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MIDTERM_GENECO

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9 views

MIDTERM_GENECO

Uploaded by

Arifah Canapi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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_______GENERAL ECOLOGY | MIDTERM_______

Species Interact in Five Major Ways: niche, suffer a sharp population decline, or become extinct
in that area.
➔ Interspecific competition occurs when members of
two or more species interact to gain access to the same Humans compete with many other species for space, food,
limited resources such as food, light, or space. and other resources. As our ecological footprints grow and
➔ Predation occurs when a member of one species (the spread and we convert more of the earth’s land, aquatic
predator) feeds directly on all or part of a member of resources, and net primary productivity to our uses, we are
another species (the prey). taking over the habitats of many other species and
➔ Parasitism occurs when one organism (the parasite) depriving them of resources they need to survive.
feeds on the body of, or the energy used by, another
organism (the host), usually by living on or in the host. Predators have a variety of methods that help them capture
➔ Mutualism is an interaction that benefits both species prey. Herbivores can simply walk, swim, or fly up to the
by providing each with food, shelter, or some other plants they feed on. For example, sea urchins can move
resource. along the ocean bottom to feed on the base of giant kelp
➔ Commensalism is an interaction that benefits one plants. Carnivores feeding on mobile prey have two main
species but has little, if any, effect on the other. options: pursuit and ambush. Some, such as the cheetah,
catch prey by running fast; others, such as the American
Most Species Compete with One Another for Certain bald eagle, can fly and have keen eyesight; still others,
Resources such as wolves and African lions, cooperate in capturing
their prey by hunting in packs.
The most common interaction between species is
competition for limited resources. While fighting for Other predators use camouflage to hide in plain sight and
resources does occur, most competition involves the ability ambush their prey. For example, praying mantises sit in
of one species to become more efficient than another flowers of a similar color and ambush visiting insects.
species in acquiring food or other resources. People camouflage themselves to hunt wild game and use
camouflaged traps to ambush wild game.
Recall that each species plays a unique role in its
ecosystem called its ecological niche. Some species are Some predators use chemical warfare to attack their prey.
generalists with broad niches and some are specialists with For example, spiders and poisonous snakes use venom to
narrow niches.When two species compete with one another paralyze their prey and to deter their predators.
for the same resources such as food, light, or space, their
niches overlap. Prey species have evolved many ways to avoid predators,
Competitive exclusion principle is that although including abilities to run, swim, or fly fast, and highly
different species may share some aspects of their niches, no developed senses of sight or smell that alert them to the
two species can occupy exactly the same ecological niche presence of predators. Other avoidance adaptations include
for very long. When there is intense competition between protective shells (as on armadillos and turtles), thick bark
two species for the same resources, both species suffer (giant sequoia), spines (porcupines), and thorns (cacti and
harm by having reduced access to important resources. If rose bushes). Many lizards have brightly colored tails that
one species can take over the largest share of one or more break off when they are attacked, often giving them enough
key resources, the other competing species must migrate to time to escape.
another area (if possible), shift its feeding habits or
behavior through natural selection to reduce or alter its Chemical warfare is another common strategy. Some prey
species discourage predators with chemicals that are

