DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE AND DATA SCIENCE

AL3391-ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

YEAR:II
SEM: III

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DATA
SCIENCE
AL3391- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
UNIT I INTELLIGENT AGENTS
Introduction to AI - Agents and Environments - concept of rationality - nature of environments
- structure of agents. Problem solving agents – search algorithms - uninformed search
strategies.
1. Introduction to AI
Possible questions
1. What are the applications of AI? (2) (APRIL / MAY 2021)
2. Define Artificial Intelligence (AI). Explain the techniques of AI and describe
the characteristics of AI. (13) (APRIL / MAY 2021)
In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch with
different new technologies day by day.
Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial Intelligence which
is ready to create a new revolution in the world by making intelligent machines. The
Artificial Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently working with a variety of
subfields, ranging from general to specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess,
proving theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.
AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a great
scope in future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial
defines "man- made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-made
thinking power."
So, we can define AI as:
"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which
can behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."
Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as
learning, reasoning, and solving problems.
 With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do some
work, despite that you can create a machine with programmed algorithms which

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 can work with own intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.
 It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people says that as per
Greek myth, there were Mechanical men in early days which can work and behave
like humans.

1.1 Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the
importance of AI and why should we learn it.
Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:
 With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-
world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing,
traffic issues, etc.
 With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as
Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
 With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment
where survival of humans can be at risk.
 AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

1.2 Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Replicate human intelligence
2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence
such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by
itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

1.3 What Comprises to Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast and
requires lots of other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first we should
know that how intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is an intangible part of our
brain which is a combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-solvingperception,
language understanding, etc.
To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence requires the

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following discipline:
 Mathematics
 Biology
 Psychology
 Sociology
 Computer Scien ce
 Neurons Study
 Statistics

1.4 Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:
 High Accuracy with less error: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and
high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
 High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast- decision making;
because of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
 High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action
multiple times with high accuracy.
 Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a
bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
 Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such
as AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the
products as per customer requirement.
 Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-
driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial
recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing to communicate
with the human in human-language, etc.

1.5 Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

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 Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for Artificial
intelligence. Being so advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we
need to keep in our mind while creating an AI system.
Following are the disadvantages of AI:
 High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires
lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
 Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still
they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they
are trained, or programmed.
 No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still
it does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment
with human, and may sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is
nottaken.
 Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are
getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental
capabilities.
 No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but
still AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative
and imaginative.

1.6 History of Artificial Intelligence

 Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for researchers.
 This technology is much older than you would imagine. Even there are the myths of
Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths.
 Following are some milestones in the history of AI which defines the journey from
the AI generation to till date development.

Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

 Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
 Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the
connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
 Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered
Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's
ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called
a Turing test.

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The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)
 Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial
intelligence program -Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had
proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant
proofs for some theorems.
 Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American
Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first
time, AI coined as an academic field.
 At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL
were invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

 Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in
1966, which was named as ELIZA.
 Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was
named as WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

 The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter
refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of

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 funding from government for AI researches.
 During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)
 Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human
expert.
 In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of
Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

 The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
 Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost
but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

 Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
 Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a
vacuum cleaner.
 Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like
Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011- present)
 Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it
had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it
could understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
 Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was
able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
 Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in
the infamous "Turing test."
 Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two
master debaters and also performed extremely well.
 Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant
and which had taken hairdresser appointment on call and lady on other side didn't
notice that she was talking with the machine.
Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and
data science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook,
IBM, and Amazon are working with AI and creating amazing devices.

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The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.

1.7 Types of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of
main categorization which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI
Following is flow diagram which explains the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

Weak AI or Narrow AI:
 Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence.
The most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial
Intelligence.
 Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for
one specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in
unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
 Apple Siri is a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined
range of functions.
 IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert
system approach combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.
 Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-
commerce site, self-driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.

General AI:
 General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with
efficiency like a human.
 The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and
think like a human by its own.
 Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can

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 perform any task as perfect as a human.
 The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
 As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and
time to develop such systems.

Super AI:
 Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass
human intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive
properties. It is an outcome of general AI.
 Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to
reason, solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.
 Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such
systems in real is still world changing task.

