Calculus for Engineers

Luciano M. Medrano Jr.

March 19, 2022

College of Engineering
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
Contents
1 Integration 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Differentiation Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Notation and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Techniques of Integration 6
2.1 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

ii
 2 Techniques of Integration
In this chapter, we learn the different techniques of finding the antiderivative of f (x), if none of
the integration formulas in Table 1.2 work. The results obtained in this chapter will grow in size
the table of integration.

2.1 Substitution
The most often used technique is the subsitution method. The method relies on the chain rule for
differentiation, which we state here.
Chain Rule for If y is a function of x, say y = f (x), and x is a function of t say g(t), then y is a function of t,
Differentiation denoted y(t) and its derivative y ′ (t) given by

y ′ (t) = f ′ g(t) g ′ (t)

The integral form of the above definition is

Z
f ′ g(t) g ′ (t) dt = y(t) + C


(2.1)

but the form does not offer any utility, at least initially. We will need another definition to make
the integral form operational.
The Differential If y is a function of x, y = f (x), the differential of y, denoted dy, is

dy = f ′ (x) dx

provided f ′ (x) exists.

Letting
s = g(t)
to which
ds = g ′ (t) dt
the integral part of Eqn. (2.1) becomes
Z Z
f g(t) g (t) dt = f ′ (s) ds
′

′

= f (s) + C = f g(t) + C

To execute the method of substitution, it is recommended to introduce an intermediate variable

to represent a specific function, compute the differential, and rework the integral in terms of the
intermediate variable. We illustrate the method with several examples.
Z
Example 2.1 1
Evaluate dy.
(y − 3)2 + 1
Let u = (y − 3), then du = 1dy.
Z Z
1 1
dy = du
(y − 3)2 + 1 u2 + 1
= tan91 u + C = tan91 (y − 3) + C

One should not stop at the answer tan91 u + C since u is not the variable of integration but
merely a tool be able to apply an integration formula. The choice of the intermediate variable u is
arbitrary; one could choose x instead.

6
 2 Techniques of Integration

Z
Example 2.2 1
Evaluate dx.
x2 + 6x + 10
The nearest semblance of the integrand is 1/(x2 + 1). Therefore we ‘eliminate’ the term 6x in the
denominator by completing square.

x2 + 6x + 10 = (x + 3)2 + 1

The solution is similar to the previous problem, to which the answer is

Z
1
2
dx = tan91 (x + 3) + C
x + 6x + 10

How do you know that it is 1/(x2 + 1) and not 1/(x2 − 1)? You don’t have to! It is common
mistake among students to preemptively select the (wrong) formula and force their solution to
apply the formula.
Z
Example 2.3 2 dz
Evaluate .
(z + 2)(z + 4)
Z
Write the factor 3 before and dz after the integrand.
Z Z
2 dz 1
=2 dz
(z + 2)(z + 4) (z + 2)(z + 4)

Expand the denominator and complete square.

(z + 2)(z + 4) = z 2 + 6z + 8 = (z + 3)2 − 1

The substitution t = (z + 3) yields the answer

Z
2 dz
= −2 tanh91 (z + 3) + C
(z + 2)(z + 4)
R
At this stage, it should be clear that the symbol and the differential dx serve as front and
end delimiters, respectively. Anything between them is considered the integrand. Also, it is not
uncommon to find the differential in the numerator of the integrand.
Example 2.4
Z
(2z + 6) dz
Evaluate .
(z + 2)(z + 4)
Completing square is not the choice in this problem because the of the presence of (2z + 6) in the
numerator. Instead,

x = z 2 + 6z + 8 =⇒ dx = (2z + 6) dz
Z Z
(2z + 6) dz dx
= = ln |x| + C = ln |z 2 + 6z + 8| + C
z 2 + 6z + 8 x

Beginning students of the course would split the integrand as two factors,
2z + 6 1
= (2z + 6) ·
(z + 2)(z + 4) (z + 2)(z + 4)

and integrate each factor separately. One thing is for sure,

FA
Z KE Z N ZE W S
f (x)g(x) dx = f (x) dx g(x) dx

7
 2 Techniques of Integration

Z
Example 2.5
Derive the formula for tan θ dθ.
Z Z Z
sin θ 1
tan θ dθ = dθ = (sin θ dθ)
cos θ cos θ
Now comes the substitution.

y = cos θ =⇒ dy = − sin θ dθ
Z Z
1 1
(− sin x dθ) = − dy = − ln |y| + C = − ln | cos θ| + C
cos θ y
Using a property of the ln( ) function, we get

Z
tan θ dθ = ln | sec θ| + C

We saw in the examples that intermediate steps, like completing squares or using a definition of a
function, were used before the actual method of substitution. The next example illustrates another
trick in the substitution method.
Z
Example 2.6 dr
Evaluate .
1 − 3r
We simplify the integrand by a substitution in the denominator.

