apparatus:Bulbs, holders, switches, fuse, power source, flexible wires.

Theory: Power source transmits power from power

station to our homes and factories. To homes it is 220 V A.C. of frequence(50 Hz). One cable called live L carries electricity.
Other cable called neutral N is at zero potential and provides return path for electric current.Fuse is a safety device. It saves
electric appliances from getting damaged due to heavy current. Wire in it gets heated, melts and breaks the circuit before
harming the appliances.Household wiring connects all appliances in parallel with the two cables so that each appliance is at 220
V. Socket used for supply to an electric appliance carries a third wire called earth wire not shown.Procedure: 1. Draw circuit
diagram as in fig. 3.1 .2. Place on a table different components in order as shown.3. Connect safety fuse in series in live wire.4.
Connect each switch in series with a bulb and the pair in parallel with main supply.5. Press any switch to on position, the bulb in
its line glows. Press switch to off position the bulb goes off. Any number of bulbs can be put on at a time.Fig. 3.1. Basics of
household wiring Precautions :1. Safety fuse must be put in live wire.2. All appliances are to be connected in parallel with live
and neutral wire.

Theory First choose the aim i.e., which purpose is to be fulfilled. For example, we may choose to find resistance of a given wire
using Ohm's law .apparatus:Ammeter, voltmeter, resistance, rheostat; battery, key, connecting wires. Procedure 1 . As current
is to be passed through the wire. (In Ohm's law V & I) so we need a battery. Measurement of current is done using ammeter.
Volt- age is measured using voltmeter. Current is to be changed (for different readings) for which we need a rheostat: For
on/off we need a key 2. Draw the circuit diagram. Given wire is to be put in series with battery, key, ammeter and rheostat.
Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the given wire. Need not care for order of the components in series. Care must be taken
for connections of + ve terminals of amneter and voltmeter towards +ve pole of the battery. 3 . Place all the components on a
table as shown in order in the circuit. 5. Take connecting wires of the length needed.6. Clean the ends of connecting wires
using sand paper. 7. Make neat and tight connections. At each connecting terminal give only half a turn to the end of the
connecting wire in direction of rotation of the top of the connecting terminal. Pull the wire and see that it is not loose; it does
not come out Observation 8. Close the key and see that both ammeter and voltmeter give readings.Precautions: 1 .
Connections should be tight, neat and clean. 2. Connecting wires should be of proper length.3. Ends of connecting wires must
be cleaned using sand paper.4. Positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to
+ve pole of batteryApparatus :

Apparatus : Battery, resistor, rheostat; key, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires theroy :From the list of apparatus given
in the statement it is clear that it is an experiment of finding unknown resistance applying Ohm's law. we are given a faulty
circuit and we are supposed to correct it. The given circuit is open. If faulty circuit is closed some harm may be done to its
components.Procedure: Refer to experiment 1. Possibilities in faulty circuit and way to correct, these can be as under. 1.
Ammeter, battery, key and rheostat are in series with unknown resistance. So if any two or more of these are interchanged by
the other the circuit is not faulty, it is correct circuit. 2. Voltmeter if put in place of ammeter and ammeter in place of
voltmeter, the circuit is wrong. Put these in proper place. Ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit and voltmeter is
connected in parallel with unknown resistance. 3. Positive terminal of ammeter or voltmeter if connected to -ve pole of the
battery the circuit is wrong. Positive poles of these are always connected to + ve pole of the battery, otherwise pointer of the
meter will deflect towards left where there is no place for deflection and therefore it may break 4. Whatever the fault, correct
it and draw the new circuit diagram.

Theory : Electric circuits have components such as resistor, inductor and capacitor but electronic circuits have semiconductors a
well. Zener diode, light emitting diode (LED), transistor and integrated circuits are all semiconductors. Apparatus:Diode, LED,
Transistor, IC, resistor, capacitor. Resistor .capacitor: If large deflection is observed which gradually decreases to zero the item
under observation is a capacitor of the order of few hundred microfarads. If the deflection becomes zero immediately it is a
capacitor of value a few picofarads.Capacitor can be Paper or Mica capacitor fig 7.4 or a ceramic capacitor or an electrolytic
capacitor, v) Diode: If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases item under observation is diode. Diode as shown in fig.
7.5 is cylindrical with flat faces; black in colour and silver line at one end. End face with silver line is n-section. Other diode may
have one end face flat and the other end face round. Here round face end is n-section. Other shapes are also available.(vi) LED.
Unequal deflection is observed and light is also emitted in the two cases then the item under observation is LED.

Apparatus, diode, LED,Theory:Current flows from p to n, and not from n to p. So through diode and LED the current is
unidirectional. Procedure : See the unidirectional flow of current in case of diode and LED: Touch the probes to the two end
terminal Note the resistance. Interchange the probes. Note the resistance. We find that resistance is high in one case and low in
the other case which shows that current is unidirectional. It is so in case of diode as well as LED.The difference in LED is that it
glows when resistance is low and does not glow when resistance is high. It aga shows that current flows in one direction and
does not flow in the other direction

Apparatus:Two fresh razor blades and sodium lamp or laser torch or toy laser.

Theory:Bending of waves around an obstacle and entering into region of geometrical shadow is called diffraction . Hold a
drawing board between you and your friend, but still your voice reaches your friend. Sound waves bend over the obstacle
(drawing bourd). All type of waves show diffraction. Condition is that thickness of obstacle should be less than the wavelength.
Wavelength of sound waves is large, but that of light waves is small. Therefore, for diffraction of light waves we need an
obstacle of thickness of the order of wavelength of light waves (2 for yellow light is 600 mm = 600 x 10 m 0-6 x 10 m). Edge of a
new razor blade can serve the purpose or rectilinear motion a ray of light from source 5 should form shadow of obstacle (blade
B) in the regionto the region region OY should get illuminated on the screen. But if should form shadght beods over thin blade
B, enters into the region of geometrical shadow and forms bright and dark fringes (lines) in the region of geometrical
shadow.Procedure: 1. Switch on the sodium lamp. 2. Hold two razor blades side by side with their sharp edges close and
parallel to each other at a distance more than 2 m from the sodium lamp. 3. Observe the light coming from the lamp from the
opposite side of the blades, through the slit. 4. Dark and bright fringes (lines) are observed. 5. Central fringe is that of
maximum intensity, with decreasing intensity dark and bright fringes on both sides of central fringe are formed. 6. On
decreasing the width of the slit, the fringes become wider i.e., fringe width increases. 7. Diffraction pattern can also be seen on
the wall of a dark room . Result: Diffraction takes place when width of the slit is small and edges are sharp. Precautions
Precautions 1. Edges should be parallel. 2. Source of light should be at least 2 m away from the blades.: