHAPTER 1
formed and what causes erosion. You also study people—where they
live, how they live, how they change and are influenced by their
environment, and how different groups compare to one another. This
is human geography.

A Geographer’s View of Place

Geographers look at major issues—like the eruptions of Mount
Etna, which affect many people over a wide area. They also look at
local issues—such as where the best place is for a company to build a
new store in town. Whether an issue is global, national, or local,
geographers try to understand both the physical and human charac-
teristics, or features, of the issue.
Physical Characteristics Geographers study places. They look at
where something is located on the earth. They also try to understand
what the place is like. They ask: What features make a place similar to
or different from other places?
To answer this question, geographers identify the landforms of a
place. Landforms are individual features of the land, such as moun-
tains and valleys. Geographers also look at water. Is the place near the
ocean or on a river? Does it have plentiful or very little freshwater?
They consider whether the soil will produce crops. They see how
much rain the place usually receives and how hot or cold the area is.
They find out whether the place has minerals, trees, or other resources.

On Location Varied Landforms

This mountain valley in
France and this desert
• in Africa have very
different physical
characteristics.
Place List two physical
features shown in each
photograph.

Looking at the Earth 23

 Human Characteristics Geographers also look at the social char-
acteristics of the people living in the place. Do many or only a few peo-
ple live there? Do they live close together or far apart? Why? What kind
of government do they have? What religions do they follow? What
kinds of work do they do? What languages do they speak? From where
did the people’s ancestors come?
People and Places Geographers are especially interested in how
people interact with their environment, or natural surroundings.
People can have a major impact on the environment. In many parts of
the world, people have built dams along rivers. As a result, they have
changed the ways that rivers behave in flood season.
Where people live often has a strong influence on how they live.
The earliest settlements were near rivers, which provided water for
crops and transportation. Today people near the sea might catch fish
and build ships for trade. Those living inland might farm or take up
ranching. More and more people are using computers and other tech-
nology in their work today. This means people depend less on their
physical environment to make a living.
Regions Geographers carefully study individual cities, rivers, and
other landforms. They also look at the big picture, or how individual
places relate to other places. In other words, geographers look at a
region, or an area that shares common characteristics. Regions can be
relatively small—like your state, town, or school district. They can also
be huge—like the western United States. Some regions may even
include several countries if they have similar environments or their
people follow similar ways of life and speak the same language. The
countries of western South America are often discussed as a region.
They are called the Andean countries because the Andes, a series of
mountain ranges, run through all of them.
What do geographers study to determine the human
characteristics of a place?

The Tools of Geography

Geographers need tools to study people and places. Maps and
globes are the main tools they use. As you read in the Geography
Handbook on page 9, geographers use many different types of maps.
Each type gives geographers a particular kind of information about a
Soci al Stu dies place.
Web Activity Visit Collecting Data for Mapping Earth How do geographers gather
The World and Its information so they can make accurate maps? One way is to take
People Web site at
twip.glencoe.com and photographs from high above the earth.Landsat images are photographs
click on Chapter 1— taken by satellites that circle the earth. These images show details such
Student Web as the shape of the land, what plants cover an area, and how land is
Activities to learn
more about geographic being used. Radar cameras can even reveal hidden information. Photos
information systems. of Antarctica taken from radar cameras show rivers of ice 500 miles
(805 km) long—all hidden by snow.

24 CHAPTER 1
 •
On Location

Mt. Everest
GPS satellites meas-
ure as well as locate
places on the earth.
A GPS receiver
placed on top of Mt.
Everest, the tallest
How do geographers accurately label the exact locations of places mountain in the
on a map? Believe it or not, the best way to find a location is from outer world, showed that
space. Another group of satellites traveling around the earth makes up it is 7 feet (2.1 m)
the Global Positioning System (GPS). A GPS receiver is a special higher than people
device that receives signals from these satellites. When the receiver is previously thought.
placed at a location, the GPS satellite can tell the exact latitude and lon- Location Why is it
gitude of that location. As a result, a mapmaker can know where important for geogra-
exactly on the earth the particular area is located. GPS devices are even phers to know exactly
where places are
installed in vehicles to help drivers find their way.
located on the earth?
Geographic Information Systems Today geographers use another
powerful tool in their work—computers. Special computer software
called geographic information systems (GIS) helps geographers
gather many different kinds of information about the same place. First
geographers input all the data they collect. Then they use the software
to combine and overlap the information on special maps.
In the early 2000s, scientists developed GIS technology to help
conserve the plants and animals that live in the Amazon rain forest.
More than 50 million acres of the rain forest are destroyed each year
because of logging, mining, and other such activities. Using GIS tech-
nology, scientists can compare data gathered from the ground to data
taken from satellite pictures. For example, they can see what species
live where within the rain forest. Land use planners use this informa-
tion to help local people make good decisions about how to use the
land.These activities help prevent the rain forest from being destroyed.
What is the difference between GPS and GIS?