x = 1 − 3r
dx = −3 dr =⇒ − 31 dx = dr
Z
dr
The answer is = − 13 ln |1 − 3r| + C.
1 − 3r

In the last example, an extra step is made to express the differential of the original variable (dr)
in terms of the differential of the new variable (− 13 dx). This is common practice in integration.
Z
Example 2.7 2 dv
Evaluate √ .
5v 2 + 1
√
The form nearest to the integrand is 1/ x2 + 1. After tweaking the integrand, we recognize the
appropriate substitution.
1 1
√ =q √

2
5v + 1 5v 2 + 1
√
The substitution x = 5v yields the answer
√
Z
2 dv 2 5 √

√ = sinh91 5v + C
5v 2 + 1 5

√ The standard way to write a term is to write the constant factor before the literal factor (like
5v). With radicals, it is customary to write the radical expression as the last factor of the term.
In the case of the last example, the elegant way to write the antiderivative is
√
2 5 √

sinh91 v 5 + C
5
Z
Example 2.8 dx
Evaluate √ .
x x3 − 1
It should be an easy problem if not for the exponent 3. Writing x3 = (x3/2 )2 , we see that the natural
choice is s = x3/2 .

s = x3/2 =⇒ s2 = x3 =⇒ s2/3 = x
2 −1/3
3s ds = dx

8
 2 Techniques of Integration

Therefore,
2 −1/3
3s ds
Z Z Z
dx ds
2 2
sec91 x3/2 + C


√ = √ = 3
√ = 3
x x3 − 1 s2/3 s2 −1 s s2 − 1

Do we know that the substitution s = x3/2 will work? Frankly, no. If it didn’t work, or that the
resulting integral is less appealing than the original, we might want to consider a different solution.
Here’s a second solution to the same problem. The choice of substitution forces a specific form.
Luckily, it works.
Z
Example 2.8 dx
Evaluate √ .
Alternate x x3 − 1
Solution
We force the exponent 2 under the radical sign.

t 2 = x3
2t dt = 3x2 dx

The differential dx comes with the factor 3x2 , but the integrand has none of it. We introduce this
factor in the integrand by multiplication and division.

3x2
Z Z Z
1 1 1
3x2 dx


√ dx = √ · 2 dx = 2
√
3
x x −1 3
x x −1 3x 3
(3 x )x x − 1
|{z}
t2
Z Z
1 1
= 31 √ (2t dt) = 23 √ dt
t2 t2 − 1 t t2 − 1

The trick of multiplying and dividing the integrand by the same expression is common. For
example, in Example 2.5, if tan x is multiplied and divided by sec x, the substitution y = sec x in
the denominator leads to the same result with fewer steps. We use this trick to obtain another
integration formula.
Z
Example 2.9
Derive the formula for sec x dx.
Z Z
(sec x + tan x)
sec x dx = sec x · dx
(sec x + tan x)
Z Z
1 1
= (sec x(sec x + tan x) dx) = dw
(sec x + tan x) w

= ln | sec x + tan x| + C

Table 2.1 shows a few more formulas in a growing list of integration formulas.

Table 2.1: Table of Integrals

Z Z
tan x dx = ln | cos x| + C cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
Z Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| + C
Z Z
tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C coth x dx = ln | sinh x| + C
Z Z
sech x dx = 2 tan91 (ex ) + C csch x dx = −2 tanh91 (e−x ) + C, x > 0

Z
Example 2.10 dx
Derive the formula for √ .
a2 − x2
The substitution x = at should do the trick.

x = (at) =⇒ dx = a dt

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 2 Techniques of Integration

Z Z Z
dx a dt a dt x
√ = p = √ = sin91 +C
a2 − x2 a2 − (at)2 a 1 − t2 a

Table 2.2 list integration formulas yielding inverse circular and hyperbolic functions.

Table 2.2: Integration Formulas

Z x Z x
dx dx 1
√ = sin91 +C = tan91 +C
a 2 − x2 a a2
+x 2 a a
Z x Z x
dx 1 dx
√ = sec91 +C √ = sinh91 +C
x x2 − a2 a a x2 + a2 a
Z x Z
dx dx 1 91 x
 
√ = cosh91 +C = tanh + C, −a < x < a
x2 − a2 a a2 − x2 a a
Z x Z x
dx 1 dx 1
√ = − sech91 +C √ = − csch91 +C
x a2 − x2 a a x a2 + x2 a a

In the last example are three similarly looking integral problems.

Example 2.11 Evaluate the following integrals.
2e2x dx
Z Z Z
2 dx 2 dx
(a) √ (b) √ (c) √
4x 2x
e − 4e − 4 e − 4e2x − 4
4x e2x e4x− 4e2x − 4

(a) Let u = e2x . Also, u2 = e4x .

