MODULE 2

AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

96
 Lecture 1

AC CIRCUITS

 Introduction: An alternating function or AC Waveform is defined as one that varies in

both magnitude and direction with respect to time making it a “Bi-directional”
waveform.
 An AC function can represent either a power source or a signal source with the shape
of an AC waveform generally following that of a mathematical sinusoid being
defined as:
( )= ∗ sin(2 )
 The term AC which is also abbreviated as aleternating current, refers to the time-
varying waveform which is also known as sinusoidal waveform.
 It is to be noted that sinusoidal waveforms are also known as sine waves.
 An AC waveform is constantly changing its polarity every half cycle alternating
between a positive maximum value and a negative maximum value respectively
with regards to time with a common example of this being the domestic mains
voltage supply we use in our homes
 Alternating voltages and currents can not be stored in batteries or cells like direct
current (DC) can, it is much easier and cheaper to generate these quantities using
alternators or waveform generators when they are needed.
 The type and shape of an AC waveform depends upon the generator or device
producing them, but all AC waveforms consist of a zero voltage line that divides the
waveform into two symmetrical halves.
 Generation of Alternating voltages and Currents:
 An alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in the magnetic field
which is shown in the following figure:

 Alternating voltage may also be generated by rotating a magnetic field with a

stationary coil.

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  From the two scenarios which are shown, the value of the voltage generated depends:
 upon the number of turns in the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the
coil or magnetic field rotates.
 Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the two ways shown above, but
rotating-field method is the one which is mostly used in practice.

 Equations for the generation of alternating voltages and currents

 Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field,
with an angular velocity of ω radian/second and is shown in the below figure:

 X-axis represents the time.

 Maximum flux Φm is linked with the coil, when its plane coincides with the X-axis.
 In time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle θ = ωt.
 In this deflected position, the component of the flux which is perpendicular to the
plane of the coil, is Φ = Φm cos ωt.
 Hence, flux linkages of the coil at any time is given by Φ = N Φ cos ωt.
 According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f induced in the
coil is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil. Therefore, the value
of the induced e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. when θ = ω t) or the instantaneous value of
the induced e.m.f. can be expressed as

= − ( Φ) Volts (i)

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 Upon substituting the value of Φ = N Φ cos ωt into equation (i), the
expression can be modified as follows
= − (N Φ cos ωt) Volts = NωΦ sin ωt = NωΦ sinθ Volts (ii)
 It is to be noted that that maximum e.m.f is produced when the value of θ is chosen to
be 90 . Therefore, equation (ii) can be solved to yield the following expression:
 = NωΦ = NωB A = 2πfNB A Volts (iii)

 From equation (iii),

B represents the maximum flux density which can be expressed in

A is the area of the coil in

f = frequency of rotation of the coil in rev/second

 Upon substituting the value of which is represented by equation (iii) into equation
(ii), the following expression is attained:
e= sinθ = sinωt (iv)

 In the same manner, the expression for the induced current can be expressed as
I= sinθ = sinωt (v)
 Since ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil, the above equations of
the voltage and current can be written as

 It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time angle ω t and
when e.m.f. is plotted against time, a curve similar to the one shown in the below
figures is obtained. This curve is known as sine curve and the e.m.f. which varies in
this manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f. Such a sine curve can be conveniently
drawn, as shown in the figure, A vector, equal in length to Em is drawn. It rotates in
the counter-clockwise direction with a velocity of ω radian/second, making one
revolution while the generated e.m.f. makes two loops or one cycle. The projection
of this vector on Y-axis gives the instantaneous value e of the induced e.m.f. i.e. Em
sin ω t.

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 Characterisitcs of AC Waveforms:
1. The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to
repeat itself from start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of
the waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
2. The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within
a one second time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period,
( ƒ = 1/T ) with the unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
3. The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform
measured in volts or amps.
Simple Waveforms:
 In general, the shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of
voltage or current as the ordinate against time as a abscissa is called its waveform or
wave-shape.

 In general, however, an alternating current or voltage is one the circuit direction of

which reverses at regularly recurring intervals.

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 Periodic current wavform
(a) Current (i) (b) Square of current ( )
 Average Value:
The current waveform as shown in the above figure is periodic in nature, with time
period, T. It is positive for first half cycle, while it is negative for second half cycle.
The average value of the waveform, ( ) is defined as follows:
ℎ
= ( )
ℎ
The above equation (vi) can be further expressed as
1 2
= ( ) = ( )
2

Please note that, in this case, only half cycle, or half of the time period, is to be used for
computing the average value, as the average value of the waveform over full cycle is
zero (0).
If the half time period (T/2) is divided into 6 equal time intervals (TΔ), then

( + + + + + )∆ ( + + + + + )
= =
6. ∆ 6
ℎ
=
ℎ

It is to be noted that the total number of intervals will be 6.