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_______GENERAL ECOLOGY | MIDTERM_______
poisonous (oleander plants), irritating (stinging nettles Some parasites, such as tapeworms and some
and bombardier beetles), foul smelling (skunks, skunk disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens), live inside
cabbages, and stink bugs), or bad tasting (buttercups and their hosts. Other parasites attach themselves to the
monarch butterflies). When attacked, some species of squid outsides of their hosts.
and octopus emit clouds of black ink, allowing them to
escape by confusing their predators. In mutualism, two species behave in ways that benefit
both by providing each with food, shelter, or some other
Many bad-tasting, bad-smelling, toxic, or stinging prey resource. For example, honey bees, caterpillars, butterflies,
species have evolved warning coloration, brightly colored and other insects feed on a male flower’s nectar, picking up
advertising that enables experienced predators to recognize pollen in the process, and then pollinating female flowers
and avoid them. They flash a warning: “Eating me is when they feed on them.
risky.” Examples are brilliantly colored poisonous frogs;
and foul-tasting monarch butterflies (Figure 5-2d). For Commensalism is an interaction that benefits one species
example, when a bird such as a blue jay eats a monarch but has little, if any, effect on the other. For example, in
butterfly it usually vomits and learns to avoid them. tropical forests certain kinds of silverfish insects move
along with columns of army ants to share the food obtained
Biologist Edward O. Wilson gives us two rules, based on by the ants in their raids. The army ants receive no
coloration, for evaluating possible danger from an apparent harm or benefit from the silverfish.
unknown animal species we encounter in nature. First, if it
is small and strikingly beautiful, it is probably poisonous. How Can Natural Selection Reduce Competition
Second, if it is strikingly beautiful and easy to catch, it is between Species?
probably deadly. Some species develop adaptations that allow them
to reduce or avoid competition with other species for
Coevolution - When populations of two different species resources.
interact in this way over such a long period of time,
changes in the gene pool of one species can lead to changes Some species evolve to reduce niche overlap. One way this
in the gene pool of the other species. Such changes can happens is through resource partitioning. It occurs when
help both sides to become more competitive or can help to species competing for similar scarce resources evolve
avoid or reduce competition. specialized traits that allow them to use shared resources at
different times, in different ways, or in different places.
Coevolution is like an arms race between interacting
populations of different species. Sometimes the predators For example, through natural selection, the fairly broad and
surge ahead; at other times the prey get the upper hand. overlapping niches of two competing species can reduce
Coevolution is one of nature’s ways of maintaining their niche overlap by becoming more specialized.
long-term sustainability through population control and it
can promote biodiversity by increasing species diversity. Evolutionary divergence - refers to the process by which
two or more related species become more different over
Parasitism occurs when one species (the parasite) feeds on time, often due to different environmental pressures,
the body of, or the energy used by, another organism (the genetic mutations, or reproductive isolation.
host), usually by living on or in the host. In this
relationship, the parasite benefits and the host is harmed What limits the growth of Populations?
but not immediately killed. No population can continue to grow indefinitely
because of limitations on resources and because of
competition among species for those resources.

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_______GENERAL ECOLOGY | MIDTERM_______
and emigration—govern changes in population size. A
Populations differ in factors such as their distribution, population increases by birth and immigration (arrival of
numbers, age structure (proportions of individuals in individuals from outside the population) and decreases by
different age groups), and density (number of individuals death and emigration (departure of individuals from the
in a certain space). Population dynamics is a study of how population):
these characteristics of populations change in response to
changes in environmental conditions. Examples of such
conditions are temperature, presence of disease organisms
or harmful chemicals, resource availability, and arrival or In natural systems, species that are able to move can leave
disappearance of competing species. or emigrate from an area where their habitat has been
degraded or destroyed and immigrate to another area where
Three general patterns of population distribution or resources are more plentiful.
dispersion in a habitat are clumping, uniform dispersion,
and random dispersion. A population’s age structure—
➔ Pre-reproductive stage - organisms that are not mature
In most populations, individuals of a species live together enough to reproduce
in clumps or patches (Figure 5-10a). Examples are patches ➔ Reproductive stage - those capable of reproduction
of desert vegetation around springs, cottonwood trees ➔ Post-reproductive stage - those too old to reproduce
clustered along streams, wolf packs, flocks of birds, and
schools of fish. Several genetic factors can play a role in the loss of
genetic diversity:
Why clumping?
➔ First, the resources a species needs vary greatly in Founder effect can occur when a few individuals in a
availability from place to place, so the species tends to population colonize a new habitat that is geographically
cluster where the resources are available. isolated from other members of the population. In such
➔ cases, limited genetic diversity or variability may threaten
➔ Second, individuals moving in groups have a better the survival of the colonizing population.
chance of encountering patches or clumps of resources,
such as water and vegetation, than they would searching Demographic bottleneck which occurs when only a few
for the resources on their own. individuals in a population survive a catastrophe such as a
➔ fire or hurricane, as if they had passed through the narrow
➔ Third, living in groups protects some animals from neck of a bottle. Lack of genetic diversity may limit the
predators. ability of these individuals to rebuild the population. Even
➔ if the population is able to increase in size, its decreased
➔ Fourth, hunting in packs gives some predators a better genetic diversity may lead to an increase in the frequency
chance of finding and catching prey. of harmful genetic diseases.