2e2x dx
Z Z
du
√ = √
e4x − 4e2x − 4 u2 − 4u − 4
As before,
u2 − 4u − 4 = (u − 2)2 − 8
so a second substitution r = u−2 is in order. Application of the formula and two ‘back-substitutions’
yield
2e2x dx
 2x 
e −2
Z
1 91
√ = √ cosh √ +C
e4x − 4e2x − 4 8 8

(b) Here, multiplying both sides of the fraction with e2x will not produce desirable form. However,
using e−2x works.

2e−2x dx
Z Z
2 dx
√ = √
e4x − 4e2x − 4 e−2x e4x − 4e2x − 4
2e−2x dx −dv
Z Z
= √ x= √
1 − 4e −2x − 4e −4x 1 − 4v − 4v 2
Z
dv
=− p
2 − (1 + 2v)2
1 + 2e−2x
 
1  1 + 2v  1
= − sin91 √ + C = − sin91 √ +C
2 2 2 2

(c) The trick is to multiply and divide by e−2x , twice.

2e−2x e−2x dx
Z Z
2 dx
√ = √

e2x e4x − 4e2x − 4 (e2x e−2x ) e−2x e4x − 4e2x − 4
e−2x (2e−2x dx)
Z Z
w (−dw)
= √ = √
1 − 4e −2x − 4e −4x 1 − 4w − 4w2

Seeing the coeffient w (see Example 2.4), we consider r = 1 − 4w − w2 and dr = (−4 − 8w) dw.
Not the w dw we hoped it would be . Rewriting −w as

−w = 81 (−4 − 8w)+ 12

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 2 Techniques of Integration

we have
1 1
−w 8 (−4 − 8w)+ 2
Z Z
√ dw = √ dw
1 − 4w − 4w2 1 − 4w − 4w2
(−4 − 8w) dw 1
Z Z
1 dw
= √ + √
8 1 − 4w − 4w 22 1 − 4w − 4w2
Z Z
1 dr 1 dw
= √ + p
8 r 2 2 − (1 + 2w)2
Z Z
1 dr 1 ds
= √ + √ , s = 1 + 2w
8 r 4 2 − s2
1√ 1  s 
= r + sin91 √ + C
4 4 2
Returning to the original variable x,

1 + 2e−2x
Z  
2 dx 1p 1
√ = 1 − 4e−2x − 4e−4x + sin91 √ +C
e2x e4x − 4e2x − 4 4 4 2

In the case of problems (b) and (c), how does one determine the factor needed in the integrand,
and how many of this factor are needed? That’s a tough question. If one factor produces a
‘promising’ (but still unintegrable) function, you may want to try inserting the factor one more
time. Maybe the second time is a charm.

Exercises
Z Z
Evaluate the integral using the indicated substitution. sin x
1.16 dx 1.17 x2 exp(x3 ) dx
Z 1 + cos2 x
1.1 2x(x2 + 1)23 dx; u = x2 + 1 Z Z
dx
1.18 ex cos(ex ) dx 1.19
Z ax + b
1.2 x3 (2 + x4 )5 dx; u = 2 + x4 Z Z
6 sin(ln x)
Z 1.20 dx 1.21 dx
(1 − 2x)3 x
1.3 e−x dx; u = −x Z Z
cos t z2
Z 1.22 e sin t dt 1.23 dz
dt z3 + 1
1.4 ; u = 1 − 6t
(1 − 6t)4 Z
√
x sin(1 + x3/2 ) dx
Z p 1.24
1.5 x2 x3 + 1 dx, u = x3 + 1
Z Z
Z
1 √ √ 2t sec2 x dx
1.25 dt 1.26
1.6 √ sin x dx; u = x t
2 +3
p
x 1 − tan2 x
Z Z √ Z
sin 1


1.7 cos3 θ sin θ dθ; y = cos θ tan x x
1.27 √ dx 1.28 dx

x 3x2
1
sec2
Z
x 1 Z
cos( π )
Z
1.8 dx; u = x cos 4θ
x2 x 1.29 dx 1.30 dθ
Z x2 (1 + 2 sin 4θ)4

csc2 x cot x dx; (a) u = csc x, (b) v = cot x

Z Z
1.9 tan91 x dt
1.31 dx 1.32 √
Z Z 1 + x2 cos2 t 1 + tan t
dx x2 dx
1.10 ; u = ln x 1.11 ; u = x3 Z Z
x ln x 1 + x6 x y
1.33 dx 1.34 √ dy
1 + x4 2y + 1
Evaluate the integral using appropriate substitutions.
Z Z
Z Z √ √
1.12 (4x − 3) dx 9
1.13 2.4
(3t + 2) dt 1.35 x2 2 + x dx 1.36 z 4 − z dz

Z Z Z Z
x dx
  p p
1.14 cos dx 1.15 u 1 − u2 du 1.37 x3 x2 + 1 dx 1.38
3 1 + sin x

11