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 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value:
For this current in half time period subdivided into 6 time intervals as given above, in
the resistance R, the average value of energy dissipated is given by

( + + + + + )
∝
6

The graph of the square of the current waveform ( (t)), is shown in the above figure.
Let I be the value of the direct current that produces the same energy dissipated in the
resistance R, as produced by the periodic waveform with half time period subdivided
into n time intervals

( + + + + + )∆
=
.∆

( + + + + + )∆
=
.∆

ℎ
=
ℎ

= ∫ ( ) = ∫ ( )

This value is termed as Root Mean Square (RMS). Also to be noted that the same rms
value of the current is obtained using the full cycle, or the time period.

 Average and RMS values of Sinusoidal Voltage Waveform

Sinusoidal Signal Waveform

(a) Voltage (V) (b) Square of Voltage ( ( ))

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The waveform of the voltage V(t), and the square of waveform ( ) are shown in the
above figures respectively:
The time period is given by: = =

Half time period: =

Calculation of Average Value and RMS Value:

Therefore, the RMS value is given by = 0.707

If time t, is used as a variable, instead of angle , the average value can be expressed as

In the same manner, the RMS value can also be determined.

The different factors are defined as follows:

0.707
= = = 1.11
0.637

= = = 1.414
0.707

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Example 1: For the triangular waveform which is shown in the below figure, determine
the RMS value, Average Value, Form Factor and Peak Factor

The time period is given as T

and

The average value and the RMS values are calculated as follows:

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 Example 2:

The trapezoidal voltage waveform is given with time period

Please note that time, t is in ms, and slope, m is in V/ms. Also to be noted that, as in the
case of sinusoidal waveform, only half time period is taken here for the computation of
the average and rms values

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 LECTURE 2

Concept of j-operator:

 When dealing with frequency dependent sinusoidal sources, we need to use

complex numbers along with real numbers.
 complex number consists of two distinct but very much related parts, a “Real
Number ” plus an “Imaginary Number ”.
 Complex Numbers represent points in a two dimensional complex or s-plane that
are referenced to two distinct axes. The horizontal axis is called the “real axis”
while the vertical axis is called the “imaginary axis”.
 The j-operator has a value exactly equal to √-1.

Complex Numbers using the Rectangular Form:

Z=x+jy

 Where:
Z - is the Complex Number representing the Vector
x - is the Real part or the Active component
y - is the Imaginary part or the Reactive component
j - is defined by √-1
Example:

 As the j-operator is commonly used to indicate the anticlockwise rotation of a

vector, each successive multiplication or power of j , j2, j3 etc, will force the vector
to rotate through a fixed angle of 90o in an anticlockwise direction as shown below.
Likewise, if the multiplication of the vector results in a -j operator then the phase
shift will be -90o, i.e. a clockwise rotation.

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Impedance and Admittance:

AC Resistance with a Sinusoidal Supply:

 As the load is a resistance, the current and voltage will both reach their
maximum or peak values and fall through zero at exactly the same time, i.e.
they rise and fall simultaneously and are therefore said to be “in-phase ”.

 Voltage-current relationship in a DC circuit is commonly called Resistance, as

defined by Ohm’s Law but in a sinusoidal AC circuit this voltage-current
relationship is now called Impedance.

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 The impedance vector is represented by the letter, ( Z ) for an AC resistance
value with the units of Ohm’s ( Ω ) the same as for DC. Then Impedance ( or AC
resistance ) can be defined as:

= Ω

 Impedance can also be represented by a complex number as it depends upon

the frequency of the circuit, ω when reactive components are present. But in
the case of a purely resistive circuit this reactive component will always be zero

= + 0= Ω

AC Inductance with a Sinusoidal Supply:

 The reactance of an inductor is called Inductive Reactance, ( XL ) and is

measured in Ohms.

=2 = Ω

 Where:
XL = Inductive Reactance in Ohms, (Ω)
π (pi) = a numeric constant of 3.142
ƒ = Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
L = Inductance in Henries, (H)

 Voltage applied to a purely inductive circuit “LEADS” the current by a quarter

of a cycle or 90o

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 AC Capacitance with a Sinusoidal Supply

 The reactance of a capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ) which is

measured in Ohms.
1
=
2

 ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and C is the AC capacitance in Farads,

 Voltage applied to a purely capacitive circuit “LAGS” the current by a quarter of
a cycle or 90o as shown below.

Series RLC Circuit:

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  The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with current
 The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by
90o
 The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by
90o
 Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.

