21

hafter Soils
INSIDE THIS CHAPTER
21.1. Introduction 21.5. Soil Profile
21.2. Physical Properties 21.6. Classification of Soils
21.3. Engineering Properties 21.7. Soil Groups of India
21.4. Soil Formation 21.8. Soil Erosion and its Control

21.1. INTRODUCTION
Soil has been defined differently by workers in different fields.
Thus. for an agriculturist, the
soil is simply the upper layer of
ground which is useful for supporting life. Geologists define it as
a surface
layer of rock waste in which the physical and chemical processes of rock
cooperate intimately with organie processes. In a technical way, however, the weathering
term soil may be
defined as "the upper layer of the made
ground ot unconsolidated
material produced due to
weathering agencies from the rocks and generally modified
mechanical, chemical and organie processes all operating subsequently by a variety of
constantly in a complex manner"
The branch of science dealing with soils is called
pedology. It embraces the
and development of soils as also soil mapping. study of formation

21.1.1. Constitution
The essential constituents of soil are: the solid matter, soil liquids and air
() The solid matter consists chietly O
norganiC partucles derived from rocks
and minerals
These particles are of difterent size
and composttion and reflect
tihe type of
from which the soils are derived. Organie matter is also present in m
from which many Osoils in subordinate
parent rocks
narent ro

tne
proportion. It is derived from roots and remains of life forms that live on or
such as rodents, worms, insects and bacteria. within the soils
(i) Air and water. The salid particles in a
ump of soil are seldom
soils are haracterised
generally by a porous texture and the closely packed. In fact,
particles may be tilled completely or partially pores between
by air (various oPTes between
the solid
The soil water
water is in 3complex chenmical
importantsolution many or water by hoth
The
i hich having many or
ather components
other whicn eare very important in the hi essentialn
essential Doth.
componenisoils. n the biOchemical and
Similarly, many engineering nutrients and
organic processes
soils. properties of soil are due to
ot air and water in the so properties.
presence and proportion
the
21.2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Colour. It nortant property that has
alike for broad
is *ation of been cominonly used by
soils e.g. red soils,
a
grey soils, black farmers and
497 soils and so on. scientists
Colour of
 498 Engineering and General Geology
its age. Thus, of humus
presence
ne soil depends upon its composition, drainage condition and also
on
to the soil.
a black or deep brown colour
ecayed organic material) in good proportion will impartred colour and iron hydroxide
for the yellow
y Tinely dispersed iron oxide is responsible for theresult in a colourless or grey soils. Further,
the soils. Absence of these components may
COOur ordrainage
etective may result in dilution of the original colours whereas time may make a soil more

mature and concentrate the original colour if there is not much drainage.
make in terms
2. Texture. In soils, texture is understood to define their composition and up
size-limits are followed for
size of the solid Commonly, the following
or particle components.
describing features of solid fraction: (Fig. 21.1).
i) Gravel fraction (diameter between 6 - 2.00 mm.)

(i) Sand fraction (diameter between 2.00 0.05 mm.)

(ii) Silt fraction (diameter between 0.05 0.002 mm.)
(iv) Clay fraction (diameter less than 0.002 mm.)
of these fractions are found
While the texture of a soil sample, the relative proportions
detemining
Out by sieving and expressed in percentage terms. A coarse texture
soil will have the first two fractions as
would be predominant.
predominating components while in the fine textured soils, clay grade
It is also customary to describe soil texture in terms of composition as determined on the basis
of dominant grades. Three principal textural types are sandy soils, silty soils and clayey soils.
A fourth textural type, loanm or loamy soils is also recognized when none of the above grad s
dominates or in other words, sand, silt and clay are almost equally represented.
0.005 mm
2.00 mm 0.2 mmn 0.05mm
.
.

0DAEP::
Gravel Coarse fine sand Slit Clay
Particle Size Classification
Fig. 21.1.