Artificial Intelligence type-2:

Based on functionality
Reactive Machines
 Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
 Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
 These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it asper possible
best action.
 IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactivemachines.
 Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactivemachines.
Limited Memory
 Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period
of time.

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  These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
 Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These
cars can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit,
and other information to navigate the road.
Theory of Mind
 Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be
able to interact socially likehumans.
 This type of AI machines is still not developed, but researchers are making lots of
efforts and improvement for developing such AI machines.
Self-Awareness
 Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be
super intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-
awareness.
 These machines will be smarter than human mind.
 Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.
1.8 Application of AI
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming
essential for today's time because it can solve complex problems with an efficient way in
multiple industries, such as Healthcare, entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is
making our daily life more comfortable and fast.
Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial Intelligence:

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1. AI in Astronomy
 Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works,
origin, etc.
2. AI in Healthcare
 In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare
industry and going to have a significant impact on this industry.
 Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis
than humans. AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients
are worsening so that medical help can reach to the patient before
hospitalization.
3. AI in Gaming
 AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games
like chess, where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible
places.
4. AI in Finance
 AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance
industry is implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm
trading, and machine learning into financial processes.
5. AI in Data Security
 The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber- attacks are
growing very rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data
more safe and secure. Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform, are used
to determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.
6. AI in Social Media
 Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of
user profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI
can organize and manage massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data
to identify the latest trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.
7. AI in Travel & Transport
 AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing
various travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to
suggesting the hotels, flights, and best routes to the customers. Travel
industries are using AI- powered chatbots which can make human-like
interaction with customers for better and fast response.
8. AI in Automotive Industry
 Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their
user for better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an
intelligent virtual assistant.

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  Various Industries are currently working for developing self- driven
cars which can make your journey more safe and secure.
9. AI in Robotics:
 Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots
are programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the
help of AI, we can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their
own experiences without pre-programmed.
 Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent
Humanoid robot named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk
and behave likehumans.
10. AI in Entertainment
 We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI
algorithms, these services show the recommendations for programs or shows.
11. AI in Agriculture
 Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time
for best result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging
in this field. Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop
monitoring, predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for
farmers.
12. AI in E-commerce
 AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming
more demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover
associated products with recommended size, color, or even brand.
13. AI in education:
 AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI
chatbot can communicate with students as a teaching assistant.
 AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be
accessible easily at any time and any place.

2. Agents and
Environments Possible
questions
Name the elements of an agent and list out the characteristics of intelligent agent.
(APRIL / MAY 2021)
How does artificial intelligence differ from human intelligence? (APRIL / MAY
2022) List the various types of agent program. (APRIL / MAY 2022)
Represent the structure of an agent in an environment

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2.1 Agents in Artificial Intelligence
An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its
environment. The agents sense the environment through sensors and act on their
environment through actuators. An AI agent can have mental properties such as
knowledge, belief, intention, etc. What is an Agent?
o An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through sensors and act
upon that environment through actuators.
o An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:
o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for
sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for
sensors and various motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory
input and act on those inputs and display output on the screen.
o Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera,
and even we are also agents.
o Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and
actuators.
Sensor
Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the
information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through
sensors.
Actuators:
Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The
actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be
an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.
Effectors:
Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs,
wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

Agent Environment in AI
 An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not
a part of an agent itself.

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  An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.
 The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with
something to sense and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-
feministic.

2.2 Intelligent Agents:

List down the characteristics of an intelligent agent.(APRIL/MAY 2022)
An intelligent agent is autonomous entities which act upon an environment using
sensors and actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the
environment to achieve their goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.
Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:
Rule1: An AI agent must h a v e the ability to perceive the
environment. Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.
2.3 Types of AI
Agents Possible
questions
List the various types of agent program. (APRIL / MAY 2022)
 Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence
and capability. All these agents can improve their performance and generate better
action over the time.
 These are given below:
• Simple Reflex Agent
• Model-based reflex agent
• Goal-based agents
• Utility-based agent
• Learning agent
1. Simple Reflex agent:
  The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on
the basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
 These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
 The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their
decision and action process.
 The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the
current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt
in the room.
 Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
 They have very limited intelligence
 They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state mostly too
big to generate and to store.
 Not adaptive to changes in the environment.
2. Model-based reflex agent
o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track the
situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
• Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called
a Model-based agent.
• Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on
percept history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the
model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:
a. How the world evolves
b. How the agent's action affects the world.

