Chapter 1 Class 11

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY - Notes

Prepared by Arunesh Gupta PGT (Chemistry)
Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter & the
changes which the matter undergoes under different conditions & laws which govern these changes. Chemistry is
called the science of atoms and molecule.

Some applications of chemistry:

(1) In basic needs & necessities: (a) Chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, fungicides to increase the yield of
crops and fruits.
(b) preservatives for food materials for longer shelf life.
(c) Chlorine, bleaching powder, etc are used to purify water , to save us from cholera, small pox, plague etc.
(d) use of anaesthetics used for medical purpose.
(e) Use of drugs to cure disease like antipyretics ( to lower body temperature in fever), analgesics (to relieve body
pain), antibiotics, antimicrobials, antimalarials, tranquilisers, antifertility drugs, etc
(2) for our comfort pleasure & luxuries:
(a) Building materials, cements, paint & varnishes, synthetic fibres, articles of domestic uses like soaps, detergents,
dyes, salt, polymers, metals & alloys, polymers, ceramic etc.
(b) cells & batteries
(3) for discovery of new materials:
Superconducting materials, conducting polymers, nano particles, optic fibre, microalloys, silicones, carbon fibres etc.
(4) In warfare
(a) highly explosives like dynamite, TNT, TNG, poisonous gases like phosgene, mustard gas, lewisite etc
(b) nuclear weapon like atom bomb, hydrogen bomb etc.

Branches of Chemistry
• Organic Chemistry -This branch deals with study of carbon compounds especially hydrocarbons and their
derivatives.
• Inorganic Chemistry-This branch deals with the study of compounds of all other elements except carbon. It
largely concerns itself with the study of minerals found in the Earth’s crust.
• Physical Chemistry-The explanation of fundamental principles governing various chemical phenomena is the
main concern of this branch. It is basically concerned with laws and theories of the different branches of chemistry.
• Industrial Chemistry-The chemistry involved in industrial processes is studied under this branch.
• Analytical Chemistry-This branch deals with the qualitative and quantitative analysis of various substances.
• Biochemistry-This branch deals with the chemical changes going on in the bodies of living organisms; plants and
animals.
• Nuclear Chemistry-Nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, transmutation processes etc. are
studied under this branch.

Matter: Anything that has mass & occupies space is called matter. E.g. pen, water, air, iron rod, building etc.

Think: Can we call the rays of light or vibration of a bell a matter?

PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THEIR MEASUREMENT

Every substance has unique or characteristic properties. These properties can be classified into two categories:
namely (i) physical properties and (ii) chemical properties.

Physical properties are those properties which can be measured or observed without changing the identity or the
composition of the substance. e.g. colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, density etc.

The measurement or observation of chemical properties requires a chemical change occur (change in chemical
composition etc). e.g. Burning of Mg-ribbon in air forms heat & light & a white amorphous residue is formed which is
different from magnesium.

Chemical properties are characteristic reactions of different substances; these include reactivity with air, water,
acids, bases, with other chemical substances etc.
Many properties of matter such as length, area, volume, etc., are quantitative in nature.

ANALYSIS of PROPERTIES of MATTER:

Types of measurement of different physical quantities:

Metric System was based on the decimal system.
The International System of Units (SI)
The International System of Units (in French Le Systeme International d’Unites abbreviated as SI) was established by
the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM from Conference Generale des Poids at Measures).
The SI system has seven base units
Mass and Weight: Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it while weight is the force exerted by
gravity on an object. The mass of a substance is constant whereas its weight may vary from one place to another due
to change in gravity. The mass of a substance can be determined very accurately by using an analytical balance.
Mass of a substance is measured by a spring balance but its weight is measured by a beam balance or chemical
balance. Unit of mass is Kg, g, pound, etc but unit of weight is the unit of force.
1kg = 103 g = 106 mg = 109 μg
Length: is a distance from a reference point to another point.1km = 103 m = 106 mm = 109 μm & 1nm = 10-9 m,
1Å = 10-10 m, 1pm = 10-12 m

Volume: (space occupied by a matter) It has the units of (length)3. So volume has units of m3 or cm3 or dm3 or L.
A common unit, litre (L) is not an SI unit, is used for measurement of volume of liquids. Volume of a substance
increases with the increase in temperature.
1 L = 1000 mL, 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 so, 1 L = 1dm3.
Density: Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume. It depends on temperature.
SI unit of density = SI unit of mass/SI unit of volume = kg/m3 or kg m–3.
This unit is quite large and a chemist often expresses density in g cm–3. 1 kg/m3 = 103 g/cm3.
Temperature--There are three common scales to measure temperature : °C (degree celsius), °F (degree Fahrenheit)
and K (kelvin). Here, K is the SI unit. K is written without degree sign. 180 °F = 100 °C
0 K = -273.15 °C is called absolute zero. x °C = (x + 273.15) K

Note : Temperature below 0 °C (i.e. negative values) are possible in Celsius scale but in Kelvin scale, negative
temperature is not possible, 0 K is the minimum possible temperature.

**Scientific Notation
In which any number can be represented in the form N × 10n Where n is an exponent having positive or negative
values and N can vary between 1 to 10). e.g. We can write 232.508 as 2.32508 x102 in scientific notation. Similarly,
0.00016 can be written as 1.6 x 10–4.

Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same quantity.
Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of the result.

Student Expt.1 Expt. 2 Expt.3 Expt.4 Result: (True value = 15.458 cm)
A 15.45 cm 15.44 cm 15.46 cm 15.45 cm Good precision & good accuracy
B 15.11 cm 15.31 cm 15.62 cm 15.81 cm Low precision & better accuracy (mean value=15.462 cm)
C 15.33 cm 15.34 cm 15.32 cm 15.33 cm Good precision, low accuracy
D 15.12 cm 15.21 cm 15.34 cm 15.42 cm Poor precision & poor accuracy (Mean = 11.529 cm)

**Significant Figures
The reliability of a measurement is indicated by the number of digits used to represent it. To express it more
accurately, we express it with digits that are known with certainty. These are called as significant figures. They
contain all the certain digits plus one doubtful digit in a number.
Thus, the number of significant figures conveys the information that except the last digit, all other digits are known
with certainty. For example: 25.36 cm → 25.3 cm measurement is certain but .06 cm is uncertain, it can be .05 or
.07 cm (accuracy of ±1).
Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures
1) All non-zero digits are significant.
For example, 6.91 has three significant figures, while 2.516 has four significant figures. The decimal place does not
determine the number of significant figures.

2) A zero becomes significant in case it comes in between non zero numbers.

For example, 2.003 has four significant figures, 4.02 has three significant figures. 80.05 has four significant figures.

3) Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant.

For example, 0.002 has one significant figure while 0.0045 has two significant figures. 0.0205 has three significant
figures.

4) All zeros placed to the right of a number are significant.

For example, 16.0 has three significant figures, while 16.00 has four significant figures. Zeros at the end of a number
without decimal point are ambiguous. 1260000 has three significant figures.

5) In exponential notations, the numerical portion represents the number of significant figures.
For example, 0.00045 is expressed as 4.5 x 10-4 in terms of scientific notations. The number of significant figures in
this number is 2, while in Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 1023) it is four.

6) The decimal point does not count towards the number of significant figures

7) For example, the number 345601 has six significant figures but can be written in different ways, as 345.601 x 103
or 0.345601 x 106 or 3.45601 x 105 all having same number of six significant figures.
The countable exact numbers have infinite significant figures. 20 eggs can be written as 20.00 eggs or 20.00000 eggs
are same & can be expressed by infinite ways.

Try : (1) Is there any difference between 0.006 g and 6.00 x 10-3g?
(2) Is there any difference between (i) 100 Kg & 100 kg (ii) 5Cm & 5 cm ?