➔ Fifth, some species form temporary groups for mating Genetic drift which involves random changes in the gene
and caring for young. frequencies in a population that can lead to unequal
reproductive success. For example, some individuals may
Over time, the number of individuals in a population may breed more than others do and their genes may eventually
increase, decrease, remain about the same, or go up and dominate the gene pool of the population. This change in
down in cycles in response to changes in environmental gene frequency could help or hinder the survival of the
conditions. Four variables—births, deaths, immigration, population. The founder effect is one cause of genetic drift.

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_______GENERAL ECOLOGY | MIDTERM_______
Inbreeding which occurs when individuals in a small
population mate with one another. This can occur when a ★ What is population dynamics?
population passes through a demographic bottleneck. This
can increase the frequency of defective genes within a ★ What is a population’s age structure and what are three
population and affect its long term survival. major age group categories?

Population density is the number of individuals in a How many people can the earth support?
population found in a particular area or volume. Some We do not know how long we can continue
factors that limit population growth have a greater effect as increasing the earth’s carrying capacity for humans without
a population’s density increases. Examples of such seriously degrading the life-support system for humans and
density-dependent population controls include predation, many other species.
parasitism, infectious disease, and competition for
resources. Human Population Growth Continues but It Is
Unevenly Distributed
Higher population density may help sexually reproducing
individuals find mates, but it can also lead to increased Three major factors account for this population
competition for mates, food, living space, water, sunlight, increase.
and other resources.
➔ First, humans developed the ability to expand into
Some factors—mostly abiotic—that can kill members of a diverse new habitats and different climate zones.
population are density independent. In other words, their ➔ Second, the emergence of early and modern agriculture
effect is not dependent on the density of the population. allowed more people to be fed for each unit of land area
For example, a severe freeze in late spring can kill many farmed.
individuals in a plant population or a population of ➔ Third, the development of sanitation systems,
monarch butterflies, regardless of their density. antibiotics, and vaccines helped control infectious
disease agents. As a result, death rates dropped sharply
! Humans are not exempt from Nature’s Population below birth rates and population size grew rapidly.
controls.
About 10,000 years ago when agriculture began, there
How do communities and ecosystems respond to were about 5 million humans on the planet; now there are
changing environmental conditions? 6.7 billion of us. It took from the time we arrived until
The structure and species composition of about 1927 to add the first 2 billion people to the planet;
communities and ecosystems change in response to less than 50 years to add the next 2 billion (by 1974); and
changing environmental conditions through a process just 25 years to add the next 2 billion (by 1999)
called ecological succession.
Geographically, this growth is unevenly distributed.
Review Questions:
What Factors Influence the Size of the Human
★ Define interspecific competition, predation, parasitism, Population?
mutualism, and commensalism and give an example of Population size increases because of births and
each. immigration and decreases through deaths and emigration
and the average number of children born to women in a
★ Describe and give an example of resource partitioning population (total fertility rate) is the key factor that
and explain how it can increase species diversity. determines population size.

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_______GENERAL ECOLOGY | MIDTERM_______
One is the importance of children as a part of the labor
Human populations of countries and cities grow or decline force. Proportions of children working tend to be higher in
through the interplay of three factors: births (fertility), developing countries.
deaths (mortality), and migration. We can calculate
population change of an area by subtracting the number of The cost of raising and educating children - raising
people leaving a population (through death and emigration) children is much more costly because they do not enter the
from the number entering it (through birth and labor force until they are in their late teens or twenties.
immigration) during a specified period of time (usually one
year). The availability of private and public pension systems -
influence the decision for some couples on how many
children to have, especially the poor in developing
countries. Pensions reduce a couple’s need to have many
When births plus immigration exceed deaths plus children to help support them in old age.
emigration, population increases; when the reverse is true,
population declines. Urbanization - People living in urban areas usually have
better access to family planning services and tend to have
What five countries had the largest numbers of people fewer children than do those living in rural areas
in 2008?
1. China The educational and employment opportunities
2. India available for women - TFRs tend to be low when women
3. United States have access to education and paid employment outside the
4. Indonesia home. In developing countries, a woman with no education
5. Pakistan typically has two more children than does a woman with a
high school education. In nearly all societies,
Women Are Having Fewer Babies but Not Few Enough better-educated women tend to marry later and have fewer
to Stabilize the World’s Population children.