Looking at the Earth 25

 On Location

Artifacts
Cave paintings, pot-
tery, arrowheads, and
other artifacts provide
clues about how
ancient people lived.
History What clues
can you gather about
the society that made Uses of Geography
this arrowhead? Have you ever gone on a long-distance trip in a car or taken a sub-
way ride? If you used a road map or subway map to figure out where
you were going, you were using geography. This is just one of the many
uses of geographic information.
Geographic information is used in planning. Government leaders
use geographic information to plan new services in their communities.
They might plan how to handle disasters or how much new housing to
allow in an area. Businesses study population trends to see where peo-
ple are moving in a region. If people are moving out of an area, for
example, a business may decide to close or relocate.
In addition, geographic information helps people make sound deci-
sions. Perhaps a question arises over whether a new building should be
constructed. City leaders look at street use to see if the area can handle
additional traffic. They make sure the area has the power, water, and
sewage systems the building will need.
Finally, geographic information helps people manage resources.
Resources such as trees or water can be replaced or renewed. Other
natural resources, such as oil or coal, are available only in limited sup-
ply. People can use geographic information both to locate more of
these limited natural resources and to manage them wisely.
Why do people have to manage resources carefully?

Clues to Our Past

So far, you have learned about the tools geographers use to study
the world and how to think like a geographer. You will use these tools
as you read about the people and places of today, as well as learn about
the past—from ancient civilizations to modern history. Historians,
archaeologists, and anthropologists are scientists who try to unravel

26 CHAPTER 1
the mysteries of early times. Like geographers, these scientists also
have tools to help them in their work.
Written Records Historians rely mostly on written records to create
their stories of the past. For example, they search through diaries,
newspapers, and legal documents for information about how people
used to live. However, no written records exist for the prehistory of
humankind.In fact, prehistory means the time before writing was devel-
oped. How, then, do we know about ancient times and early humans?
Artifacts and Fossils Much of what is known about ancient people
comes from studies by archaeologists and anthropologists. These sci-
entists study past societies by analyzing what people have left behind.
They dig up and examine artifacts—tools, pottery, paintings,
weapons, and other items. They also study the remains of humans, or
human fossils, to determine how ancient people lived. By examining
artifacts such as tools and weapons, for example, scientists may learn
that an early society was able to farm and had military strength. By ana-
lyzing bones, animal skins, and plant seeds, they are able to piece
together what early people ate and what animals they hunted.
How is prehistory different from history?

1 Assessment

Defining Terms Graphic Organizer

1. Define geography, landform, environment, 7. Organizing Information Draw a diagram
Global Positioning System (GPS), geographic like this one. In the center, write the name of a
information systems (GIS), artifact, fossil. place you would like to visit. In the outer ovals,
identify the types of geographic information
Recalling Facts
you would like to learn about this place.
2. Place What two kinds of characteristics of
a place do geographers study?
3. Technology What are the main tools of
geography?
4. Human/Environment Interaction What
are three uses for geography?
Critical Thinking
5. Understanding Cause and Effect How
have the physical characteristics of your Applying Social Studies Skills
region affected the way people live there?
8. Analyzing Maps Find Egypt on the map on
6. Categorizing Information Give five exam-
page RA21 of the Reference Atlas. Along what
ples of regions. Begin with an area near you
physical feature do you think most Egyptians
that shares common characteristics, then
live? Why? Turn to the population density map
think of larger and larger regions.
of Egypt on page 10 of the Geography
Handbook to see if you are correct.

Looking at the Earth 27

 ART SCIENCE CULTURE TECHNOLOGY

Geographic Information Systems

What if a farmer could save money by A person who is deciding where to build a
applying fertilizer only to the crops that new store can use GIS technology to help select
needed it? Today, thanks to computer tech- the best location. The process might begin with a
nology called geographic information sys- list of possible sites. The store owner gathers
tems (GIS), farmers can do just that. information about the areas surrounding each
place. This could include shoppers’ ages,
The Technology incomes, and educations; where shoppers live;
Geographic information systems (GIS) use traffic patterns; and other stores in the area. The
computer software to combine and display a wide GIS software then builds a computerized map
range of information about an area. GIS programs composed of these layers of information. The
start with a map showing a specific location on store owner can use the information to decide
the earth. This map is then linked with other infor- on a new store location.
mation about that same place, such as satellite
photos, amounts of rainfall, or where houses are
located.
Think of geographic information systems as
a stack of overhead transparencies. Each trans-
parency shows the same general background but
highlights different information. The first trans-
parency may show a base map of an area. Only
the borders may appear. The second transparency
may show only rivers and highways. The third
may highlight mountains and other physical fea-
tures, buildings, or cities.
In a similar way, GIS technology places layers
of information onto a base map. It can then
Graphic image created using ArcView® GIS software, and provided courtesy of
switch each layer of information on or off, allow- Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc.
ing data to be viewed in many different ways. In
the case of the farmer mentioned above, GIS soft-
ware combines information about soil type, plant
needs, and last year’s crop to pinpoint exact areas
that need fertilizer.
1. What is GIS technology?

How It Is Used 2. In what ways do GIS programs analyze data?

GIS technology allows users to quickly pull 3. Asking Questions What questions would you
together data from many different sources and ask to locate the best place to add a new school
to your district?
construct maps tailored to specific needs. This
helps people analyze past events, predict future
possibilities, and make sound decisions.

28 CHAPTER 1
Guide to Reading

Main Idea
2 The Earth in Space
Earth has life because
of the sun. Earth has
different seasons
because of the way
it tilts and revolves
around the sun.
Terms to Know The sun warms Earth, but the sun’s
• solar system warmth barely reaches Antarctica
• orbit
at the southern tip of our
• atmosphere
• axis planet. Even in summer,
• revolution temperatures are often
• leap year below 0°F (
18°C).
• summer solstice Winter temperatures
• winter solstice
may fall to
100°F
• equinox
(
73°C). Every part of
Reading Strategy
this scientist’s body
Draw a diagram like this must be protected
one and list three facts
against the freezing cold
about the sun in the
first column. In the as he moves through an
second column, write enormous ice tunnel
how these facts in Antarctica.
contribute to life
on Earth.