Calculations involving Significant figures:

(1) When addition or subtraction is to be carried out the final result should have same no. of decimal places as
present with least number of decimal place. Example:
(a) In case of addition: 7.23 + 2.3 + 10.246 = ?
7.23
2.3 ← has one decimal place only so final result has answer with one decimal place.
10.246
19.776 So, Correct answer is 19.7

(b) In case of subtraction: 26.4130 – 2.8 = ?

26.4130
- 2.8 ← has one decimal place only so final result has answer with one decimal place.
23.6130
So, the correct answer is 23.6

(2) In multiplication or division, the final result should be reported up to the same number of significant figures as
are present in the term with least number of significant figures.
(a) In case of multiplication:
5.1028 x 1.30 (least three significant figures)
= 6.63364 So correct answer is 6.63 (3 sig. figures)

(b) In case of division:

5.2765 ÷ 1.25 (least three sig. figures)
= 4.2212 So, correct answer is 4.22 (3 significant figures).
[Remember: In calculations exact numbers will not have any effect on the number of significant figures.
Example: Mass of one ball is 50.5 g, the mass of 2 balls is 50.5 x 2 = 101 g. (Correct answer with three sig. figures) The
no. of 2 balls is exact & is not significant in measurement. It has no uncertain digit.]
**Retention of Significant Figures - Rounding off Figures
The rounding off procedure is applied to retain the required number of significant figures.

1. If the digit coming after the desired number of significant figures happens to be more than 5, the preceding
significant figure is increased by one, 4.317 is rounded off to 4.32 (upto 2 decimal places).

2. If the digit involved is less than 5, it is neglected and the preceding significant figure remains unchanged, 4.312 is
rounded off to 4.31 (upto 2 decimal places).

3. If the digit happens to be 5, the last mentioned or preceding significant figure is increased by one only in case it
happens to be odd. In case of even figure, the preceding digit remains unchanged. 8.375 is rounded off to 8.38 while
8.365 is rounded off to 8.36.

Dimensional Analysis: During calculations generally there is a need to convert units from one system to other. This is
called factor label method or unit factor method or dimensional analysis.
For example- 5 feet and 2 inches (height of an Indian female) is to converted in SI unit.

1 inch = 2.54 x 10-2 m

then, 5 feet and 2 inch = 62 inches

Example: Convert 2.50 miles into centimetres

(1 mile = 1760 yards, 1 yard = 3 ft, 1 ft = 12 inch & 1 inch = 2.54 cm)
1760 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 3 𝑓𝑡 12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2.54 𝑐𝑚
Unit factors are 1 = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 , 1 = 1 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑 1 = 1 𝑓𝑡 and 1 = 1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
1760 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑 3 𝑓𝑡 12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2.54 𝑐𝑚
Hence 2.50 miles = 2.50 miles x 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑥 1 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑓𝑡 𝑥 1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 2.50x1760x3x12x2.54 cm
5
= 402336 cm = 4.02336 x 10 cm (Ans)

Try:
(1) The mass of precious stones is expressed by ‘carat’. What is the mass of a ring in grams which contains 0.600 carat
of diamond & 8.500 g of gold? ( 1 carat = 3.168 grains & 1 g = 15.4 grains (Ans: 8.623 g)

(2) A ball travels with a speed of 96 miles/hour. Calculate the speed of the ball in metre per second.
(1 mile = 1.60 km, 1 km = 1000 m, 1 hr = 60 min, 1 min = 60 s) Ans: 42.7 m/s)

Physical Classification of Matter

Properties Solid Liquid Gas
1. volume Definite Definite Indefinite
2. Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
3. Inter-molecular force of attraction Very high Moderate Negligible / Very low
4. arrangement of Orderly arranged Free to move Free to move everywhere
molecules within the volume
5. Inter molecular space Very small Slightly greater Very great
7. Compressibility Not compressible Not compressible Highly compressible
8. Expansion on heating Very little Very little Highly expand
9. Rigidity Very rigid Not rigid known as Not rigid and
fluid known as fluid
9. Fluidity Can’t flow Can flow Can flow
10. Diffusion They can diffuse Can diffuse And Can diffuse And
due to kinetic energy of rate of diffusion is very rate of diffusion is very
liquid/gases fast fast

Chemical Classification of matter : -

Elements: An element is the simplest form of matter that cannot be split into simpler substances or built from
simpler substances by any ordinary chemical or physical method. There are 119 elements known to us, out of which
92 are naturally occurring while the rest have been prepared artificially. These are made up of atoms of same kind.
Elements are further classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids.

Compounds: A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements combined in a definite proportion
by mass, which could be split by suitable chemical methods. These are made up of molecules.

Characteristics of compound
• Compounds always contain a definite proportion of the same elements by mass.
• The properties of compounds are totally different from the elements from which they are formed.
• Compounds are homogeneous.
• Compounds are broadly classified into inorganic and organic compounds. Inorganic compounds are those, which
are obtained from non-living sources such as minerals. For example, common salt, marble and limestone. Organic
compounds are those, which occur in living sources such as plants and animals. They all contain carbon. Common
organic compounds are oils, wax, fats, petroleum products, cellulose etc.

Mixtures: A mixture is a combination of two or more elements or compounds in any proportion so that the
components do not lose their identity. Air is an example of a mixture Mixtures are of two types: homogeneous and
heterogeneous mixtures.

Homogeneous mixtures have the same composition throughout the sample. The components of such mixtures
cannot be seen under a powerful microscope. They are also called solutions. Examples of homogeneous mixtures are
air, seawater, gasoline, brass, glucose solution etc.
Binary solution: Solvent (of larger quantity in solution) + solute (of smaller quantity in solution).
Example : Glucose solution, an aqueous solution of common salt etc

Heterogeneous mixtures consist of two or more parts (phases), which have different compositions. These
mixtures have visible boundaries of separation between the different constituents and can be seen with the naked
eye e.g., sand and salt, chalk powder in water etc.

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION:

(1) Law of Conservation of Mass: (Given by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789).
It states that matter (mass) can neither be created nor destroyed in a physical change or a chemical change.
In a chemical change, the total mass of all reactants is equal of total mass of all products.
For a chemical reaction: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Total mass of AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) = Total mass of AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Exception: The law is a failure in case of all nuclear reactions.

Numerical Problems:
(i) If 6.3 g of NaHCO3 is added to 15.0 g of CH3COOH solution, the residue is found to be 18.0 g. What mass of CO2
has released in this reaction?
Ans: NaHCO3 + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 (g)
Given mass of reactants NaHCO3 + CH3COOH = 6.3 + 15.0 = 21.3 g
Mass of product (CH3COONa + H2O) + CO2 (g) = (18.0 + x ) g
According to law of conservation of mass; 21.3 = 18.0 + x or, x = 21.3 – 18.0 Hence, x = 3.3 g (Ans)

(2) Law of Definite Proportions or Law of Constant Composition:

This law was proposed by Louis Proust in 1799, which states that:
“A chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in the same ratio by weight”,
(irrespective of the method of preparation or the source from where it is taken’).
Example: Suppose carbon dioxide is prepared by following three ways:
(i) C + O2 → CO2 (ii) 2CO + O2 → 2 CO2 & (iii) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2.
The ratio of C : O in CO2 produced by all these reactions are C : O = 12 : 2x16 = 12 : 32 = 3 : 8 (fixed)
Exception: This law is not applicable if the elements are made up of different isotopes.
Example: In case of isotopes of carbon, 12CO2 has C : O = 12 : 32 & 14CO2 has C : O = 14 : 32 , not same.)

