CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project in physics

prescribed by the school in the year 2024-25
has been successfully completed by “Shreya
Verma” .
I have examined the project and hereby
accord by my approval of it. As a study
carried out and presented in the manner
required for its acceptance.

Internal Examiner:
Principal:

External Examiner:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere Thanks to

our Physics teacher Mr. Nitish Katiyar for his
guidance and support in completing my
project.

I would like to extend my gratitude to our

Principal for providing us with all the facilities
that were required. I would also like to thanks
my parents and lectures who helped me with
the necessary suggestion and ideas for
completing this project.
 Physics Experiment File

Submitted by: Shreya Verma

Class: XII

Submitted to: Mr. Nitish Katiyar

INDEX

S.N Experiment Signature

 o.
1. 1_To draw the diagram of a given open
circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor, Rheostat, ammeter and
voltmeter. Mark the component that
are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit and also the circuit
diagram.

2. To observe refraction and lateral

deviation of a beam of light incident
obliquely on a glass slab.

3. To observe the diffraction of light due

to thin slit.

4. To obtain lens combination with the

specified focal length by using two
lens
from the given set of a lens.

EXPERIMENT -1

Aim:- To draw the diagram of a given open circuit

comprising at least a battery, resistor, Rheostat,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the component that
are not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus Required:-

 Battery: Provides the electric potential difference

(voltage).
 Rheostat: Used in a circuit to change the resistance
of the circuit so that the current changes.
 Resistor: Limits the current flow in the circuit.
 Ammeter: Measures the current passing through the
circuit. It should be connected in series with the load
(resistor).
 Voltmeter: Measures the potential difference across
components, like the resistor. It should be connected
in parallel with the component whose voltage you
want to measure (usually the resistor).

Theory: An open circuit is the combination of primary

components of electric circuit in a such a manner that on
closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.
 Open circuit diagram

Common Mistakes in Circuit Construction:

 Ammeter connected in parallel: The ammeter should
always be in series with the circuit components.
 Voltmeter connected in series: The voltmeter should
be connected in parallel with the component across
which the voltage is being measured.
 Rheostat connected in parallel: It should be
connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with
the battery eliminator.
 Incorrect Circuit Diagram:
 Corrected Circuit Diagram:
Result: The electrical circuit assembled as per the
corrected circuit diagram is functional.

Explanation of Correct Connections:

 Battery is connected across the entire circuit to

provide voltage.
 Resistor is connected in series with the battery and
the rest of the components. Ammeter is connected in
series with the resistor to measure the current
flowing through the circuit.
 Voltmeter is connected in parallel across the resistor
to measure the voltage drop across the resistor.

If the components were not connected

properly:

 If the ammeter were connected in parallel (instead of

series), it would give incorrect readings and could
potentially damage the ammeter since it would have
to carry a large current that is not designed for
parallel connections.
 If the voltmeter were connected in series, it would
limit the current in the circuit and cause inaccurate
readings.
Correction:
 Ensure the ammeter is in series with the resistor.
 Ensure the voltmeter is in parallel with the resistor.
 EXPERIMENT- 2

Aim:- To observe refraction and lateral deviation of

a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.

Apparatus Needed:

 Glass Slab (rectangular or square)

 Light Source (like a ray box or laser pointer)
 Protractor (for measuring angles)
 Plain Paper (for tracing the light paths)
 Pencil(for marking the incident and refracted rays)
 Ruler(for accurate drawing)
 Glass slab with parallel sides** (important for this
experiment)
 Clamps or stands (to secure the glass slab)

Theory:
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass
slab, then it bends towards the normal since refraction
takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted
ray (QR) travel along straight line and incident on face DC
of slab and bends away from the normal since refraction
takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS)
out through face DC is called emergent ray. From the
following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i

= e.
2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its
original path (incident ray) by a distance d = t secr
sin (i-r).

Procedure:

1.Set up the Glass Slab:

Place the glass slab on a piece of plain paper and draw
around it to mark its position. This will help you retum it
to the same position later.

2.Incident Ray:
Set up a ray box or laser pointer so that the light strikes
the glass slab obliquely. Use a protractor to adjust the
angle of incidence (i.e., the angle between the incident
ray and the normal to the surface of the glass).

3.Mark the Incident Ray:

Use a pencil to mark the path of the incident ray on the
paper. Ensure the ray is clearly visible.

4.Refraction:
After the light enters the glass slab, it will bend due to
refraction. Mark the path of the refracted ray inside the
glass slab.

5.Emerging Ray:
As the light exits the glass slab, mark the direction of the
emerging ray on the other side. Since the glass slab has
parallel sides, the emerging ray will be parallel to the
incident ray but displaced laterally.

6. Observe Lateral Deviation

The difference in the position of the incident and
emergent ray on the paper represents the **lateral
deviation**. Measure the displacement between the
incident and emergent rays using a ruler.

7. Repeat for Different Angles:

Vary the angle of incidence (for example, 30, 45”, and
60”) and observe how the refraction and lateral deviation
change.
Diagram:

Observations:

Refraction occurs as the light passes from air (less dense)

into glass (denser), bending toward the normal when
entering the glass slab and away from the normal when
emerging
The lateral deviation is the perpendicular distance
between the incident ray and the emergent ray. It
depends on the angle of incidence and the thickness of
the glass slab.

 Angle of incidence ( i ) = Angle of emergence ( e ).

 The lateral displacement increases with the increase
in the thickness of the slab.
 The lateral displacement increases with the angle of
incidence (i).