Fertility rate - the number of children born to a woman The infant mortality rate—the number of children per
during her lifetime. Two types of fertility rates affect a 1,000 live births who die before one year of age. In areas
country’s population size and growth rate. with low infant mortality rates, people tend to have fewer
children because fewer children die at an early age.
1. The first type, called the replacement-level fertility ❖ Average age at marriage (or, more precisely, the
rate, is the average number of children that couples average age at which a woman has her first child)
in a population must bear to replace themselves. also plays a role. Women normally have fewer
children when their average age at marriage is 25 or
2. The second type of fertility rate, the total fertility older. Birth rates and TFRs are also affected by the
rate (TFR), is the average number of children born availability of legal abortions.
to women in a population during their reproductive
years. The availability of legal abortions.

Several Factors Affect Birth Rates and Fertility Rates The availability of reliable birth control methods allows
women to control the number and spacing of the children
they have.

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_______GENERAL ECOLOGY | MIDTERM_______
Religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural norms also
play a role. In some countries, these factors favor large
families and strongly oppose abortion and some forms of
birth control.

The third factor in population change is migration: the


movement of people into (immigration) and out of
(emigration) specific geographic areas. Most people
migrating from one area or country to another seek jobs
and economic improvement. But some are driven by
religious persecution, ethnic conflicts, political oppression,
wars, and environmental degradations such as water and
food shortages and soil erosion.

How Does a Population’s Age Structure Affect Its


How Can We Slow Human Population Growth?
Growth or Decline?
Demographers examining birth and death rates of
Population experts construct a population age
western European countries that became industrialized
structure diagram by plotting the percentages or numbers
during the 19th century developed a hypothesis of
of males and females in the total population in each of
population change known as the demographic transition:
three age categories: prereproductive (ages 0–14),
as countries become industrialized, first their death rates
reproductive (ages 15–44), and post reproductive (ages
and then their birth rates decline.
45 and older).
Note: The demographic transition model shows
how societies evolve from high birth and death rates to low
Populations Made Up Mostly of Older People Can
birth and death rates, usually following a pattern tied to
Decline Rapidly
economic and social development. As countries progress
As the age structure of the world’s population
through the stages, their population growth slows and
changes and the percentage of people age 60 or older
eventually stabilizes. This transition is closely linked to
increases, more countries will begin experiencing
factors such as improved healthcare, industrialization,
population declines. If population decline is gradual, its
urbanization, and greater access to family planning.
harmful effects usually can be managed.

Family planning provides educational and clinical


Populations Can Decline from a Rising Death Rate: The
services that help couples choose how many children to
AIDS Tragedy
have and when to have them. Such programs vary from
A large number of deaths from AIDS can disrupt a
culture to culture, but most provide information on birth
country’s social and economic structure by removing
spacing, birth control, and health care for pregnant women
significant numbers of young adults from its age structure.
and infants.

Empowering Women Can Slow Population Growth


Studies show that women tend to have fewer
children if they are educated, hold a paying job outside the
home, and live in societies where their human rights are
not suppressed. Although women make up roughly half of
the world’s population, in most societies they do not have

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_______GENERAL ECOLOGY | MIDTERM_______
the same rights and educational and economic
opportunities as men do.

Review Questions:

★ Do you think the world is overpopulated? Explain.

★ List three factors that account for the rapid growth of


the world’s human population over the past 200 years.

★ What is the cultural carrying capacity of a population?

★ What is the fertility rate?

★ Distinguish between replacement-level fertility rate and


total fertility rate (TFR).

★ List at least 6 factors that can affect the birth rate and
fertility rate of a country.

★ What is the age structure of a population?

★ Differentiate Immigration and Emigration.

★ What is the demographic transition and what are its four


stages?

★ What is family planning?

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