Numerical Problem:
(i) 2.0 g of a metal burnt in oxygen gave 3.2 g of its oxide.1.42 g of same metal when heated in steam, gave 2.27 g
of its oxide. Prove the data illustrate the law of constant proportion.
Ans: In 1st oxide Metal = 2.0 g metal oxide = 3.2 g
mass of metal x 100 2.0 x 100
% metal in 1st oxide = mass of metal oxide = 3.2 = 62.5 g
In 2nd oxide, Metal = 1.42 g & metal oxide = 2.27 g
mass of metal x 100 1.42 x 100
% metal in 2nd oxide = mass of metal oxide = 2.27 = 62.5 g
i.e % of metal in metal oxide is 62.5 % (fixed) So, the above data obeys law of definite proportion.

TRY: (i) 1.375 g CuO was reduced by hydrogen to obtain 1.098 g of Cu. In another experiment, 1.178 g of Cu was
dissolved in nitric acid to form copper nitrate, which on ignition formed 1.476 g of CuO. Show that the result prove
the law of constant proportion.
(ii) Copper sulphate crystals contains 25.45 % Cu & 36.07 % H2O. If the law of definite proportion is true, calculate
the weight of Cu required to obtain 40 g of copper sulphate crystals. [Ans. 10.18 g]
(3) Ferrous sulphide contains 63.53% of iron. 4 g of iron are mixed with 2 g of sulphur & the mixture is strongly
heated, Calculate how much ferrous sulphide will be formed? [Ans. 5.484 g of FeS after the reaction]

**(4) Illustrate the law of law of definite proportion from the following data.
(i) 0.32 g of sulphur on burning in air gives 224 mL of SO2 at NTP.
(ii) A metal sulphide reacts with a mineral acid to form SO2 gas which has 50% sulphur & 50 % oxygen.
** (5) 0.36 g of a metal on ignition in air is converted inti 0.60 g of its oxide. The percentage of metal in its carbonate
is 28.57 %. Calculate the amount of oxide which can be obtained when 1.0 g of the carbonate is strongly heated in
air. [Ans. 0.4762 g]
(3) Law of Multiple Proportions (Proposed by Dalton in 1803,) this law states that: “When two elements combine to
form two or more compounds, then the different masses of one element, which combine with a fixed mass of the
other, bear a simple ratio to one another”.
Example: (i) Let carbon & oxygen forms two compounds CO and CO2.
CO has C : O = 12 : 16 and CO2 has C : O = 12 : 32. So for 12 g of carbon the ratio of oxygen in CO & CO2 is 16 : 32 = 1 :
2 which is a simple whole number ratio.
(ii) N & O forms NO, NO2, N2O, NO2, N2O5.

(Exception: This law is not applicable for different compounds formed by the isotopes of an element.)
Numerical problems:
(i) Carbon & oxygen are known to form two compounds. The carbon content in one of these compounds is 42.9%
while in the other, it is 27.3%. Show that the data are in agreement with the law of multiple proportions.
Solution:
In 1st compound, mass of carbon = 42.9 g so, mass of oxygen = 100 – 42.9 = 57.1 g
57.1
So, for 1 g of carbon, mass of oxygen = 42.9 = 1.33 g
In 2nd compound, mass of carbon = 27.3 g & mass of oxygen = 100 – 27.3 = 72.7 g
72.7
So, for 1 g of carbon, mass of oxygen = 27.3 = 2.66 g
Hence, for 1 g of carbon, ratio of oxygen in 1st & 2nd compounds is 1.33 : 2.66 = 1 : 2
This is a simple ratio, therefore, the law of multiple proportion is obeyed.

(ii) Two oxides of a metal contain 27.6% & 30% of oxygen respectively. If formula of the first oxide is M3O4, find the
formula of the second compound.
Solution:
In 1st oxide, mass of oxygen = 27.6 g & mass of metal M = 100 – 27.6 = 72.4 g
In 2nd oxide, mass of oxygen = 30 g & mass of meta M = 100 – 30 = 70 g
Let atomic weight of metal = x. Formula of 1st metal oxide = M3O4
3x 3𝑥
% M in M3O4 = 3x+4x16 x100 = 3𝑥+64 𝑥100 = 72.4 (given) Hence, x = 56
70 30 70 x 16 2
In 2nd oxide, the ratio of moles of metal (M) and oxygen(O) = 56 ∶ 16
= 30 x 56
=3 M:O=2:3
Therefore, formula of 2nd oxide = M2O3

TRY:
(a) Phosphorus and chlorine form two compounds. The first compound contains 22.54 %
by mass of phosphorus & rest chlorine while the 2nd compound contains 14.88 % by mass of phosphorus. Show that
the data obeys law of multiple proportion.

(b) Three oxides of lead on analysis were found to contain leas as (i) 3.45 g of yellow oxide contains 3.21 g of lead. (ii)
1.195 g of brown oxide contains 1.035 g of lead.
(iii) 1.77 g of red lead contains 1.61 g of lead. Show that these data illustrate law of multiple proportion.
(c) Hydrogen peroxide & water contains 5.93 % and 11.2 % of hydrogen respectively. Show that the date obeys law
of multiple proportion.
(d) Carbon combines with hydrogen to form compounds with the following compositions:

Compound % carbon % hydrogen

A 75 25
B 85.7 14.3
C 92.3 7.7
Show that the data illustrate the law of multiple proportion.

(e) Two oxides of a certain metal were separately heated in a current of hydrogen until a constant weights are
obtained. The water produced in each case was carefully collected & weighed. It was observed that 1 g of each
metal oxide gave 0.1254 g & 0.2263 g of water respectively. Show that the data illustrate the law of multiple
proportion.
(f) Two elements A & B combine together to form three different compounds. The % of B in the compounds are 25.0,
14.28, & 7.69 respectively. Show that the results agree with the law of multiple proportions.

Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes: (Proposed by Gay Lussac in 1808.)

According to this law when gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in a simple whole
number ratio by volume provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure.
e.g. H2(g) + Cl2(g) ---→2HCl(g)
1 Vol 1 Vol 2 Vol
All reactants and products have simple ratio 1:1:2 by volume under similar conditions of temperature & pressure.
Example: N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
So, 20 mL of N2 reacts with 60 mL of H2 to form 40 mL of NH3 under same temperature & pressure.
The ratio of volumes of N2, H2 & NH3 are in ratio 20 : 60 : 40 = 1 :3 : 2.
Also hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form ater in the ratio 2 : 1 : 2 as shown below:-

Avogadro Law: (In 1811, Given by Avogadro)

According to this law equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure should contain equal number of
molecules.
i.e. V α n (no. of moles of gases) at constant temperature & pressure.

Application of Avogadro’s law:

(i) Determination of atomicity of elementary gases.
(ii) Relationship between molecular mass & vapour density of a gas.
(iii) Determine th e mol. Formula of a gas from its volumetric composition.
(iv) Determination of atomic mass of an element or gaseous or volatile substance.
(v) To prove that the gram molecular volume of a gas at NTP is 22.4 litres.

Relationship between vapour density & molar mass of a gas.

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐚𝐬
Vapour density of a gas (v.d.) = 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 = 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐚𝐬

= 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧
= 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧

𝟏 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬

= =
𝟐 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝟐
Molar mass = 2 x v.d. of a gas
Example : If vapour density of carbon dioxide is 22, its molecular mass = 2 x 22 = 44 u

Relationship between mass and volume of a gas at S.T.P :

( S.T.P. → Standard temperature = 273.15K & standard pressure = 1 atm)
We know, molar mass = 2 x v.d. of a gas
 Mass of certain volume of a gas at STP Mass of certain volume of a gas
=2x Mass of same volume of hydrogen at STP
= 2 x Mass of same volume of hydrogen

Mass of 1 L of a gas a STP

= 2 x Mass of 1 L of hydrogen at STP

But, mass of 1 L of hydrogen at STP is 0.089 g

Mass of 1 L of a gas at STP 2
Hence Molar mass = 2 x 0.089
= 0.089 x mass of 1L of a gas at STP
= 22.4 x mass of 1 L of a gas at STP
= Mass of 22.4 L of a gas at STP
So, 22.4 L of any gas at STP weigh equal to molar mass of gas in gram. This is called molar volume or gram molecular
volume. (1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 L volume at S.T.P.)