3. Goal-based agents
• The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide for

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 an agent to what to do.
• The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
• Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having
the "goal" information.
• They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
• These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before
deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different scenario
are called searching and planning, which makes an agent proactive.

4. Utility-based agents
o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component of
utility measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of success at
a given state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the goal.
o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and an
agent has to choose in order to perform the best action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each
action achieves the goals.

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 5. Learning Agents
• A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences, or
it has learning capabilities.
• It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.
• A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from
environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how
well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that
will lead to new and informative experiences.
o Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new
ways to improve the performance.

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3. Rational Agent:
Possible questions
1. Define rationality concept in agents. (NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2021)
2. Provide PEAS description for robo navigation problem.
(NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2021)
 A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and
acts in a way to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.
 A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational
agents to use for game theory and decision theory for various real-world
scenarios.
 For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement
learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and
for each wrong action, an agent gets a negative reward.
3.1 Rationality:
 The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality
can be judged on the basis of following points:
o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.
4. Nature of Environment
 As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point
of view of an agent:
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable
2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:
• If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at
each point of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially
observable.
• A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the
internal state to keep track history of the world.
• An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called

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 as unobservable.
2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
• If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the
next state of the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic
environment.
• A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely
by an agent.
• In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry
about uncertainty.
3. Episodic vs Sequential:
• In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only
the current percept is required for the action.
• However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to
determine the next best actions.
4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
• If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then
such an environment is called single agent environment.
• However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an
environment is called a multi-agent environment.
• The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from
single agent environment.
5. Static vs Dynamic:
• If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such
environment is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static
environment.
• Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue
looking at the world while deciding for an action.
• However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at
each action.
• Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword
puzzles are an example of a staticenvironment.
6. Discrete vs Continuous:
• If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can
be performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete
environment else it is called continuous environment.
• A chess gamecomes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of
moves that can be performed.
• A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.
7. Known vs Unknown

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 •Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an
agent's state of knowledge to perform an action.
• In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent.
While in unknown environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to
perform an action.
• It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an
Unknown environment to be fully observable.
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
• If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's
environment, then such an environment is called an Accessible environment
else it is called inaccessible.
• An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of
an accessible environment.
• Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
5. Structure of an AI Agent
 The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function.
The structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent
program. It can be viewed as:
Agent = Architecture + Agent program
 Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:
1. Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executeson.
2. Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.
f:P* → A
3. Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function
An agent program executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.
PEAS Representation

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or
rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model.
It is made up of four words:
o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors
Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.
PEAS for self-driving cars:

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Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:
Performance : Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
Environment : Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
Actuators : Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
Sensors : Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.
Example of Agents with their PEAS representation
Performance
Agent Environment Actuators Sensors
measure
Medical Healthy patient Patient Hospital Tests Keyboard
Diagnose Minimized Staff Treatments (Entry of symptoms)
cost
Vacuum Cleanness Room Table Wheels Camera, Dirt
Cleaner Efficiency Wood floor Brushes detection sensor, Cliff
Battery life Carpet Various Vacuum sensor Bump Sensor,
Security obstacles Extractor Infrared WallSensor

Part Percentage of Conveyor belt Jointed Arms Camera

picking partsin with parts, Hand Joint angle sensors.
Robot Correct bins. Bins

6. Problem-solving agents
 In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal problem-solving methods.
 Rational agents or Problem-solving agents in AI mostly used these search
strategies or algorithms to solve a specific problem and provide the best result.
 Problem- solving agents are the goal-based agents and use atomic representation.
 In this topic, we will learn various problem-solving search algorithms.
 Some of the most popularly used problem solving with the help of artificial
intelligence are:
1. Chess.
2. Travelling Salesman Problem.