Sun fact Contribution

T he sun’s heat provides life on our planet. Earth, eight other planets,
and thousands of smaller bodies all revolve around the sun. Together
with the sun, these bodies form the solar system. Look at the diagram
of the solar system on page 30. As you can see, Earth is the third
planet from the sun.

The Solar System

Each planet travels along its own path, or orbit, around the sun.
The paths they travel are ellipses, which are like stretched-out circles.
Each planet takes a different amount of time to complete one full trip
around the sun. Earth makes one trip in 365!/4 days. Mercury orbits the
sun in just 88 days. Far-off Pluto takes almost 250 years!
Planets can be classified into two types—those that are like Earth
and those that are like Jupiter. Earthlike planets are Mercury, Venus,
Mars, and Pluto. These planets are solid and small. They have few or no
moons. They also rotate, or spin, fairly slowly.
The other four planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus—are
huge. Uranus, the smallest of the four, is 15 times larger than Earth.

29
 These planets are more like balls of gas than rockier Earthlike planets.
They spin rapidly and have many moons. Surrounding each one is a
series of rings made of bits of rock and dust.
Sun, Earth, and Moon The sun—about 93 million miles
(150 million km) from Earth—is made mostly of intensely hot gases.
Reactions that occur inside the sun make it as hot as 27 million
Solar Eclipse
One of the most spec-
degrees Fahrenheit (about 15 million degrees Celsius). As a result, the
tacular sights in the sky is sun gives off light and warmth. Life on Earth could not exist without
a solar eclipse. This event the sun.
takes place when the The layer of air surrounding Earth—the atmosphere—also sup-
moon passes between ports life. This cushion of gases measures about 1,000 miles (1,609 km)
Earth and the sun and thick. Nitrogen and oxygen form about 99 percent of the atmosphere,
covers some or all of the
sun. The photograph here
with other gases making up the rest.
shows a total eclipse, Humans and animals need oxygen to breathe. The atmosphere is
when the moon completely important in other ways, too. This protective layer holds in enough of
blocks the sun. When the the sun’s heat to make life possible, just as a greenhouse keeps in
moon blocks the sun’s enough heat to protect plants. Without this protection, Earth would be
light, a large shadow is too cold for most living things. At the same time, the atmosphere also
cast on part of Earth.
reflects some heat back into space. As a result, Earth does not
become too warm. Finally, the atmosphere shields living things. It
screens out some rays from the sun that are dangerous. You will
learn more about the atmosphere in Chapter 2.
Earth’s nearest neighbor in the solar system is its moon.
The moon orbits Earth, taking about 30 days to complete each
trip. A cold, rocky sphere, the moon has no water and no atmo-
sphere. The moon also gives off no light of its own. When you
see the moon shining, it is actually reflecting light from the sun.

The Solar System

Neptune
Analyzing
the Diagram Uranus
Earth and eight other
planets in our solar Mercury
Comet
system travel around Saturn Mars
the sun. Venus
Sun Asteroids
Jupiter
Movement Between Moon
which two planets’ Earth
orbits is Earth’s orbit?

Pluto

30 CHAPTER 1
 Seasons
SPRING WINTER
(March 21) (December 22)

ays
ted r
Slan
rays
Direct
Slanted rays Sun Slanted rays
rays
Direct
ays
ted r North Pole
Slan

Tr
o p ic
SUMMER of C
(June 21) anc
er
Eq
uat
Tr or
o p ic
of
Cap
rico
r n FALL
(September 23)

South Pole

Analyzing
the Diagram
Earth’s Movement Like all the planets, Earth rotates, or spins, on its
Because Earth is tilted,
axis. The axis is an imaginary line that runs through Earth’s center different areas receive
between the North and South Poles. Earth takes 24 hours to finish one direct rays from the
complete spin on its axis.As a result,one day is 24 hours.As Earth turns, sun at different times
different parts of the planet are in sunlight or in darkness.The part fac- of the year.
ing the sun has day, and the part facing away has night. Movement How does
Earth has another motion, too. The planet makes one revolution, this fact cause changes
or complete orbit around the sun, in 365!/4 days. This period is what in seasons?
we define as one year. Every four years, the extra one-fourths of a day
are combined and added to the calendar as February 29. A year that
contains one of these extra days is called a leap year.
How does Earth’s orbit affect you?

The Sun and the Seasons

Earth is tilted 23!/2 degrees on its axis. As a result, seasons change
as Earth makes its year-long orbit around the sun. To see why this
happens, look at the four globes in the diagram above. Notice how
sunlight falls directly on the northern or southern halves of Earth at
different times of the year. Direct rays from the sun bring more
warmth than the slanted rays. When the people in a hemisphere
receive those direct rays from the sun, they enjoy the warmth of sum-
mer. When they receive only indirect rays, they experience winter,
which is colder.