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Postulates:
1) All substances are made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms of the same elements are identical in
shape, size, mass and other properties.
2) Atoms of different elements are different in all respects.
3) Atom is the smallest unit that takes part in chemical combinations.
4) Atoms combine with each other in simple whole number ratios to form compound atoms called molecules.
5) Atoms cannot be created, divided or destroyed during any chemical or physical change.
Limitations of Dalton’s atomic theory
(i) The theory could not explain the chemical combinations of gaseous volumes.
(ii) it could not explain why atoms of different elements have different masses, size, valencies, reactivities etc.
(iii) It could not explain the nature of forces that binds the atoms together to form a molecule.
(iv) It is observed that atoms are not indivisible rather, they can be further subdivided into electrons, protons,
neutrons etc.
(v) Due to the presence of isotopes of an element, same compound may have different masses.

Atoms and Molecules: The smallest particle of an element, which may or may not have independent
existence is called an atom, while the smallest particle of a substance which is capable of independent existence is
called a molecule. Atoms take part in a chemical reaction, molecules do not.

Molecules are classified as homoatomic and heteroatomic.

Homoatomic molecules are made up of the atoms of the same element e.g. H2, O2, N2 etc and heteroatomic
molecules are made up of the atoms of the different element have different atomicity (number of atoms in a
molecule of an element) like monoatomic, diatomic, triatomic and polyatomic. e.g. NO, CO2, CH4, H2SO4 etc.

Atomicity is the number of atoms present in one molecule of a substance.

Atomicity Element Compound
1 Monoatomic He, Ne Ar etc -
2 Diatomic H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2 etc CO, NO etc
3 Triatomic O3 (Ozone) CO2, SO2, H2O, NO2 etc
4 Tetratomic P4 (Phosphorus) SO3, C2H2 etc
5 Pentatomic - Al2O3, HNO3 etc
6 Hexatomic S6 N2O4, C2H4 etc.
8 Octatomic S8 H3PO4 etc
Atomic Mass Unit : One atomic mass unit (or unified mass) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelfth the
mass of one carbon -12 atom. And 1 amu = 1.66056 × 10–24 g.
Nowadays, ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.

Atomic Mass: Atomic mass of an element is defined as the average relative mass of an atom of an element as
compared to the one twelfth mass of an atom of carbon 12 isotope taken as 12 u.
mass of an atom of an element
Atomic mass = 1
mass of a carbon atom of C 12 isotope
12

Gram Atomic Mass (amu) or unified mass (u)

The quantity of an element whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its atomic mass. In simple terms, atomic
mass of an element expressed in grams is the gram atomic mass or gram atom. For example, the atomic mass of
oxygen = 16 amu Therefore gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16 g
So, one atom of oxygen weighs 16 amu or 1 u & 1 mole or 6.022 x 10 23 atoms of oxygen weigh 16 g

Molecular Mass: Molecular mass of a substance is defined as the average relative mass of its molecule as compared
to the one twelfth mass of an atom of C-12 taken as 12 u. It expresses as to how many times the molecule of a
substance is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon 12 isotope.
For example,
CO2 = 12 + 2 x 16 = 44 u . So, a molecule of carbon dioxide is 44 times heavier than 1/12th of the mass of an atom of
carbon 12 isotope. Therefore, the molecular mass of CO2 is 44 amu.
It is obtained by adding the atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule.

Gram Molecular Mass: A quantity of substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular mass is
called gram molecular mass. In simple terms, molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called gram
molecular mass or gram mole.
e.g., the molecular mass of oxygen O2) = 2 x 16 = 32 amu, So, gram molecular mass (or gram mole) of oxygen = 32 g

Formula Mass is defined as the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in one formula unit of an ionic
compound. Example: For NaCl crystal, formula mass is 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 amu (or 58.5 u)

Mole Concept: Mole is defined as the amount of a substance, which contains the same number of chemical units
(atoms, molecules, ions or electrons) as number of atoms present in exactly 12 grams of pure carbon-12.
A mole represents a collection of 6.022 x1023 ( Avogadro’s number) chemical units.
The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its g molar mass.

Molar Volume: The volume occupied by one mole of any substance is called its molar volume. It is denoted by Vm.
One mole of all gaseous substances at 273 K and 1 atm pressure occupies a volume equal to 22.4 litre or 22,400 mL.
The unit of molar volume is litre per mol or millilitre per mol (Lmol-1 or mL mol-1)
Example: 1 mole of CO2 = 44 g of CO2 = 6.022 x 1023 CO2 molecules = 22.4 L volume of CO2 at STP

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐠 𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐋 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐓𝐏

REMEMBER: No. of moles (n) = 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 (𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭) 𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐥.𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 (𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝) = 𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
= 𝟐𝟐.𝟒 𝐋 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐓𝐏
Numerical problems:
(1) Calculate the mass of (i) an atom of sodium (ii) one molecule of glucose. (Na=23, C=12, H=1, O=16 u)
Solution: (i) Mass of NA no. of Na atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms of Na is 23 g
23
Mass of 1 atom of Na = 6.022 x 1023 = 3.81 𝑥 10−23 𝑔
(ii) Molar mass of glucose C6H12O6 = 6 x12 + 12x1 + 6x16 = 180 g
Mass of NA no. of glucose molecules = 6.022 x 1023 molecules of glucose weigh 180 g
180
Mass of 1 molecule of glucose = 6.022 𝑥 1023 = 29.89 𝑥 10−23 𝑔

(2) Calculate the number of molecules & number of atoms in 11.2 L of dioxygen (O2) at NTP.
Solution:
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐋 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐓𝐏
We know, No. of moles = 𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐.𝟒 𝐋 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐓𝐏
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐋 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐓𝐏 𝐱 𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝟏𝟏.𝟐 𝐱 𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
So, No. of O2 particles (molecules ) = 𝟐𝟐.𝟒 𝐋 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐓𝐏
= 𝟐𝟐.𝟒
= 3.011 x 1023
No. of oxygen atoms (O) = 2 x 3.011 x 1023 = 6.022 x 1023 (Ans)
(3) The mass of 94.5 mL of a gas ‘X’ at STP is 0.2231 g. Calculate the molecular mass of the gas ‘X’.
Mass of a substance in g Volume of gas in mL at STP
Solution: No. of moles (n) = molecular .mass (compound) = 224oo mL at STP
22400 mL x Mass of a substance in g 22.4 x 0.2231
Therefore, molecular mass of compound = Volume of gas in L at STP
= 94.5
= 52.9 u (Ans)
(4) Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following: (i) 52 mol of He (ii) 52 u of He (iii) 52 g of He.
Solution: Atomic mass of He = 4 u
(i) No. of He atoms in 52 mole of He = 52 x 6.022 x 1023 = 3.13 x 1025 atoms
52
(ii) No. of He atoms in 52 u of He = = 13 atoms
4
52 𝑥 6.022 𝑥 1023
(iii) No. of He atoms in 52 g of He = = 13 x 6.022 x 1023 = 78.286 x 1023 atoms (Ans)
4