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 3. Tower of Hanoi Problem.
4. Water-Jug Problem.
5. N-Queen Problem.
Problem: Problems are the issues which come across any system.A solution is needed to solve
that particular problem.
Steps: Solve Problem Using Artificial Intelligence
 The process of solving a problem consists of five steps. These are:

Figure: Problem Solving in Artificial Intelligence

Measuring problem-solving performance
We can evaluate an algorithm’s performance in four ways:
Completeness : Is the algorithm guaranteed to find a solution when there is one?
Optimality : Does the strategy find the optimal solution?
Time complexity : How long does it take to find a solution?
Space complexity : How much memory is needed to perform the search?
7. Problem Searching
 In general, searching refers to as finding information one needs.
 Searching is the most commonly used technique of problem solving in
artificial intelligence.
 The searching algorithm helps us to search for solution of particular problem.
7.1 Search Algorithm Terminologies:
 Search: Searching is a step by step procedure to solve a search- problem in a given
search space. A search problem can have three main factors:
o Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions, which
a system may have.
o Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
o Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and
returns whether the goal state is achieved or not.

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  Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The
root of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial state.
 Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
 Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented as a
transition model.
 Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
 Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal node.
 Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.

7.2 Properties of Search Algorithms:

 Following are the four essential properties of search algorithms to compare the
efficiency of these algorithms:
1. Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to return
a solution if at least any solution exists for any random input.
2. Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best
solution (lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution for is
said to be an optimal solution.
3. Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm to
complete its task.
4. Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point during
the search, as the complexity of the problem.
7.3 Types of search
algorithms Possible
questions
Differentiate between uninformed and informed search algorithms. (APRIL /
MAY 2021)
Based on the search problems we can classify the search algorithms into uninformed
(Blind search) search and informed search (Heuristic search) algorithms.

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7.3.1 Uninformed/Blind Search:
 The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such as closeness,
the location of the goal.
 It operates in a brute-force way as it only includes information about how to
traverse the tree and how to identify leaf and goal nodes.
 Uninformed search applies a way in which search tree is searched without any
information about the search space like initial state operators and test for the goal,
so it is also called blind search.
 It examines each node of the tree until it achieves the goal node.
 It can be divided into five main types:
1. Breadth-first search
2. Uniform costsearch
3. Depth-first search
4. Iterative deepening depth-first search
5. Bidirectional Search
7.3.2 Informed Search
 Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge.
 In an informed search, problem information is available which can guide the search.
 Informed search strategies can find a solution more efficiently than an uninformed
search strategy. Informed search is also called a Heuristic search.
 A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions but
guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.
 Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be solved in
another way.
 An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.
1. Greedy Search
2. A* Search
8. Uninformed Search Algorithms
Possible questions
Explain about Uninformed Search Algorithms(13m)
 Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which operates
in brute force-way.
 Uninformed search algorithms do not have additional information about state or
search space other than how to traverse the tree, so it is also called blind search.
 Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:
1. Breadth-first Search
2. Depth-first Search
3. Depth-limited Search
4. Iterative deepening depth-first search

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 5. Uniform costsearch
6. Bidirectional Search
1. Breadth-first Search:
 Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph.
 This algorithm searches breadth wise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first
search.
 BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all
successor nodes at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
 The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general- graph search algorithm.
 Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.
Advantages:
 BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.
 If there is more than one solution for a given problem, then BFS will provide the
minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.
Disadvantages:
 It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into
memory to expand the next level.
 BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.
Example:
In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using BFS algorithm
from the root node S to goal node K. BFS search algorithm traverse in layers, so it will
follow the path which is shown by the dotted arrow, and the traversed path will be:
1. S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I >K

Time Complexity:
Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained by the number of nodes traversed in

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 BFS until the shallowest Node. Where the d= depth of shallowest solution and b is a node
at every state.
T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.....+ bd= O (bd)
Space Complexity:
Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the Memory size of frontier which is O(bd).
Completeness:
BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal node is at some finite depth, then BFS
will find a solution.
Optimality:
BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the node.
2. Depth-first Search
 Depth-first search is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph
data structure.
 It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows
each path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
 DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
 The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.
Advantage:
 DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the
path from root node to the current node.
 It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in
the right path).
Disadvantage:
 There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no
guarantee of finding the solution.
 DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the
infinite loop.
Example:
In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will follow
the order as:
Root node--->Left node-----> right node.
It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after
traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and still goal node is
not found. Afterbacktracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it will terminate
as it found goal node.