Looking at the Earth 31

 Solstices and Equinoxes Four days in the year have special names
because of the position of the sun in relation to Earth. These days mark
the beginnings of the four seasons. On or about June 21, the North Pole
is tilted toward the sun. On noon of this day, the sun appears directly
overhead at the line of latitude called the Tropic of Cancer (23!/2°N lati-
tude). In the Northern Hemisphere, this day is the summer solstice,
the day with the most hours of sunlight and the fewest hours of dark-
ness. It is the beginning of summer—but only in the Northern
Hemisphere. Remember that the Northern Hemisphere includes every-
thing north of the Equator. Everything south of the Equator is in the
Southern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, that same day is the
day with the fewest hours of sunlight and marks the beginning of winter.
Six months later—on or about December 22—the North Pole is
tilted away from the sun. At noon, the sun’s direct rays strike the line
of latitude known as the Tropic of Capricorn (23!/2°S latitude). In the
Northern Hemisphere, this day is the winter solstice—the day with
the fewest hours of sunlight. This same day, though, marks the begin-
ning of summer in the Southern Hemisphere.
Spring and autumn begin midway between the two solstices.
These are the equinoxes, when day and night are of equal length in
both hemispheres. On or about March 21, the vernal equinox (spring)
occurs. On or about September 23, the autumnal equinox occurs. On
both of these days, the noon sun shines directly over the Equator.
Which seasons begin on the two equinoxes?

2 Assessment

Defining Terms 6. Summarizing Information In a paragraph,

1. Define solar system, orbit, atmosphere, axis, describe why the seasons change.
revolution, leap year, summer solstice, winter
solstice, equinox. Graphic Organizer
7. Organizing Information Draw two diagrams
Recalling Facts
like those below. First, list the effects of Earth’s
2. Region Which bodies make up the solar system?
rotation on human, plant, and animal life. Then
3. Science List two gases in the atmosphere. list the effects if Earth were to stop rotating.
4. Movement Which two motions does Earth
make in space? Earth Earth stops
rotates rotating
Critical Thinking
5. Analyzing Information How does the
position of Earth determine whether a day Applying Social Studies Skills
is one of the solstice or equinox days?

8. Analyzing Diagrams Look at the diagram on

page 31. When the sun’s direct rays hit the
Tropic of Capricorn, what season is it in the
Northern Hemisphere?
32
Using a Map Key
To understand what a map is showing, • Find examples of each map key color,
you must read the map key, or legend. The line, or symbol on the map.
map key explains the meaning of special col- • Use the compass rose to identify the four
ors, symbols, and lines on the map. cardinal directions.

Practicing the Skill

Look at the map of Washington, D.C.,
Learning the Skill below to answer the following questions.
Colors in the map key may represent dif- 1. What does the red square represent?
ferent elevations or heights of land, climate
areas, or languages. Lines may stand for 2. What does the blue square represent?
rivers, streets, or boundaries. 3. Does the Washington Monument lie east
Maps also have a compass rose showing or west of the Lincoln Memorial?
directions. The cardinal directions are north,
south, east, and west. North and south are 4. From the White House, in what direction
the directions of the North and South Poles. would you go to get to the Capitol?
If you stand facing north, east is the direc-
tion to your right. West is the direction to Applying the Skill
your left. The compass rose might also show
intermediate directions, or those that fall
between the cardinal directions. For exam- Find a map in a newspaper or magazine.
ple, the intermediate direction northeast Use the map key to explain three things the
falls between north and east. To use a map map is showing.
key, follow these steps:
• Read the map title. Practice key skills with Glencoe
• Read the map key to find out what special Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook, Level 1.
information it gives.

Washington, D.C.
•
0 mi. 0.25
National Museum National
9TH ST.

Old Dept.
Museum Executive of the 0 km 0.25 of American Art Postal
The National N Museum
Monument or memorial Office White Treasury Portrait
NORTH CAPITOL ST.

Government building Building House Gallery W E

PEN
NSY
J. Edgar Hoover
14TH ST.
17TH ST.

LVA FBI Building S

23RD ST.

NIA
AVE
Dept. of .
Justice National
Archives
CONSTITUTION AVE. CONSTITUTION AVE. CONSTITUTION AVE.
Vietnam Veterans National U.S.
Memorial Museum of National Museum Capitol
Washington National
Lincoln Reflecting Pool American of Natural History Gallery of Art
Memorial Monument History Hirshhorn
Smithsonian National Air and
Korean War Institution Museum Space Museum
Veterans Memorial Castle
U.S. Holocaust INDEPENDENCE AVE.
INDEPENDENCE Memorial
AVE.
Museum

33
Guide to Reading

Main Idea
3 Forces Shaping
Forces both inside the
earth and on its
surface affect the
shape of the land. the Earth
Terms to Know
• core
• mantle
• magma
• crust
• continent Forces beneath the earth’s surface
• plate tectonics shape the land and the lives of the
• earthquake
people who live on it. Here in
• tsunami
• fault the Azores, a volcano
• weathering makes cooking easy.
• erosion People wrap pots of
• glacier meat and vegetables
Reading Strategy in a cloth and bury the
Create a chart like this bundle in a hole where
one. Write three forces heat from deep inside
that change the shape the earth rises to the
of the land. Then write
three effects these surface. The tempera-
forces can have on ture reaches 200°F
Earth. (93°C), which is hot
enough to steam the food.
Forces Effects

T housands of miles beneath your feet, the earth’s heat has turned
metal into liquid. You may not feel these forces, but what lies inside the
earth affects what lies on top. Mountains, deserts, and other landscapes
were formed over millions of years by forces acting below the earth’s
surface—and they are still changing today. Some forces work slowly
and show no results for thousands of years. Others appear suddenly
and have dramatic, and sometimes very destructive, effects.

