Floor & Wall

Dr. S.W. Poon

2012
Brick has a history of use in building extending over
10,000 years.

The extensive choice of colour and texture available,

the versatility and economy of application, and
confidence in its durable nature, have all led to the
widespread acceptance of brickwork during the many
centuries of its use.

Brickwork in Britain is as commonplace as green grass

and blue skies. However, in Hong Kong, brick is rarely
used in modern buildings although many parts of old
buildings are made of bricks.
 DEFINITION

Bricks are solid masonry units usually made

of burned clay. Two broad classes of brick
may be distinguished:

1. Those made of clay and fired to obtain

hardness.
2. Those made of cementing materials that
harden by a chemical reaction. This group
includes both concrete brick and sand-lime
brick.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

A. Common
B. Facing
C. Engineering
Classification of bricks
Special Bricks
PROPERTIES OF A GOOD BRICK

Hardness
Durable
Impermeable
Strength
• Quetta bond
• Raking bond
• Herring-bone bond
• English bond
• English cross bond
• Flemish bond
• Chevron bond
• Basket-weave bond
 MORTARS

Mortar is a ‘gap-filling adhesive’ which evens out

irregularities in size and shape between bricks,
gives an even bed and ensuring uniform
distribution of loads.

It also influences the compressive strength,

durability and resistance to rain penetration
through brickwork.

Mortar consists of cement, aggregates and water,

to which plasticizers, colouring pigments, etc., can
be added to achieve other objectives.
JOINTING
Problems and Maintenance

• Efflorescence
• Staining
• Shrinkage
• Wearing
Cavity Wall
 Floor

• Ground Floor
• Upper Floor
• Solid Ground Floor
• Suspended Ground Floor
 Construction

Formwork ( timber, metal, plastics etc.) is

temporary work to give shape and surface
finishes of a concrete element.
FIRE RESISTANCE
Precast Concrete Beam
Stairs

Dr. S.W. Poon

2012
Design Requirements of Staircases

• Provide access for occupants, goods and

furniture.
• Accommodate differences in height and
levels.
• Part of the escape route in case of fire.
• Sizes and forms are designed to
safeguard users against the risk of falling.
• Long straight flights without a pause/stop
can lead to fatigue and risk of falling.

• This can be avoided by introduction of

intermediate landings between flights.

• Adequate fire resistance is required in

order to maintain a safe route for escape
in case of fire.
• Surface finishes should not be slippery or
too noisy to walk.

• Appearance is important for access at

shopping centres, lobbies and entrance
halls.

• The design of a staircase may affect the

cost and speed of construction.
 Terminology
• Stair is a series of steps forming the
access.

• Stairwell is the vertical space (or shaft) in

the building which is designed to house
the staircase.

• Staircase is the complete system of

access including the steps, balustrade,
stairwell etc.
• Tread is the horizontal portion of a step.
• Riser is the vertical portion of a step.
• Nosing is the tip of a step.

• Going is the horizontal dimension of the

tread (excluding projecting nosing).
• Rise is the vertical dimension between
successive treads.
• Flight is an uninterrupted series of steps.
• Handrails/balustrades are fixed along
the edge of stairs to prevent falling and
provide a hand-grip for ascending or
descending.

• Pitch line is the line connecting the

nosing of a flight. The angle formed by the
pitch line with the horizontal is the pitch of
the stair.
• Landing is the horizontal platform
introduced between flights.
Staircases for Fire Escape Purposes
• Staircases may be used as a means of
access only, e.g., stairs in shopping
centres provide access to different levels
and areas.

• Some staircases may be designed as a

means of escape (MOE) in case of fire and
other emergencies.
• Stairs accessed through doors which are
self-closing with an exit sign are usually
staircases for MOE purpose.

• These staircases have to comply with

requirements as stipulated in the Code of
Practice on Provision of Means of Escape
in Case of Fire and Allied Requirements
1986 (MOE Code) such as :
• Fire resistance requirements.
• The number of rises in each flight should
not be more than 16 or less than 2.

• The width of treads should not be less

than 225mm.
• The height of riser should not be more
than 175mm.
• Landings should be provided at the top
and bottom of each flight.

• Clear height (measured vertically) of a

stair should not be less than 2000 mm.

• Minimum dimension requirements on

width of stairs according to the use and
floor area of the building.
 Construction Materials
a. Timber Stairs
• Generally timber stairs have a lower fire
resistance therefore they are not suitable
as a fire escape.
• Timber stairs are mainly used for
aesthetic purposes or as temporary
access only.
• Timber stairs are light in weight and are
suitable for use in alteration works.
 b. Concrete Stairs
• Concrete stairs have good fire resistance
properties so they are widely used as a
means of escape.

• Concrete stairs are robust and heavy.

• The time required for the construction of

cast in-situ concrete stairs is relatively
longer than that of other types.
 c. Steel Stairs
• Mostly used in alteration work due to its
light weight (compared with concrete) and
high strength (compared with timber).