TRY: (1) Calculate the number of moles in the following: (i) 7.85 g of Fe (At. mass = 56) (ii) 65.6 microgram of carbon
(At. mass = 12 u) [Ans: (i) 0.141 mol (ii) 5.47 x 10—6 mol ]
(2) Calculate the number of atoms of each type in 5.3 g of Na2CO3 (At. masses : Na = 23, C=12, O=16 u)
[Ans: Na = 6.022 x 1023 atoms, C = 3.011 x 1023 atoms, O = 9.033 x 1023 ]

(3) Chlorophyll, the green pigments of plant contains 2.68% of magnesium by weight. Calculate the number of
magnesium atoms in 2.00 g of chlorophyll (ai. Mass of Mg = 24 u) [Ans. 1.3 x 1021 atoms]
(4) Calculate (i) the actual volume of one molecule of water. (ii) the radius of a water molecule assuming it to be
spherical ( density of water = 1 g/mL) [Ans. (i) 2.29 x 10-23 mL (ii) 1.925 x 10-8 cm = 1.925Å ]
(5) one million of silver atoms weighs1.79 x 10-16 g. Calculate the atomic mass of silver. [Ans. 107.8 u]
(6) How many molecules of CO2 are present in one litre of air containing 0.03% by volume of CO2 at STP?
[Ans.8.07 x 1018 molecules]
(7) How many litres of liquid carbon tetrachloride (d=1.5g/mL) must be measured out to contain 1025 Cl atoms?
[Ans. 0.426 litres]

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION :
The mass percentage of each constituent element present in any compound is called its percentage composition
Total mass of all atoms of an element in a molecule x 100 Total masses of the element x 100
Mass % of the element= Total mass of one molecule of a compound
= Total mass of compound

Example: (1) Find the % Fe & % O in Fe2O3 molecule. (Atomic masses: Fe = 56 u & O = 16 u)
Solution: Mol. Mass of Fe2O3 = 2 x 56 + 3 x 16 = 160 u
Total mass of of Fe in compound x 100 2 x 56 x 100
% Fe = Mass of compound Fe2 O3
= 160
= 70% (Ans)
% O = 100 - % Fe = 100 – 70 = 30% (Ans)
TRY: When 1.615 g of anhydrous ZnSO4 is left for a few days, the weight of salt increases to 2.875 g. What is the
molecular formula of hydrated salt? ( At. masses: Zn = 65, S = 32, O=16, H=1u) [Ans. ZnSO4.7H2O]

Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula—

An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present in a compound. E.g. CH is
the empirical formula of benzene C6H6 where ratio of C : H = 6 : 6 = 1 : 1
The molecular formula shows the exact number of different types of atoms present in a molecule of a compound.
E.g. C6H6 is the molecular formula of benzene. Its one molecule contains 6 atoms of carbon & 6 atoms of hydrogen.
Relationship between empirical and molecular formulae:
The two formulas are related as Molecular formula = n x empirical formula
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
where n = 𝐄𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬

Numerical problem: Steps:

Element → % composition or mass in g → moles → no. of moles → molar ratio → simplest whole no. ratio

Numerical Problems:
(1) An organic compound had % composition as C = 57.8%, H = 3.6% and rest oxygen.
The vapour density of the compound is 83. Find out the molecular formula of the compound.
Solution:
Calculation of empirical formula:
Element % composition expresses in g At. mass Moles of atoms Molar ratio Simplest whole
number ratio
C 57.8 g 12 𝟓𝟕.𝟖 𝟒.𝟖𝟐 2x2=4
= 4.82 =2
𝟏𝟐 𝟐.𝟒𝟏
𝟑.𝟔 𝟑.𝟔
H 3.6 g 1 = 3.6 = 1.49 ≈ 1.5 2 x 1.5 = 3
𝟏 𝟐.𝟒𝟏
𝟑𝟖.𝟔 𝟐.𝟒𝟏
O 100 – (57.8+3.6) = 38.6 g 16 = 2.41 =1 2x1=2
𝟏𝟔 𝟐.𝟒𝟏
Therefore, the ratio of C : H : O = 4 : 3 : 2. Empirical formula = C4H3O2
Calculation of molecular formula:
Empirical formula mass = 4x12 + 1x3 + 2x16 = 83 u
Molecular mass = 2 x (vapour density) = 2 x 83 = 166 u
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 166
Hence n = 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 83 = 2
Molecular formula = n x empirical formula = 2 x C4H3O2 = C8H6O4 (Ans.)

(2) (a) Butyric acid contains only C, H & O. A 4.24 mg sample of butyric acid completely burnt. It gives 8.45 mg of
CO2 & 3.46 mg of water. What is the mass % of each element in acid? (b) The molecular mass of butyric acid was
determined by experiment to be 88 u. What is the molecular formula?
Solution:
Mol. Mass of CO2 = 12 + 2 x 16 = 44 u & mol. Mass of H2O = 2x1 + 16 = 18 u
12 x Mass of C 12 x 8.45 x 100
%C= x100 = = 54.3%
44 x Mass of CO2 44 x 4.24
2 x mass of H x 100 2 x 3.46 x 100
%H = 18 x mass of H2O = 18 x 4.24 = 9.0 %
% O = 100 – (% C + % H) = 100 – ( 54.3 + 9.0) = 36.7 %
Calculation of Empirical formula:
Element % composition expresses in g At. mass Moles of atoms Molar ratio Simplest whole
number ratio
54.3 4.52
C 54.3 g 12 = 4.52 = 1.97 ≈ 2 2
12 2.29
9.0 9.0
H 9.0 g 1 = 9.0 = 3.9 ≈ 4 4
1 2.29
36.7 2.29
O 36.7 g 16 = 2.29 =1 1
16 2.29
Ratio of C : H : O = 2 : 4 : 1 So, empirical formula = C2H4O

Calculation of molecular formula: Empirical formula mass = 2 x12 + 1 x 1 + 16 = 44 u & molecular mass = 88 u
Molecular mass 88
n= = = 2 Hence, molecular formula = n x empirical formula = 2 x C2H4O = C4H8O2 (Ans)
Empirical formula mass 44

TRY: (1) Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron having 69.9% Fe & 30.1% O by mass. (Atomic mass of Fe
= 56 u & O = 16 u) [Ans Fe2O3]
(2) A compound containing 4.07% H, 24.27% C & 71.65% Cl. If molecular mass of compound is 98.96 u. Calculate the
molecular formula of the compound. (At. masses H = 1u, C=12u & Cl=35.5u] [Ans.C2H4Cl2]
(3) A compound on analysis gave the following % composition: Na = 14.31%, S = 9.97%, H = 6.22 % & O = 69.5%.
Calculate the molecular formula of the compound on the assumption that all the hydrogens in the compound are
present in combination with oxygen as water of crystallisation. The molecular mass of the compound 322 u. (At.
masses: Na = 23u, S = 32, H = 1, O = 16 u) [Molecular formula = Na2SO4.10H2O]
(4) A welding fuel gas contains carbon & hydrogen only. Burning a small sample of it in excess oxygen, 3.38 g of CO2,
0.690 g of water and no other products. A volume of 10.0 L at STP of the welding gas is found to weigh 11.6 g.
Calculate (1) empirical formula (ii) molecular mass of the gas (iii) molecular formula of the gas.
[Ans.(i) CH (ii) Mol. Mass = 26 g/mol (ii) C2H2]
(5) Determine the empirical formula of a compound having % compositions: Fe = 20 %, S = 11.5 %, O = 23 % and
water = 45.4%. ( At. masses: Fe = 56u, S = 32g O = 16u, H = 1 u)

Chemical reactions: Reactants → Products

Chemical Equation-
Shorthand representation of a chemical change in terms of symbols and formulae of the substances involved in the
reaction is called chemical equation.
The substances that react among themselves to bring about the chemical changes are known as reactants, whereas
the substances that are produced as a result of the chemical change, are known as products.