Inside the Earth

Scientists have only been able to study the top layer of the earth,
but have developed a picture of what lies inside. They have found that
Earth has three layers—the core, the mantle, and the crust. Have you
ever seen a cantaloupe cut in half? The earth’s core is like the center
of a cantaloupe, where you find the seeds. The mantle is like the part
of the fruit that you eat, between the center and the rind, or outer

34 CHAPTER 1
layer. The crust is like the melon’s rind. Let us
look closer at Earth’s three layers. Earth’s Layers
In the center of the earth is a dense core of
hot iron mixed with other metals and rock. The
inner core is solid, but the outer core is so hot Crust
that the metal has melted into liquid. Surrounding
the core is the mantle, a layer of rock about Mantle
1,800 miles (2,897 km) thick. Like the core, the
mantle also has two parts. The section nearest Outer
core
the core remains solid, but the rock in the outer
mantle sometimes melts. If you have seen pho-
tographs of an active volcano, then you have Inner core
seen this melted rock, called magma. It flows to
the surface during a volcanic eruption.
The uppermost layer of the earth, the crust, is
relatively thin. It reaches only 31 to 62 miles (50 to
100 km) deep. The crust includes the ocean floors.
It also includes seven massive land areas known as
continents. The crust is thinnest on the ocean floor.
It is thicker below the continents. Turn to the map
on page 41 to see where the earth’s seven continents are
Analyzing
located. the Diagram
Which layer of the earth is thinnest? Hot rock and metal—some
of it liquid—fill the center of
the earth.
Forces Beneath the Earth’s Crust Region What is the inner-
You have probably watched science shows about earth- most layer inside the earth
quakes and volcanoes. You have probably also seen news on tel- called? In which layer do
evision discussing the destruction caused by earthquakes. These you find the continents?
events result from forces at work inside the earth.
Plate Movements Scientists have developed a theory called plate
tectonics to explain the earth’s structure. This theory states that the
crust is not an unbroken shell but consists of plates, or huge slabs of
rock, that move. The plates float on top of liquid rock just below the
earth’s crust. They move—but often in different directions. Oceans
and continents sit on these gigantic plates, as shown on page 36.
Have you ever noticed that the eastern part of South America
seems to fit into the western side of Africa? That is because these two
continents were once joined together in a landmass that scientists call
Pangaea. Millions of years ago, however, the continents moved apart.
Tectonic activity caused them to move. The plates are still moving
today, but they move so slowly that you do not feel it. The plate under
the Pacific Ocean moves to the west at the rate of about 4 inches
(10 cm) per year. That is about the same rate that a man’s beard grows.
The plate along the western edge of South America moves east at the
rate of about 1.8 inches (5 cm) per year. That is a little faster than your
fingernails grow.Turn to page 45 to see what Pangaea looked like before
and after it experienced this movement, known as continental drift.

Looking at the Earth 35

 Tectonic Plate Boundaries
120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E

60°N

30°N Atlantic
Ocean

Pacific Ocean

0°

Indian
Ocean

30°S
N

W E
S

60°S
Plate boundary
Earthquake Volcano
Miller projection

Analyzing
the Diagram When Plates Meet The movements of the earth’s plates have actu-
Most of North America ally shaped the surface of the earth. Sometimes the plates spread, or
sits on one plate. pull away from each other. That type of tectonic action separated
Region What pattern do South America and Africa millions of years ago. Sometimes, though, the
you see among plate plates push against each other. When this happens, one of three events
boundaries, earthquakes, occurs, depending on what kinds of plates are involved.
and volcanoes? If two continental plates smash into each other, the collision pro-
duces high mountain ranges. This kind of collision produced the
Himalaya in South Asia.
If a continental plate and an ocean plate move against each other,
the thicker continental plate slides over the thinner ocean plate. The
downward force of the lower plate causes molten rock to build up.
Then, as magma, it erupts to form volcanic mountains. Another result
may occur from the pressure that builds up between the two sliding
plates. This pressure may cause one plate to move suddenly. The
result is an earthquake, or a violent and sudden movement of the
earth’s crust.
Earthquakes can be very damaging to both physical structures
and human lives. They can collapse buildings, destroy bridges, and
break apart underground water or gas pipes. Undersea earthquakes
can cause huge waves called tsunamis (tsu•NAH•mees). These
waves may reach as high as 98 feet (30 m). Such waves can cause
severe flooding of coastal towns.

36 CHAPTER 1
 Sometimes two plates do not meet head-on but move alongside
each other. To picture this, put your hands together and then move
them in opposite directions. When this action occurs in the earth, the
two plates slide against each other. This movement creates faults, or
cracks in the earth’s crust. Violent earthquakes can happen near these
faults. In 1988, for example, an earthquake struck the country of
Armenia. About 25,000 people were killed, and another 500,000 lost
their homes. One of the most famous faults in the United States is the
San Andreas Fault in California. The earth’s movement along this
fault caused a severe earthquake in San Francisco in 1906 and another
less serious earthquake in 1989.
What happens when two continental plates collide?