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 Completeness:
 DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space as it will expand
every node within a limited search tree.
Time Complexity:
 Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node traversed by the
algorithm. It is given by:
T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.......+ nm=O(nm)
Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than d
(Shallowest solution depth)
Space Complexity:
 DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the root node, hence space
complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which is O(bm).
Optimal:
 DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large number of steps or
high cost to reach to the goal node.
3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:
 A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined
limit.
 Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first search.
 In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no successor nodes
further.
 Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:
 Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
 Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given
depth limit.
Advantages:
Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.

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 Disadvantages:
 Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.
 It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.
Example:

Completeness:
 DLS search algorithm is complete if the solution is above the depth-limit.
Time Complexity:
 Time complexity of DLS algorithm is O(bℓ).
Space Complexity:
 Space complexity of DLS algorithm is O(b×ℓ).
Optimal:
 Depth-limited search can be viewed as a special case of DFS, and it is also not
optimal even if ℓ>d.
4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:
 Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or
graph.
 This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each edge.
 The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal node which
has the lowest cumulative cost.
 Uniform-cost search expands nodes according to their path costs from the root node.
 It can be used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal cost is in demand.
 A uniform-cost search algorithm is implemented by the priority queue.
 It gives maximum priority to the lowest cumulative cost.

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  Uniform cost search is equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all edges is the
same.
Advantages:
 Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least cost
is chosen.
Disadvantages:
 It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only concerned
about path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an infinite loop.
Example:

Completeness:
 Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a solution, UCS will find it.
Time Complexity:
 Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is each step to get closer to the goal node.
Then the number of steps is = C*/ε+1. Here we have taken +1, as we start from state 0
and end to C*/ε.
 Hence, the worst-case time complexity of Uniform-cost search isO(b1+ [C*/ε])/.
Space Complexity:
 The same logic is for space complexity so, the worst-case space complexity of
Uniform-cost search is O(b1 + [C*/ε]).

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 Optimal:
 Uniform-cost search is always optimal as it only selects a path with the lowest
path cost.
5. Iterative deepening depth-first Search:
 The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms.
 This search algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually increasing
the limit until a goal is found.
 This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it keeps
increasing the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.
 This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search and
depth-first search's memory efficiency.
 The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is large,
and depth of goal node is unknown.
Advantages:
 It combines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast search
and memory efficiency.
Disadvantages:
 The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous phase.
Example:
Following tree structure is showing the iterative deepening depth- first search. IDDFS
algorithm performs various iterations until it does not find the goal node. The iteration
performed by the algorithm is given as:
1'st Iteration-------------->A
2'nd Iteration------------->A,B,C
3'rd Iteration--------------->A,B,D,E,C,F,G
4'th Iteration--------------->A,B,D,H,I,E,C,F,K,G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal node.
Completeness:
 This algorithm is complete is if the branching factor is finite.
Time Complexity:
 Let's suppose b is the branching factor and depth is d then the worst-case
time complexity is O(bd).
Space Complexity:
 The space complexity of IDDFS will be O(bd).
Optimal:
 IDDFS algorithm is optimal if path cost is a non- decreasing function of the depth of
the node.

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6. Bidirectional Search Algorithm:
 Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial state
called as forward-search and other from goal node called as backward-search, to find the
goal node.
 Bidirectional search replaces one single search graph with two small sub graphs in
which one starts the search from an initial vertex and other starts from goal vertex.
 The search stops when these two graphs intersect each other.
 Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.
Advantages:
 Bidirectional search is fast.
 Bidirectional search requires less memory
Disadvantages:
 Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.
 In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.
Example:
In the below search tree, bidirectional search algorithm is applied. This algorithm divides
one graph/tree into two sub-graphs. It starts traversing from node 1 in the forward
direction and starts from goal node 16 in the backward direction. The algorithm
terminates at node 9 where two searches meet.

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Completeness:
 Bidirectional Search is complete if we use BFS in both searches.
Time Complexity:
 Time complexity of bidirectional search using BFS is O(bd).
Space Complexity:
 Space complexity of bidirectionalsearchis O(bd).
Optimal:
 Bidirectional search is Optimal.

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