= +( − )

Parallel RLC Circuit:

Admittance of a Parallel RLC Circuit:

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  The unit of measurement now commonly used for admittance is the Siemens,
abbreviated as S, ( old unit mho’s ℧, ohm’s in reverse ). Admittances are added
together in parallel branches, whereas impedance’s are added together in
series branches. But if we can have a reciprocal of impedance, we can also
have a reciprocal of resistance and reactance as impedance consists of two
components, R and X. Then the reciprocal of resistance is
called Conductance and the reciprocal of reactance is called Susceptance.

Q1: Find the impedance of following circuit:

Solution:

Inductive Reactance, ( X L ):

Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ):

Impedance, ( Z ):

Supply Current, ( Is ):

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Q2: A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a
capacitor of 100uF are connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the total
circuit impedance, the circuits current, power factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram.

Solution:

Inductive Reactance, XL.

Capacitive Reactance, XC.

Circuit Impedance, Z.

Circuits Current, I.

Voltages across the Series RLC Circuit, VR, VL, VC.

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Circuits Power factor and Phase Angle, θ.

Phasor Diagram.

Since the phase angle θ is calculated as a positive value of 51.8o the overall
reactance of the circuit must be inductive.

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 LECTURE 3
LECTURE: 4

Kirchhoff’s Laws: The statements of Kirchhoff’s laws are similar to those

discussed for d.c. networks except that instead of algebraic sum of currents and
voltages, you take phasor or vector sums for a.c. networks.

[1] Kirchhoff’s Current Law: According to this law, in any electrical network,
the phasor or vector sumof the currents meeting at a junction is zero.
In other words, at a junction ΣI = 0.

Put in another way, it simply means that in any electrical circuit the phasor
sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the phasor sum of
the currents going away from that junction shown in figure below.

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: According to this law, the phasor sum of the
voltage drops across each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network plus the phasor sum of the e.m.fs. connected in that path is zero.
In other words, Σ IR + Σ e.m.f. = 0 ………………………….round a
mesh

Example:1 Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find the current flowing in each branch of
the network shown in figure below.

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Solution:
Let the current distribution be as shown in Fig. (b). Starting from point A
and applying KVL to closed loop ABEFA, we get
−10( i1 + i2 ) − 20 i1 + 100 = 0 or 3 i1 + i2 = 10
………………………...(i)
Similarly, considering the closed loop BCDEB and starting from point B, we
have
−50 ∠90º + 5 i2 + 10 (i1 + i2) = 0 or 2 i1 + 3 i2 = j10
…………………………...(ii)
Multiplying Eq. (i) by 3 and subtracting it from Eq. (ii), we get
7 i1 = 30 −j10 or i1 = 4.3 −j1.4 = 4.52 ∠−18º
Substituting this value of x in Eq. (i), we have
i2 = 10 − 3 i1 = 5.95 ∠ 119.15º = − 2.9 + j5.2
∴ i1 + i2 = 4.3 −j1.4 − 2.9 + j5.2 = 1.4 + j3.8

Example:2 Using Kirchhoff’s Laws, calculate the current flowing through each
branch of the circuit shown in figure below.

Solution:
Apply KCL at node B, we get
I=I1+I2
Apply KVL to closed loop ABEFA, we get
(6+j8) I1 - 5 ∠90º + (3+j4) I =0
or, (6+j8) I1 + (3+j4) I =5 ∠90º

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 or, (6+j8) I1 + (3+j4) (I1+I2) =5 ∠90º
or, (6+j8+3+j4) I1 + (3+j4) I2=5 ∠90º
or, (9+j12) I1 + (3+j4) I2=5 ∠90º
15∠53.13º I1 + 5∠53.13º=5 ∠90º -----------------------------------------(i)
Similarly, Apply KVL to closed loop BCDEF, we get
(2-j5) I2 - 4.47 ∠63.4º - (6+j8) I1 =0
(2-j5) I2 - (6+j8) I1 = 4.47 ∠63.4º
- (6+j8) I1 + (2-j5) I2 = 4.47 ∠63.4º
10∠-126.86º I1 + 5.38∠-68.198º I2 =4.47 ∠63.4º --------------------------
(ii)
By solving eqns (i) & (ii)
I2 =1.64∠104.99, I1 = 0.523∠-38.817, I=1.256∠90.76 Ans.

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 LECTURE 4

 Power Analysis:

 Power analysis is of paramount importance.

 Power is the most important quantity in electric utilities, electronic, and

communication
o Such systems involve transmission of power from one point to another

 Every industrial and household electrical device—every fan, motor, lamp,

pressing iron, TV, personal computer—has a power rating that indicates how
much power the equipmentrequires
o Exceeding the power rating can do permanent damage to an appliance.

 The most common form of electric power is 50- or 60-Hz ac power.

 The choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage power transmission from the

power generating plant to the consumer.

 Apparent Power and Power Factor:

Let voltage and current at the terminals of a circuit are given as :

( )= ( + ) ( )= ( + )

Where and represent peak value of the voltage and current, respectively.