Forces Shaping Landforms

The forces under the earth’s crust that move tectonic plates cause
volcanoes and earthquakes to change the earth’s landforms. Once
formed, however, these landforms will continue to change because of
forces that work on the earth’s surface.
Weathering Weathering is the process of breaking surface rock into
boulders, gravel, sand, and soil. Water and frost, chemicals, and even
plants cause weathering. Water seeps into cracks of rocks and then
freezes. As it freezes, the ice expands and splits the rock. Sometimes
entire sides of cliffs fall off because frost has wedged the rock apart.
Chemicals, too, cause weathering when acids in air pollution mix with
rain and fall back to the earth. The chemicals eat away the surfaces of
stone structures and natural rocks. Even tiny seeds that fall into cracks
can spread out roots, causing huge boulders to eventually break apart.

Architecture
In earthquake-prone parts of the world, engi-
neers design new buildings to stand up to tremors,
or shaking of the earth. Flexible structures allow
buildings to sway rather than break apart.
Placing a building on pads or rollers cushions
the structure from the motion of the ground.
Some so-called intelligent buildings automati-
cally respond to tremors, shifting their weight or
tightening and loosening joints.
Looking Closer How can studying earthquake-
damaged buildings help designers improve
future construction?
San Francisco, California, 1989 #

Looking at the Earth 37

 Erosion Erosion is the process of wearing away or moving weath-
ered material. Water, wind, and ice are the greatest factors that erode, or
wear away, surface material. Rain and moving water in oceans, rivers,
and streams can erode even the hardest stone over time. Rainwater that
works its way to streams and rivers picks up and moves soil and sand.
These particles make the river water similar to a giant scrub brush that
grinds away at riverbanks and any other surface in the water’s path.
Wind is also a major cause of erosion as it lifts weathered soil and
sand. The areas that lose soil often become unable to grow crops and
support life. The areas that receive the windblown soil often benefit
from the additional nutrients to the land. When wind carries sand,
however, it acts like sandpaper. Rock and other structures are carved
into smooth shapes.
The third cause of erosion is ice. Giant, slow-moving sheets of ice
are called glaciers. Forming high in mountains, glaciers change the
land as they inch over it. Similar to windstorms, glaciers act like sand-
paper as they pick up and carry rocks down the mountainside, grind-
ing smooth everything beneath them. Some glaciers are thousands of
feet thick. The weight and pressure of thousands of feet of ice also cut
deep valleys at the mountain’s base.
List three things that can cause weathering.

3 Assessment

Defining Terms Graphic Organizer

1. Define core, mantle, magma, crust, continent, 7. Organizing Information Draw a diagram
plate tectonics, earthquake, tsunami, fault, like this one, then label the inner arrows with
weathering, erosion, glacier. inside forces that shape landforms. Label the
outer arrows with surface forces that change
Recalling Facts
the earth’s landforms.
2. Region What are the three layers of the earth?
3. Movement In what three ways can tectonic
plates move?
4. Science What are the three greatest factors
that cause erosion?
Critical Thinking
5. Making Comparisons How does water
play a role in the processes of weathering
and erosion? Applying Social Studies Skills
6. Understanding Cause and Effect How
does erosion hurt some areas yet benefit 8. Analyzing Diagrams Look at the diagram
others? of tectonic plate boundaries on page 36. Why
might it be a problem that many of the world’s
people live along the western edge of the
Pacific Ocean?

38 CHAPTER 1
Guide to Reading

Main Idea 4 Landforms and

Landforms in all their
variety affect how
people live.
Terms to Know
Waterways
• elevation
• plain
• plateau
• isthmus
• peninsula
• island Mountains and other landforms are
• continental shelf usually formed by forces under the
• trench earth’s crust. Yet some land-
• strait
• channel forms are not created by the
• delta earth’s forces—they are
made by animals. Here,
Reading Strategy
off Australia’s northeast
Draw a diagram like
this one. In each of the coast, coral and algae
surrounding circles, have joined together
write the name of a underwater, creating
landform and a fact the Great Barrier Reef.
about it.
They worked hard—the
reef stretches more
than 1,250 miles
Landforms (2,012 km).

T he earth’s land surface consists of seven continents—North

America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica.
All have a variety of landforms—even icy Antarctica.

Types of Landforms
Look at the illustration on pages 14–15 of the Geography
Handbook. Notice the many different forms that the land may take.
Which ones are familiar to you? Which ones are new to you?
On Land Mountains are huge towers of rock formed by the collision
of the earth’s tectonic plates or by volcanoes. Some mountains may be
a few thousand feet high. Others can soar higher than 20,000 feet
(6,096 m).The world’s tallest mountain is Mt. Everest, located in South
Asia’s Himalaya mountain ranges. It towers at 29,035 feet (8,850 m)—
nearly 5.5 miles (8.9 km) high.

39
 On Location

Valleys vs. Canyons

The Great Rift Valley in
Africa is surrounded by
mountains (above).
Canyons, like the Grand Mountains often have high peaks and steep, rugged slopes.
Canyon in Arizona (right), Hills are lower and more rounded. Some hills form at the foot,
are carved from plateaus.
or base, of mountains. As a result, these hills are called foothills.
Place How are valleys and In contrast, plains and plateaus are mostly flat. What makes
canyons similar? them different from one another is their elevation, or height
above sea level. Plains are low-lying stretches of flat or gently
rolling land. Many plains reach from the middle of a continent to the
coast, such as the North European Plain. Plateaus are also flat but
have higher elevation. With some plateaus, a steep cliff forms on one
side where the plateau rises above nearby lowlands. With others, such
as the Plateau of Tibet in Asia,the plateau is surrounded by mountains.
Between mountains and hills lie valleys. A valley is a long stretch of
land lower than the land on either side.Rivers are often found at the bot-
tom of valleys. Canyons are steep-sided lowlands that rivers have cut
through a plateau. One of the most famous canyons is the Grand
Canyon in Arizona. For millions of years, the Colorado River flowed
over a plateau and carved through rock, forming the Grand Canyon.
Geographers describe some landforms by their relationship to
larger land areas or to bodies of water. An isthmus is a narrow piece of
land that connects two larger pieces of land. A peninsula is a piece of
land with water on three sides. A body of land smaller than a continent
and completely surrounded by water is an island.
Under the Oceans If you were to explore the oceans, you would
see landforms under the water that are similar to those on land. Off
each coast of a continent lies a plateau called a continental shelf that