• Quick to construct.

• The required fire resistance can be

provided by the application of fire
retardants on the surface of the steel.
 Mode of Construction
Staircases take different forms according to the
space available, differences in levels, landing
requirements and aesthetic requirements.

Types :
• Straight flight stair.
• Quarter-turn stair.
• Half-turn stair.
• Open well stair.
• Spiral stair or geometrical stair.
Basement

Dr. S.W. Poon

• Bitumen
• Waterproofing Basements
• Application of Tanking

• External Tanking
• Internal Tanking
• Drained Cavity System
 Bituminous Materials
Terminology
• Bitumen is a smooth, black and heavy
material made from natural or distilled
petroleum.
• It becomes liquid when heated.
• It is degraded by sunlight and air.
• Bitumen - property
Penetration Test – to determine the viscosity

Typical bituminous mixtures:

• Mastic asphalt – A mixture of bitumen and
mineral fillers that can be spread by a hand float
once it is heated.
• Hot-rolled asphalt – A heavy duty dense road
surfacing almost completely impermeable with
few voids. (asphaltic concrete).
• Macadam – as hot rolled asphalt but has a
higher voids content (about 10%)
 Uses of Bituminous Materials

1. Low cost
2. Available in large quantity
3. Durability
4. Adhesiveness and waterproofing quality
5. Ease in handling at high temperatures
Flexible Pavement
Other applications:

• Waterproof coatings
• Tanking
• Flat roofs
 Roof

Dr. S. W. Poon
2012
Design Requirements for Roofs

• Weather exclusion is achieved by the

use of roof coverings on top of the
roof structure.

• Sufficient strength to withstand the

dead and live loads e.g. snow load,
suction pressure of wind, loading
from maintenance traffic etc.
• Thermal insulation is important in
reducing the cost of air conditioning in
summer.

• Fire resistance is required if the

building is close to another lot
boundary - to prevent the spread of
flames to adjacent sites and
buildings.
Appearance of roofs (pitched roofs)

• Should be in harmony with their

surroundings.

• Size and plan shape of the building

may affect the choice of roof.
• Special loading requirements if
equipment is suspended from the roof
e.g. in factories and warehouses.

• Services may be accommodated on

the roof top such as water tanks,
lighting conduits, air ducts etc.
 Types of Roofs
a. Pitched Roofs

• Roofs with sloping surfaces provide

good drainage and good appearance
• Pitched roofs are usually covered with
roof tiles to provide weatherproofing.
• Structure of a pitched roof may be in the
form of a truss, a portal frame or a purlin
and rafter system (traditional).
• Rainwater collected from the roof is
directed to gutters on the caves and then
to rainwater down pipes.

• The water is then discharged to public

sewer systems (if available) or to streams.

• Usually used in village bungalows or

specially designed houses.
b. Flat Roofs

• Commonly used for all types of

buildings in Hong Kong.

• Relatively easier to construct than

pitched roofs.
• Waterproofing quality depends on the
roof covering and drainage system.

• Adequate fall (1:40) should be

provided on the roof to avoid ponding
and ensure rainwater is collected by
channels and directed to rainwater
down pipes.
• Services such as water tanks, air-
conditioning units and water pipes can be
placed on top of a flat roof surface.

• Thermal insulation (against summer time

overheating) can be improved by placing
light weight concrete tiles on the roof. The
tiles also serve as protection against
maintenance activities on the roof.
c. North-light Roofs
• Basically a pitched roof with a roof light
(window(s)) facing North to take
advantage of scattered sunlight for natural
lighting of the interior space.

• Limited use in tropical countries as the

sunlight admitted may be too strong and
produce glare to occupants.
d. Space Deck Flat Roofs
• A system of trusses forming a large roof
with few supports e.g. The HK Coliseum.

• The minimum support in space frames

provides free and large unobstructed space
under the roof for better space planning
and viewing particularly where viewing for
spectators is of concern.
Roof Coverings
a. Roof Tiles
• Roofing tiles are hung on hardwood battens
(strips) fixed to the pitched roof structure.

• A variety of colours and sizes.

• Roof tiles made of clay or quarry (slate)

provide good thermal and weather
exclusion properties for pitched roofs.
• Tiles are relatively heavy and the loads
must be allowed for in the original design
of the roof structures.

• Adequate laps are required between

successive tiles to provide the required
weatherproof quality.
b. Mastic Asphalt
• Mastic asphalt should be laid on sheathing
felt to avoid damage due to the large
thermal movement associated with
asphalt.

• Mastic asphalt is the traditional covering

material for flat roofs.
• Asphalt is readily available and cheap.

• However, the quality of asphalt varies and

the durability is not consistent or reliable.
 c. Proprietary Roofing Systems
• Types and compositions of these systems
vary considerably.

• They can be divided in accordance with

the method of laying : liquid applied or
applied in rolled-sheet form.

• Usually a 10-year guarantee by the

supplier when newly applied to a roof
surface.