Stoichiometric equations means balanced chemical equations where states of reactants & products are mentioned.
For solid→ (s), liquid → (l) gas→ (g) aqueous solution → (aq)
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Example: 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
[A chemical equation relative no. of moles of reactants & products, relative masses of reactants & products &
relative volumes of gaseous reactants & products. But a chemical equation does not give the physical state of
reactants & products, their concentrations, heat changes involving in the reaction, the speed of reaction, reversible
or irreversible reaction or the reaction is spontaneous or not.]

Stoichiometric calculations: The numerical problems are based on the relationship among moles, mass, volumes,
concentrations, no. of particles. Example: nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia gas.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
No. of moles → 1 mole 3 moles 2 moles
Mass in grams → 2x14=28g 3x2=6g 2(14+3x1)=34g
Volume of gases at NTP → 22.4L 3x22.4L 2x22.4L
No. of particles in terms of NA → NA 3xNA 2x NA
So, 1 mole of N2 combines with 3 moles or 6 g of H2 or 3 x 6.022x1023 H2 molecules or 3x22.4L H2 at NTP.
Similarly, say 28 g of N2(g) forms 2 moles or 34 g or 2 x 22.4L at NTP or 2 x 6.022x1023 molecules of NH3(g).
Numerical problems: (Mass – mass relation)
(1) Calculate the amount of water produces from 3.2 g of methane on combustion. ( C=12, H=1, O=16)
Solution: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
No. of moles 1 mole 2 moles
Mass in g (12+4x1) = 16 g 2(2x1+16) = 36 g
From the chemical equation: 16 g of methane produces 36 g of H2O
36 x 3.2
3.2 g of methane produces 16 = 7.2 g of H2O (Ans)
Mole – mass & mole volume relation)
(2) What mass of calcium oxide & volumes of CO2 at NTP are formed by 0.5 mole of calcium carbonate.
(At. masses Ca=40, C =12, O=16u)
Solution: CaCO3(s) → CaO (s) + CO2(g)
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole = 22.4L at NTP
= 40+16 = 56 g
From the chemical equation: 1 mole of CaCO3 gives 56 g of CaO
0.5 moles of CaCO3 give 56 x 0.5 = 28 g CaO (Ans.)
1 mole of CaCO3 gives 22.4L of CO2(g)
0.5 mole of CaCO3 give 22.4 x 0.5 = 11.2 L of CO2 at NTP (Ans.)
(3) What mass of zinc would be required to produce enough hydrogen to reduce completely 8.5 g of copper oxide
to copper ? (At. masses: Cu = 63.5, O = 16, Zn = 65u)
Solution: CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
1 mol 1 mol
63.5 + 16 = 79.5g 2g
79.5 g of CuO is reduced by 2 g of H2
2 x 8.5
8.5g of CuO is reduced by = 0.214 g H2
79.5
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
1 mol = 65 g 1 mol = 2 g
2 g of H2 is produced by 65 g of Zn
65 x 0.214
0.214 g of H2 is produced by 2
= 6.955 g of Zn (Ans.)
OR (i) CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
1 mol 1 mol
(ii) Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
1 mol = 65 g
1 mol of CuO ≡ 1 mol of H2 ≡ I mol of Zn [Molar mass of CuO= 63.5 + 16 = 79.5 g ]
So, 79.5 g CuO ≡ 65 g of Zn
65 x 8.5
8.5 g of CuO ≡ = 6.95 g of Zn (Ans.)
79.5
(4) A 2.0 g of a sample of Na2CO3 & NaHCO3 loses 0.248 g when heated to 300℃, the temperature at which
NaHCO3 decomposes to Na2CO3, CO2 & water. What is the percentage of Na2CO3 in the mixture?
∆
Solution: 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
2(23+1+12+3x16) = 168 g 18 g 44g
The loss of weight is due to CO2 & H2O escape out. ie. 168 g NaHCO3 looses 44 + 18 = 62 g due to CO2 +H2O
The loss of weight is 62 g when NaHCO3 is 168 g
168 x 0.248
The loss of weight is 0.248 g when NaHCO3 is 62
= 0.672 g
2.0 g of mixture contains 0.672 g NaHCO3. Hence Na2CO3 = 2.0 – 0.672 g = 1.328 g
1.328 x 100
Percentage of Na2CO3 = 2.0
= 66.4 % (Ans)
TRY:
(1) Calculate the amount of KClO3 needed to supply sufficient oxygen for burning 112.0 L CO gas at NTP.
( At. mass : K = 39, Cl = 35.5 O = 16 u ) [Ans, 204.167 g]
(2) 5.6 L of methane at NTP is ignited in oxygen. Calculate the no, of moles of CO2 formed. {Ans.0.25 mol]
(3) Calculate the % yield of the reaction if 64 g of NaBH4 with iodine produced 15.0 g of BI3 according to equation:
NaBH4 + 4I2 → BI3 + NaI + 4HI (At. masses: Na = 23, I = 127, B = 10.8 u) [Ans. 2.27%]

Limiting Reagent- The reactant which gets consumed first or limits the amount of product formed is known
as limiting reagent. A limiting reagent is the reactant which is totally consumed in the course of a chemical reaction.
The reactant which remains unreacted after the chemical reaction is called excess reagent.
Example: N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g).
If 2 mole of N2 is allowed to react with 3 mole of H2, all the 3 moles of H2 will react. ( 1 mole of N2 will react with 3
moles of H2 according to the chemical equation).
So, H2 is the limiting reagent & 1 mole N2 is the excess reagent.

Numerical problems: (1) 50.0 kg of N2(g) & 10.0 kg of H2(g) are mixed to react to produce NH3(g). Calculate the
NH3(g) formed. (ii) Identify the limiting reagent.
Solution: N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
1 mol = 28g 3 mol = 6 g 2 mol = 34 g
28 g of N2 reacts with 6 g of H2
6 g x 50 kg
50 kg of N2 will react with 28 g
= 10.71 kg of H2. But H2(g) given is 10 kg which is less than the required mass
of H2(g) = 10.71 kg. Hence H2(g) is the limiting reagent.
Again, 6 g of H2(g) forms 34 g of NH3(g)
34 g x 10 kg
10 kg of H2(g) forms 6g
= 56.66 kg of NH3(g) [Ans]

(2) If 20.0 g of CaCO3 is treated with 20.0 g of HCl, what mass of CO2 can be produced according to the reaction:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
(At. masses Ca=40, C= 12, O = 16, H=1, Cl = 35.5u)
Solution: CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
(40+12+3x16) =100g 2(1+35.5) = 73 g 44 g
According to the above equation: 100 g of CaCO3 reacts with 73 g of HCl
73 x 20
20 g of CaCO3 combines with 100 = 14.6 g of HCl.
Here required HCl (14.6 g) is less than the given amount of HCl (20 g) So, CaCO3 is the limiting reagent.
Again, 100 g of CaCO3 reacts with HCl to form 44 g of CO2
44 x 20
20 g of CaCO3 forms = 8.80 g of CO2. (Ans.)
100