40 CHAPTER 1
stretches for several miles underwater. At the edge of the shelf, steep
cliffs drop down to the ocean floor.
Tall mountains and very deep valleys line the ocean floor. Valleys
here are called trenches, and they are the lowest spots in the earth’s
crust. The deepest one, in the western Pacific Ocean, is called the
Mariana Trench. This trench plunges 35,840 feet (10,924 m) below
sea level. How deep is this? If Mt. Everest were placed into this trench,
the mountain would have to grow 1.3 miles (2 km) higher just to reach
the ocean’s surface.
Landforms and People Humans have settled on all types of land-
forms. Some people live at high elevations in the Andes mountain
ranges of South America. The people of Bangladesh live on a low
coastal plain. Farmers in Ethiopia work the land on a plateau called the
Ethiopian Highlands.
Why do people decide to live in a particular area? Climate—the
average temperature and rainfall of a region—is one reason. You will
read more about climate in the next chapter.The availability of resources
is another reason. People settle where they can get freshwater and
where they can grow food, catch fish, or raise animals. They might
settle in an area because it has good supplies of useful items such
as trees for building, iron for manufacturing, or petroleum for mak- Applying Map Skills
ing energy. You will read more about resources in Chapter 3.
How are plains and plateaus similar? How are they 1. What are the names of
different? the seven large land-
masses on the earth?
2. What are the earth’s four
major oceans?
World Continents and Oceans Find NGS online map resources @
www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

120˚W 60˚W 0˚ 60˚E 120˚E

ARCTIC OCEAN

IRCLE
60˚N A RC T I C C

EUROPE
N ORTH
A S I A
A MERI CA
30˚N

TROPIC OF CAN PACIFIC

CER
OCEAN
A T L A NT IC
AFRICA
OCE A N

EQUATOR
0˚
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)

PA C I FI C SO U TH
OCE A N A M ERI CA INDIAN
OCEAN
PRICORN
TROPIC OF CA
AUSTRALIA
30˚S N
0 mi. 2,000
W E
0 km 2,000
S Winkel Tripel projection

60˚S TIC CIRCLE

ANTARC

ANTARCTICA
 Bodies of Water
About 70 percent of the earth’s surface is water. Most of that water
is salt water, which people and most animals cannot drink. Only a small
percentage is freshwater, which is drinkable. Oceans, consisting of salt
water, are the earth’s largest bodies of water. Smaller bodies of salt
water are connected to oceans but are at least partly enclosed by land.
These bodies include seas, gulfs, and bays.
Two other kinds of water form passages that connect two larger bod-
ies of water. A strait is a narrow body of water between two pieces of
land. The Strait of Magellan flows between the southern tip of South
America and an island called Tierra del Fuego (tee•EHR•uh DEHL
fu•AY•GOH). This strait connects the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. A
wider passage is called a channel. The Mozambique Channel separates
southeastern Africa from the island of Madagascar.
Bodies of freshwater appear on the world’s continents and islands.
They include larger bodies like lakes and rivers as well as smaller ones
such as ponds and streams. The point at which a river originates—
usually high in the mountains—is called its source. The mouth of a
river is where it empties into another body of water. As you learned in
Section 3, rivers carry soil and sand. They eventually deposit this soil
at the mouth, which builds up over time to form a delta.
What is the difference between the source and the mouth
of a river?

4 Assessment

Defining Terms Graphic Organizer

1. Define elevation, plain, plateau, isthmus, 7. Organizing Information Make a chart like
peninsula, island, continental shelf, trench, this and give three examples for each item.
strait, channel, delta.
Landforms
Recalling Facts
2. Place What is the difference between moun- Landforms Under
tains and hills? the Ocean

3. Place How are straits and channels similar? Types of Bodies of Water
How are they different?
4. Culture What are two reasons people
decide to settle in a particular area?
Applying Social Studies Skills
Critical Thinking
5. Analyzing Information What two
landforms are created by rivers? 8. Analyzing Maps Look at the map of Asia on
pages RA24–RA25 of the Reference Atlas.
6. Making Inferences Why do people
Find an example of the following: plain, plateau,
often settle on the edges of rivers?
peninsula, island, strait. List the specific names
of each landform.

42 CHAPTER 1
 a pter
Ch

1 Reading Review
Section
Section 1 Thinking Like a Geographer
Terms to Know Main Idea
geography Geographers use various tools to understand the world.
landform ✓Place Geographers study the physical and social characteristics of
environment places.
Global Positioning System ✓Human/Environment Interaction Geographers are especially
(GPS) interested in how people interact with their environment.
geographic information ✓Technology To study the earth, geographers use maps, globes,
systems (GIS) photographs, the Global Positioning System, and geographic
artifact information systems.
fossil ✓Economics People can use information from geography to plan,
make decisions, and manage resources.