Conclusion:

 The refraction observed is due to the change in the

speed of light as it passes from one medium to
another.
 Lateral deviation increases with the angle of
incidence but remains constant for a particular
thickness of the slab.

This experiment demonstrates the basic principles

of refraction and lateral deviation.

ACTIVITY – 3
Aim:- To observe the diffraction of light due to thin
slit.

Apparatus Needed:

 Monochromatic Light Source (like a laser pointer or

sodium lamp)
 Single Slit (thin slit with known width)
 Screen (white screen to observe the diffraction
pattern)
 Ruler (to measure distances)
 Stand or Clamp (to hold the slit and screen in
position)
 Micrometer or Caliper (for measuring the slit width if
needed)

Theory:-

When a beam of monochromatic light falls on a narrow

slit of small width, the light bends around the edges of
the slit. If a screen is placed at a suitable distance,
diffraction pattern due to the slit is obtained.
"The phenomenon of bending of light around corners and
spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is
called diffraction".
The diffraction pattern consists of a central maxima
surrounded on either side by a number of alternate dark
or bright bands known as secondary Minima and Maxima.

Procedure:

1. Set up the Slit and Light Source:

Place the thin slit on a stand or clamp. It should be placed
in front of a monochromatic light source (e.g., a laser
pointer or sodium lamp).
- The slit should be oriented perpendicular to the
incoming light beam.

2.Position the Screen:

- Place a white screen at a measurable distance (say 1-2
meters) from the slit. The screen should be large enough
to clearly show the diffraction pattern.

3. Shine the Light Through the Slit:

Tum on the light source and allow the light to pass
through the thin slit.
As the light passes through the slit, it will diffract (spread
out) and form a pattern on the screen.

4. Observe the Diffraction Pattern:

- You will observe a central bright spot (central maximum)
in the middle of the screen. On either side of the central
maximum, you will see alternating dark and bright fringes
(minima and maxima), which are the diffraction pattern.

5.Measure the Fringe Pattern:

Measure the distance between the central maximum and
the first minima on either side.
You can use a ruler for this. This distance is related to the
wavelength of the light and the slit width.

6. Repeat with Different Slit Widths (Optional):

You can repeat the experiment with slits of different
widths to see how the diffraction pattern changes. A
narrower slit will cause more diffraction (larger fringes),
while a wider slit will produce less diffraction (smaller
fringes).

Theory Behind Diffraction:

 Diffraction occurs when light encounters an obstacle
or slit that is comparable in size to its wavelength.

 According to Huygens' Principle, every point on the

wavefront can be considered a secondary source of
spherical waves. When the light passes through a
narrow slit, these secondary waves interfere with
each other, creating a diffraction pattern.
Diffraction Pattern:
Central Maximum: The brightest spot in the center.
Secondary Maxima and Minima: Alternating bright and
dark bands on either side of the central maximum.

The angular positions of the minima are given by the

equation: a sin 0 = η λ

- a is the width of the slit.

- 0 is the angle of the minima from the central
maximum,
- N is the order of the minima (1, 2, 3, …),
- A is the wavelength of the light.

Observations:
 The number of fringes and their spacing depends on
the wavelength of the light and the width of the slit.
 The diffraction effect is more pronounced when the
slit is comparable in size to the wavelength of the
light.

Conclusion:
You will observe a diffraction pattern, with a central bright
fringe and alternating dark and bright fringes on either
side. This shows the wave nature of light, as light spreads
out after passing through the slit. The pattern can be
used to calculate the wavelength of light if the slit width
and distance to the screen are known.
 ACTIVITY- 4

Aim:- To obtain lens combination with the

Specified focal length by using two lens from the
given set of a lens.

Apparatus Needed:

 Two lenses (from the given set) with known focal

lengths.
 Stand or lens holder.
 Screen (to observe the image formation).
 Ruler or measuring tape (to measure the distance
between the lenses and the screen).
 Light source (to create a clear image).
 Calculation tools (such as a calculator) for finding the
required focal length.

Theory:

The total focal length (F1) of two lenses in combination

depends on whether the lenses are placed in series or
parallel (in contact or separated by a certain distance).
For two lenses in contact (series combination):
The combined focal length (F\) is given by:
1/F= 1/f1+ 1/f2

Where:
-f1 is the focal length of the first lens,
-f2 is the focal length of the second lens.

For two lenses separated by a distance (parallel

combination):
The formula becomes more complex and requires
knowledge of the distance between the two lenses.
However, most simple experiments focus on the series
combination for obtaining a desired focal length.

Procedure:

 Choose the Lenses:

o From the given set, select two lenses with known
focal lengths \(f_1\) and \(f_2 \).

 Place the Lenses in Contact:

  Place the two lenses in contact with each other (i.e.,
no distance between them). Ensure they are aligned
along the same axis.

 Measure the Focal Length:

 Calculate the combined focal length using the

formula for lenses in contact:

 [ 1/F = 1/f1+1/f2 ]
 After calculating the combined focal length \(FI), you
can verify the result by observing the image formed
on the screen.

 Adjust the Lens Position (Optional):

o If needed, you can slightly separate the lenses

and re measure the combined This will allow you
to explore the effect of lens separation, but the
simplest case are in contact.

 Final Adjustment for Desired Focal Length:

If the combined focal length does not match the required
focal length, adjust the lens combination by trying
different lenses from the set, or modify the distance
between the lenses (in the case of parallel combination)

Conclusion:

By combining two lenses in contact, you can obtain a

desired focal length. The combination can either reduce
or increase the effective focal length, depending on the
individual lens properties. This process is crucial in optical
instruments such as telescopes, microscopes, and
cameras.