**(3) A mixture of FeO & Fe3O4 is heated in air to a constant mass gains 5% by mass. Calculate the composition of
the mixture (Atomic mass if Fe = 55.8 u)
Solution: The chemical equations are (i) 2 FeO + ½ O2 → Fe2O3
2(55.8 + 16) =143.6 2x55.8 + 3x16 = 159.6
(ii) 2Fe3O4 + ½ O2 → 3Fe2O3
2(3x55.8 + 4x16) = 462.8 3x159.6 = 478.8
Let the weight of the mixture = 100 g, Weight of FeO = x g & weight of Fe3O4 = (100 – x) g
159.6 x
From eqn (i), x g of FeO will produce Fe2O3 = 143.6 g
478.8 (100−x)
From eqn (ii) (100 – x) g Fe3O4 will produce Fe2O3 = 462.8
g
Gain in weight of mixture is 5% = 105 g
159.6 x 478.8 (100−x)
Hence + = 105
143.6 462.8
On solving, x = 19.92 g = mass of FeO & mass of Fe3O4 = 100 – 19.92 = 80.08 g
19.92 x 100
Therefore mass & FeO = 100 = 19.92% & mass % of Fe3O4 = 100 – 19.92 = 80.08 % [Ans.]
TRY:
(1) In a reaction, 2A + 4 B + → 3 C + 4D, when 5 moles of A react with 6 moles of B, then (a) which is the limiting
reagent? (b) calculate the amount of C formed. [Ans. (a) Limiting reagent is B (b) 4.5 mol of C]
(2) 3.0 g of H2 reacts with 29.0 g of O2 to yield H2O. (i) Which is the limiting reagent? (ii) Calculate the maximum
amount of water formed. (iii) Calculate the amount of reactant which remains unreacted after the reaction. [Ans. (i)
H2 is the limiting reagent (ii) H2O formed = 1.5 mol (iii) Unreacted O2 = 0.156 mol]

Reactions in Solutions: A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components. A binary solution
contains two components: solvent has more amount(mss, mole, volume & solute has less amount.
Binary solution = Solvent (A) + Solute (B)
The amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution is expressed in terms of concentration of
solution. The concentration of a solution can be expressed in any of the following ways.

1. Mass Percent (or % by mass or W/W%) is the mass of the solute in grams (or kg) per 100 grams (or kg) of the
Mass of the solute
solution. Mass % of the solute = Mass of solution x 100
Example : A 5 % solution of sodium chloride by mass means that 5 g of NaCl is present in 100g of the solution
& water = 100-5 = 95 g.
 𝑤𝐵
If wA g of solvent dissolves wB g of solute, % by mass = 𝑤 𝑥100. It has no unit, it is dimensionless.
𝐴 +𝑤𝐵
TRY: Calculate the mass % of solution formed by mixing 80 g of NaOH in 420 g of water. [Ans. 16% by mass]

2. Volume percent (or % by volume or v/v %) is the number of units of volume of the solute per 100 units of the
volume of solution. (No. of units of volume may be expressed in terms of mL, L, dm3 or m3 etc.
Volume of the solute
Volume % of the solute = Volume of solution x 100 It has no unit, it is dimensionless.
Example: A 10 % (v/v) solution of ethyl alcohol contains 10 cm3 of alcohol in 100 cm3 of the solution.
& Water = 100 - 10 = 90 cm3.

3. Mass by volume % (or w/v %) is defined as the mass of solute in g (or kg) in 100 mL (or L) of solution.
5% glucose solution means 5% w/v solution → 100 mL solution contains 5 g glucose.

4. Parts per million (ppm) : It can be expressed in terms of ppm by mass (w/w) or ppm by volume (v/v).

Ppm by mass (or ppm w/w) of a solution means mass of solute in g (or kg) in 106 g (or kg) of solution.
.
Ppm by volume or (ppm v/v) of a solution means volume of solute in mL (or L) in 106 mL (or L) of solution.

Example: Sea water contains 20 ppm by volume of chloroform means 106 L sea water contains 20 L of CHCl3.
It has no unit i.e. it is a dimensionless quantity.
It is a smaller unit to express when solute is present in traces quantity.
Mass of solute in g
Ppm by mass of solute = Mass of solution in g x 106
(The concentration of atmospheric pollutants are generally expressed in terms of mg / mL)

5. Molarity (M) of the solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre (dm3) of the solution.
It is denoted by the symbol M.
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐧𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐧
Molarity of the solution (M) = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞
= 𝐕𝐋
= 𝐕𝐁 (Unit of molarity is mol L-1)
𝐋
Hence, no. of moles of solute nsolute = M x VL.
wB
The Molarity of the solution can also be expressed in terms of mass and molar mass: M= mol/ L
mB VL
( wB is the mass of solute (B) in g, mB is the molar mass of solute (B) & VL is the volume of solution in L)
Molarity can change with the increase or decrease in temperature (T) because solutions expand or contract
accordingly. So, M is temperature dependent.
1
Mathematically, VL α T & M α V So, With the increase in temperature Molarity (M) decreases.
L
(a) On dilution (water is added). Volume of solution increases, molarity of solution decreases but no. of moles of
solute in solution remains same. Let V2 L of water is added in V1 L of M1 solution of any solute.
No. of moles of solute nB = molarity x volume of solution in litre & volume of diluted solution =(V1 + V2)L
No. of moles of solute before dilution nB = M1.V1
No. of moles of solute after dilution nB = Mx (V1 + V2) where Mx is the molarity of diluted solution.
M V
Hence, M1V1 = Mx (V1 + V2) or Mx = V 1+V1 (Remember: Volume of solution may be in L of mL in this eqn)
1 2
TRY: 200 mL of water is added in 800 mL of 0.32 M NaOH solution Find the molar concentration of diluted solution.
[Ans. 0.256 M]
(b) Mixing a solutions of different concentrations of different volumes of same solute.
Let V1 L of M1 solution is mixed with V2 L of M2 solution, the molarity of the resulting solution is Mx.
[In this case volume of solutions & no. of moles of solutes are added. Molarity of resulting solution lies between M 1
& M2] Total volume of solution = V1 + V2.
No. of moles of 1st solution n1 = M1.V1
No. of moles of 2nd solution n2 = M2.V2
Total no. of moles of solution after mixing, ntotal = M1.V1 + M2.V2.
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
Molarity of resulting solution Mx = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐋
𝐌𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐌𝟐 𝐕𝟐
Mx = 𝐕𝟏 +𝐕𝟐
(Remember: Volume of solution may be in L of mL in this eqn)

TRY: Find the molarity of resulting solution formed by mixing 200 mL of 0.5 M HCl solution with 300 mL of 0.2 M HCl
solution. [Ans. 0.32M]
(C) For a chemical reaction:
aA + bB → cC + dD
No. of moles → a mol b mol c mol d mol
Volume in mL or L (V) → VA VB
Molarity (M mol/L) → MA MB
No. of moles (n) =MV → nA = MA.VA nB = MB.VB
No.of moles of A nA MA .VA a
Hence, No.of moles of B
= nB
= MB .VB
= b
TRY: What volume of 0.5 M Al(OH)3 solution reacts completely with 300 mL of 0.4 M of H2SO4 solution according to
the following equation: 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O; [Ans. 160mL of Al(OH)3)

4. Molality : (m) Molality of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per 1000 g (1 kg) of
solvent. Molality is expressed as ’m’. Its unit is mol/kg.
Molality is temperature independent as it involves mass of solute of in kg. (Mass is an intrinsic property of a matter).
No.of moles of solute
Molality (m) = Mass of solvent in kg
w
Let wA g of solvent dissolves wB g of solute of molar mass mB. No. of moles of solute nB = mB
B
wB .1000
So, molality (m) = wA mB
.