Section
Section 2 The Earth in Space
Terms to Know Main Idea
solar system leap year Earth has life because of the sun. Earth has different seasons
orbit summer solstice because of the way it tilts and revolves around the sun.
atmosphere winter solstice ✓Science The sun’s light and warmth allow life to exist on Earth.
axis equinox ✓Science The atmosphere is a cushion of gases that protects Earth
revolution and provides air to breathe.
✓Movement Earth spins on its axis causing day and night.
✓Movement The tilt of Earth and its revolution around the sun
cause the changes in seasons.

Section
Section 3 Forces Shaping the Earth
Terms to Know Main Idea
core plate tectonics Forces both inside the earth and on its surface affect the
mantle tsunami shape of the land.
magma fault ✓Region Earth has an inner and outer core, a mantle, and a crust.
crust weathering ✓Movement The continents are on large plates of rock that move.
continent erosion ✓Movement Earthquakes and volcanoes can reshape the land.
earthquake glacier ✓Science Wind, water, and ice can change the look of the land.

Section
Section 4 Landforms and Waterways
Terms to Know Main Idea
elevation continental shelf Landforms in all their variety affect how people live.
plain trench ✓Location Mountains, plateaus, valleys, and other landforms are
plateau strait found on land and under the oceans.
isthmus channel ✓Science About 70 percent of the earth’s surface is water.
peninsula delta ✓Culture People have adapted in order to live on various
island landforms.

Looking at the Earth 43

 Ch
a
Assessment
pter

1 and Activities
Using Key Terms Reviewing the Main Ideas
Match the terms in Part A with their Section 1 Thinking Like a Geographer
definitions in Part B. 11. Place Give three examples of the physi-
cal characteristics of a place.
A.
12. Region How is a region different from a
1. elevation 7. erosion place?
2. landform 8. equinox 13. Human/Environment Interaction Give
3. summer solstice 9. fault an example of how people use geographic
4. plate tectonics 10. weathering knowledge.
5. geographic information systems Section 2 The Earth in Space
6. Global Positioning System 14. Region How many planets are in the
B. solar system?
a. height above sea level 15. Movement What movement of Earth
causes day and night?
b. wearing away of the earth’s surface
16. Movement How does Earth’s revolution
c. theory that the earth’s crust consists of around the sun relate to the seasons?
huge slabs of rock that move
d. a group of satellites around the earth Section 3 Forces Shaping the Earth
e. special software that helps geographers 17. Movement How do the plates in the
gather and use information earth’s crust move?
f. when day and night are of equal length 18. Movement Give an example of erosion.
g. a process that breaks surface rocks into Section 4 Landforms and Waterways
gravel, sand, or soil 19. Place Which has a higher elevation—
h. a crack in the earth’s crust plains or plateaus?
i. the day with the most hours of sunlight 20. Movement What are two reasons people
j. particular features of the land settle in a particular region?

The World
H
A
Place Location Activity
D
On a separate sheet of paper, match the C
letters on the map with the numbered E
G N
places listed below.
W E B
1. North America 5. Antarctica 0 mi. 4,000
S
2. Pacific Ocean 6. Australia 0 km 4,000
Winkel Tripel projection
3. Africa 7. Atlantic Ocean
F
4. South America 8. Asia

44 CHAPTER 1
 Socia l Stu die s
Self-Check Quiz Visit The World and Its
People Web site at twip.glencoe.com and
click on Chapter 1—Self-Check Quizzes
Standardized Test Practice
to prepare for the Chapter Test. Directions: Study the maps below, and then
answer the question that follows.
Continental Drift
Critical Thinking 200 million years ago
21. Drawing Conclusions Why do people in
Australia snow-ski during the Northern EURASIA
Hemisphere’s summer months? NORTH EA
AMERICA A
G
22. Understanding Cause and Effect Create a N
A
diagram like this one. In the “Cause” box, P
write “plate movements.” In the “Effect” box, SOUTH AFRICA
AMERICA
describe the effect that this force has on the INDIA
AUSTRALIA
earth. Draw four more pairs of boxes and do ANTARCTICA
the same for the other forces that shape the
earth: earthquakes, volcanoes, weathering, 65 million years ago
and erosion.
NORTH
AMERICA EURASIA

Cause Effect

AFRICA
SOUTH

H
INDIA
Comparing Regions Activity AMERICA

23. Geography Think about your neighbor- AUSTRALIA

hood. List the characteristics that make it ANTARCTICA

a region. Organize into pairs and compare

the characteristics of your region to your
partner’s region. 1. What “supercontinent” do many scien-
tists believe existed 200 million years ago?
Mental Mapping Activity A Eurasia
24. Focusing on the Region Draw a simple out- B Pangaea
line map of the earth, then label the following: C Gondwana
• core • crust D Antarctica
• mantle • atmosphere

Technology Skills Activity Test-Taking Tip: Use information on the

25. Building a Database Use a word process- maps to answer this question. Read the title
ing program to make a database like the fol- above the maps and then the two subtitles.
lowing. In the first column, list forces inside If you reread the question, you see it is ask-
Earth that have shaped the land. Then write ing about a certain time period. Make sure
the result of the force in the second column. you use the correct map above to answer
In the third column, research to find an the question.
example of each result. The first row has
been filled in for you.

Force Result Example

collision of
plates mountains Himalaya

45