In phasor form, V = ∠ I= ∠

The average power is given as:

1
= cos( − )
2
Which is equivalent to

= cos( − ) = cos( − )

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We have added a new term

The product is termed as apparent power .

 Apparent Power: The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of
voltage and current.
 Note: The apparent power is so called because it seems apparent that the power
should be the voltage-current product, by analogy with dc resistive circuits. It is
measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from the average or real power,
which is measured in watts

 Power factor: The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the
average power to the apparent power, given as

= = cos( − )

 The angle − is called power factor angle, since it is the angle whose
cosine is the power factor.

 The power factor angle is equal to the angle of the load impedance if is the
voltage across the load and is the current through it. This is evident from
the fact that

 Power factor is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

 Power factor may be seen as that factor by which the apparent power
must be multiplied to obtain the real or average power.

 The value of pf ranges between zero and unity.

 For a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase,
o − = 0 and =1
o This implies that the apparent power is equal to the average power

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  For a purely reactive load, − = ±90, which means pf = 0
o In this case the average power is zero
 In between these two extreme cases, is said to be leading or lagging

 Leading power factor means that current leads voltage, which implies a
capacitive load

 Lagging power factor means that current lags voltage, implying an

inductive load

 Power factor affects the electric bills consumers pay the electric utility
companies

 Complex Power:

Considerable effort has been expended over the years to express power relations
as simply as possible. Power engineers have coined the term complex power,
which they use to find the total effect of parallel loads. Complex power is
important in power analysis because it contains all the information pertaining to
the power absorbed by a given load.

Consider an ac load shoen in Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.1. The voltage and current phasors associated with a load

Given the phasor form = ∠ = ∠ of voltage ( ) and

current ( ) the complex power absorbed by the ac load is the product of the
voltage and the complex conjugate of the current, or

1 ∗
=
2
∗
In terms of rms value: =

Further, = ∠ −

= cos( − )+ sin( − )

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Note that the magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power; hence, the
complex power is measured in volt-amperes (VA).
Also, we notice that the angle of the complex power is the power factor angle.

The complex power may be expressed in terms of the load impedance Z.

Thus, =

Since = +

We have = ( + )= +

where and are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power;
that is,
= ( )=

= ( )=

is the average or real power and it depends on the load’s resistance .

depends on the load’s reactance and is called the reactive (or quadrature)
power.

Further, = cos( − ) = sin( − )

 The real power is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it

is the only useful power. It is the actual power dissipated by the load.

 The reactive power is a measure of the energy exchange between the

source and the reactive part of the load. The unit of is the volt-ampere
reactive (VAR) to distinguish it from the real power, whose unit is the
watt.

 We know that energy storage elements neither dissipate nor supply power,
but exchange power back and forth with the rest of the network.

 In the same way, the reactive power is being transferred back and forth
between the load and the source. It represents a lossless interchange between
the load and the source.

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 Notice that:

1. = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).

2. < 0 for capacitive load (leading pf)
3. > 0 for inductive load (lagging pf)

 Introducing the complex power enables us to obtain the real and reactive
powers directly from voltage and current phasors.

 It is a standard practice to represent , , and in the form of a triangle,

known as the power triangle, shown in Fig. 5.2(a).

 This is similar to the impedance triangle showing the relationship between Z,

R, and X, illustrated in Fig. 5.2(b).

 The power triangle has four items—the apparent/complex power, real

power, reactive power, and the power factor angle.

 Given two of these items, the other two can easily be obtained from the
triangle. As shown in Fig. 5.3 when lies in the first quadrant, we have
an inductive load and a lagging pf.

 When lies in the fourth quadrant, the load is capacitive and the pf is
leading. It is also possible for the complex power to lie in the second or
third quadrant.
 This requires that the load impedance have a negative resistance, which is
possible with active circuits.

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 Fig. 5.2. (a) Power triangle, (b) impedance triangle.

Fig. 5.3. Power triangle.

Example #1: The voltage across a load is ( ) = ( − °) and the

current through the element in the direction of the voltage drop is ( ) =
. ( + °)
Find: (a) the complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and reactive powers,
and (c) the power factor and the load impedance.

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Solution:

Example #2: A load Z draws 12 kVA at a power factor of 0.856 lagging from a
120-V rms sinusoidal source. Calculate: (a) the average and reactive powers
delivered to the load, (b) the peak current, and (c) the load impedance

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Solution:
(a) Given pf = 0.856, we obtain the power factor angle = cos 0.856 =
31.13°
Given apparent power drawn, S = 12000 VA
Average or Real Power, = = 12000 × 0.856 = 10.272

Reactive Power = = 12000 × 0.517 = 6.204

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