(1) Relationship between molality of a solution (m) & mole fraction of solute in aqueous solution (𝛘𝐁 )
Let the molality of solution be m mol/L
So, 1 kg or 1000 g of water dissolves m moles of solute (B)
1000
No. of moles of solvent (water) = nA = 18 = 55.55 & no. of moles of solute nB = m (given)
nB 𝒎
Hence mole fraction of solute χB = or, 𝝌𝑩 =
nA +nB 𝟓𝟓.𝟓𝟓+𝒎
𝑚
If a solution is dilute, concentration is very low, < 5% . 55.55 >> m or χB = or, m = 55.55 . 𝛘𝐁
55.55

Some numerical problems as examples:

(1) 2.40 g of NaOH (Molar mass = 40g/mol) is dissolved in water to make the volume of 100cm 3. Calculate the molarity of
solution.
2.4
Solution: Mass of NaOH = 2.40 g, Molar mass = 40 g/mol, No. of moles of NaOH = = 0.06
40
100
& Volume of solution in L = L = 0.1 L
1000
No.of moles of NaOH 0.06 mol
Molarity (M) = = = 0.60 mol/L (Ans)
Volume of solution in L 0.1 L

(2) NaOH solution is 10 % by mass having density 1.2 g/mL. Calculate (i) mole fraction of NaOH in solution (ii) molality (m) of
solution (iii) molarity of solution. (Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol)
Solution: 10% NaOH solution by mass means 100 mL solution contains 10 g of NaOH
Therefore, mass of water = 100 – 10 = 90 g
10 90
No. of moles of NaOH (nNaOH) = = 0.25 mol ; No. of moles of water (nwater) = = 5 mol
40 18
nNaOH 0.25 25 1
(i) Mole fraction of NaOH = χNaOH = = 5+0.25 = 525 = 21 = 0.0476 (Ans.)
nwater + nNaOH
w .1000 10 x 1000
(ii) Molality (m) = NaOH = = 2.77 mol/kg (Ans.)
wwater mNaOH 90 x 40
mass of solution in mL 100 100 1
(iii) Mass of solution = 100 g, Volume of solution = density of solution in g/mL = 1.2 mL= 1.2 x 1000 L= 12
L
No.of moles of sulute 0.25
Therefore, molarity of solution (M) =
Volume of solution in litre
= 1 = 3 mol/L (Ans.)
12
(3) If the density of methanol (molar mass = 32 g/mol) is 0.793 kg/L , what is the volume of methanol needed to
make 2.5 L of its 0.25 M solution?
Solution: No. of moles of CH3OH = M x VL = 0.25 x 2.5 = 0.625 mol
Mass in g of CH3OH = no. of moles x molar mass = 0.625 x 32 = 20 g (Molar mass of CH3OH = 32 g/mol)
mass in kg 20 x 10−3 kg 20 x 10−3 L
Volume of CH3OH in L = = = = 25.22 x 10-3 L
dendity in kg/L 0.793 kg/L 0.793
Volume of CH3OH in mL = 25.22 x 10-3 x 103 mL = 25.22 mL [Ans.]

(4) The density of 3M solution of NaCl (molar mass = 58.5 g/mol) is 1.25 g/mL. Calculate the molality of solution.
Solution: 3M solution means 1 L or 1000 mL solution has 3 moles or 3 x 58.5 g = 175.5 g of NaCl crystal.
Density of solution = 1.25 g/mL, So Mass of 1000 mL solution = 1000 x 1.25 = 1250 g
Mass of water in solution = 1250 – 175.5 = 1074.5 g = 1.0745 kg
 no.of moles of NaCl 3 mol
Molality of solution (m) = Mass of water in kg = 1.0745 kg = 2.79 mol/kg [Ans.]

(5) What volume of 0.250 M HCl solution ir required to react completely with 22.6 g of sodium carbonate (molar
mass = 106g/mol) according to the reaction: Na2CO3(s) + 2 HCl (aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)?
Solution:
22.6
Given: molarity of HCl = MA = 0.250M, moles of Na2CO3 = 106 = 0.213 mol
Let the volume of required HCl solution = VHCl = ?
No. of moles of HCl = M x VL = 0.25 x VHCl
n 0.25 x V 2 2 x 0.213
From the equation: n HCl = 0.213HCl = 1 or, VHCl = 0.25 = 1.704 L = 1.704 x 1000 mL = 1704 mL [Ans]
Na2 CO3
(6) Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HCl to give CaCl2, H2O & CO2 according to the equation:
CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g). What mass of CaCl2 will be formed when 250 mL of 0.76
M HCl reacts with 1000 g of CaCO3? Identify the limiting reagent. Calculate the no. of moles of CaCl2 formed in the
reaction? Molar mass of CaCO3 = 100g/mol, CaCl2 = 111g/mol)
Solution:
mass in g 1000
No. of moles of CaCO3 = = = 10 moles
molar mass 100
No. of moles of HCl = M x VL = 0.76 x 250 x 10-3 = 0.19 mol
CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) :
According to the equation, 1mol of CaCO3 reacts with 2 moles of HCl.
So, 10 mol of CaCO3 should react with 2 x 10 = 20 mol of HCl.
But only 0.19 mol of HCl is given, (which is less than the required moles of HCl = 20 moles)
Hence, HCl is the limiting reagent (Ans)
Again, 2 mol of HCl forms 1 mol of CaCl2
1 x 0.19
0.19 mol of HCl forms 2 = 0.095 mol (Ans.)
Mass in g of CaCl2 formed = 0.095 x 111 = 10.54 g (Ans.)
(7) 10 g of a mixture of carbonates of calcium & magnesium gave 240 mL of CO2 at NTP. Calculate the percentage
composition of the mixture. (Molar mass of CaCO3 = 100, MgCO3 = 84 g/mol)
Solution:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
1 mol = 100 g 22400 mL at NTP
MgCO3 → MgO + CO2
1 mol = 84 g 22400 mL at NTP
Let mass of CaCO3 in the mixture be x g, so, mass of MgCO3 = (1 – x) g
22400 x
Volume of CO2 formed by x g of CaCO3 = 100 = 224 x mL
22400 (1−x)
Similarly mass of CO2 formed by (1 – x) g of MgCO3 = 84
mL
Total CO2 produced = 240 mL (given)
22400 (1−x)
Hence 224 x + 84
= 240 On calculation x = 0.625 g of CaCO3.
0.625 x 100
Therefore % CaCO3 = 1
=
62.5% [Ans.]
So, % MgCO3 = 100 – 62.5 = 37.5% [Ans.]

TRY:
(1) How many grams of Na2CO3 should be dissolved to make 100 mL of 0.15 M Na2CO3 solution? (molar mass of
Na2CO3 = 106 g/mol) [Ans. 1.59 g]
(2) What is mole fraction of the solute in 2.5 molal aqueous solution? [Ans. 0.043]
(3) The density of 3 molal solution of NaOH is 1.11 g/mL. Calculate the molarity of the solution.
(Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol) [Ans. 2.97M]
(4) What volume of 0.34 M KOH is sufficient to react with 20 mL of 0.15 M H2SO4 solution? [Ans17.65 mL]
(5) Calcium carbonate reacts with HCl solution as CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g). What mass of
CaCO3 is required to react completely with 25 mL of 0.75 M HCl? [Ans.0.9375 g]
(6) (i) Calculate the number of chloride ions in 100 mL of 0.01 M AlCl3 solution. (ii) What is the change in the no, of
chloride ions if the solution is diluted with 100 mL water? [Ans, (i) 1.81 x 1021 Cl- ions, (ii) no change]
(7) Calculate the mass of CH3COONa (molar mass = 82.045g/mol) required to make 500 mL of 0.375 molar aqueous
solution. [Ans. 15.38 g]
(8) Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample having density 1.41 g/mL & mass % of 69%
HNO3. (Molar mass of nitric acid = 63 g/mol) [Ans. 15.44 M]
** (9) A mixture of NaI & NaCl when treated with sulphuric acid gave sodium sulphate equal to the weight of the
original mixture. Find the % composition of the mixture.
**(10) You are given 1litre each of 0.15 M HCl & 0.40M HCl solutions. What is the maximum volume of 0.25 M HCl
which can be made from these solutions without adding water? [Ans.1.667 L]

Prepared by:
ARUNESH GUPTA
PGT (Chemistry)
KV BKP(AFS)