100

0 90

20 60

0
Sample A
A0 60 Sand 30 80
DUeS 50 Silt 20 10

60 Clay 50 10
O

80
90 0

1004 10 20 30 40
A 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt

Triangular Diagram (Textural Classification)

Fig. 21.2.
The textual classification is conveniently represented by a triangular diagram (Fig. 21.2). Th

textural type of soils is determined by locating its position (composition wise) in this
diagra
 Soils 499
Thus, if it happens to fall within or near
()the upper corner, it is a clayey soil.
(i) the right corner, it is a silty soil,
(ii) the left corner, it is a sandy soil, the middle region, it is a loamy soil.
3. Structure. It signifies the
large-scale arrangement of soil particles and refers to the nature
of aggregation or unior of these particles in a
lump of soil. If the particles are of uniform size and
spherical in outline, the resulting structure is of granular type. Similarly, if the particles are
flattened or oblate, the soil is said to have a platy structure. More often the
of irregular shape resulting in blocks of soils component grains are
having sharp corners and edges; the structure is then
called blocky. Other structural types are:
a property that is influenced
prismatic, columnar and laminar. The structure of soil is
greatly by climate, organic activity and temperature variations with
special reference to freezing and thawing of soil moisture.
4. Density. Soil may be dense or
its structure and
light in terms of weight per unit volume. This depends upon
mineralogical composition. Generally, soil density is described either as particle
density or as bulk density. The particle density, as the term indicates, is the
of the solid particles alone. In the bulk weight per unit volumne
density, the
considered together. Obviously, it would be lesser than the
solid particles as well as voids etc. are
much variation in the particle particle density. There is generally not
density of the soils of different types. However, considerable variation
may be observed in the bu!k density of different soils.

21.3. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

1. Void Ratio and
Porosity. The component grains
of soil are seldom
most cases there are always
present
some
thoroughly packed. In
open-spaces or voids between them. The total volume
voids is of considerable of
significance in the determination of engineering properties of soils. The Void
ratio is defined as the ratin between the volume of voids
and volume of soil
soil mass. Numerically, void ratio, e, is particles in a given
given by the relationship:
where V, =
volume of voids: V, =
volume of solids.
The porosity, n, of the soil mass is, however, ratio between the total volume of
volume of the soil sample: voids and the

n =x 100 where V =
total volume of the
sample
It is expressed in percentage terms.
2. Permeability. It has already
been detfined as the
capacity of soil
transmit water through it
to
Permeability is, in fact, one of the most important
physical characteristics of soils. It is of utmos
importance in the design of earth dams, dikes and embankments
on
Moreover, permeability has direct bearing on such other properties of soil thator passing through the soils
Darcy's Law is the basis of most studies ot depend
upon moisture oontent.
in permeability of soils. This property is determined
laboratory by instruments known as "permeameters of which
generally necessary to know the permeability many types are in use. lt is
of soil while
preparing the
structure. Two facts must
always be given due consideration in such cases: design of any earth
First. The coefficient of
IOr similar
permeability shows great vanation tor different types of soils and also
types of soils under different conditions.
Second. The coefficient of
and permeability is considerably intluenced by factors like size,
arrangement of the component grains, etc. shap
 General Geology
500 Engineering and
different types of sols, IS as follows
The approximate range of coefficient of permeability, k, for
150 (*10 Cm/sec) for medium
500W5000 (*10 cms/sec) for coarse types to 50
Sana:
-

and the fine textured varieties.

Cm/sec) Tor ine types.
Slts: I to 20 (*10* cm/sec) for coarse types to 0.01 to 0.1 (*10
Clays: Less than 0.01 (* 10" cm/sec).
and should not be used
indicate a broad range
AS mentioned earlier, these values merely
where practical determination is indicated as necessary and important.

the resistance of soils to

shearing forces and is regarded
3, Shearing Strength. It is defined as
of at least three
soils. It is the net result
as one of the most important engineering properties of
qualitative characters of the soil, such as the sOil;
the solid components of
(a) the frictional resistance existing between
soil particles;
(b) the degreeof cohesion and adhesion between the
such as degree of interlocking etc.
(C)the textural arrangement of the soil particles
to a number of vaYiables such as moisture
Each of the above basic factors is, in turn, subject
and chemical environment surrounding the soil
content, stress history, age of the soil and physical
considered as a highly complex problem
in question. Hence, shearing strength of the soil is always
in engineering and design consideration. Obviously, the problem has been dealt with exhaustively
have been obtained. Thus, the shear
both on theoretical and practical levels and many generalizations
s, of cohesionless soils (c =0)
is generally expressed by the relationship.
strength,
S tan o .)
where o is directed force and o is angle of internal friction. In the above relationship, soil is
assumed to be dry. But when saturated, s in the cohesionless soil is given by:

G-) tan o .i)

where u is pore-water pressure.
Similarly, the shear strength of cohesive soils is given by the relationship

= C+0tan o ..ii)
where c = cohesive force or cohesion between the solid particles which is controlled by a number
of factors.
The shear strength of soils is determined in the laboratory by direct shear test, unconfined
compression tests and triaxial compression tests. A number of methods are also available for
determination of shear strength of soils in the field itself. Among them the Vane-shear tester, the
penetrometers and the split-spoon sampler are used commonly.
4. Soil Compressibility. Many natural soils undergo considerable deformation when loaded
from above. This deformation commonly takes the shape of a decrease in volume in vertical
direction which may be due to
(i) expulsion of air and/or water from within the voids;
(ii) collapse of soil particles by closure of voids;
ii) deformation of solid particles.
The net result to this compression is called
consolidation of soils which takes place at varna
rate with time, i.e. it is a time-related
process.
Granular, cohesionless soils consolidate at a fast rate
soils. However, the total consolidation compared to fine structured cone
be much
may less in the first type of
soils, where it may be
 Soils

ompletely achiev within a short span 501

on for many years. compared to in cohesive soils where this process may keep
oing pr
ion may lead to settlement of
Consolidation

the
to be beyond the allowable limits, structures
be built over the soil and
nd if this settlement
pens
happAs Such, the soil engineer is always collapse or
deformation of built-up
characterist of the soil by required to investigate thoroughly the may structures
relate

5.REARING CAPACITY may bepractical methods. compressibility

defined as the
without undergoing excessive settlement or capacity of a soil to withstand building
oroperty that needs firm evaluation shear failure. Hence this forms most important
before any construction
soil. in practice, ultimate bearing capacity is determined programme is proposed over a
ntact (bearing) plates and
observation of settlement. From by loading the soils to be tested through
Hetermined for design purpose. Conventionally, for this allowable
bearing capacity 1s
dlanned residential colony local building codes are ordinary types of building construction in a
eSpect to bearing capacity. For major prepared and followed in a general way with
construction, such as
huildings, however, elaborate tests are carried out to arrive at multistoreyed buildings and industrial
Anumber of factors have then to be taken safe values of
into consideration such as soil allowable bearing capacity.
depth of soil, cover, shape of the foundations to be compressibility, water table,
dealt by different workers in different given on the soil and so
The
For a
ways.
on.
subject has been
must refer to some standard text
comprehensive understanding of the subject, reader
on Geotechnical Engineering.
21.4.SOIL FORMATION
It has been
already said that soil is the end product of
of the rocks on the surface under processes of decay and
that formation of soiis is a
influence of certain decomposition
natural agencies. It has also been
continuous and established
thousands of years to reach a time-dependent process that may require hundreds and
stage where the type of soil evolved is in
surrounding conditions. equilibrium with the
Soil Development is controlled
by a number of factors, which
original material into a soil. These factors are: often work in very close
to convert
an
climate,
cooperation
Vegetation, topography and time.
nature of parent
material,
CLIMATE is the single most
Trainfall) and temperature (hot and important soil-forming factor and operates through
cold climate). precipitation
ANNUAL RAINFALL is responsible for a variety of
Ogical and chemical activities require some amount of moisture. rock-decomposing processes. All the
Hydration and hydrolysis of
lare important weathering processes, which are actually chemical reactions
anisms plant and animal type require water for their growth and
-

-
requiring water. Similarly,
rail itself may result in removal of some components, e.g. silicaproliferation.
from the
The heavy amount

andand desilication). The shortage of rainfall may result in evaporation of waterdecomposed

Cause
rocks
from the surface
precipitation of chemicals (carbonates and sulphates) among the
some
top layers of soil.
on PERATURE controls soil formation indirectly by
exerting positive or
negative influence
fresowth of organisms. Milder temperatures in moist regions allow
freezing tem
gion peratures in the humid regions may bring such activities to aprofuse growth whereas
Tegions, a
leadin to se
rise and fall in
standstill. In arid dry
their dis temperature may induce considerable expansion and contraction in rocks
cold-humi
ch re
disintegration. Frost
already
Climates. In warm humid regions, bacterial
action has been
described as a rock disintegrator in
growth is highly favoured. Consequently in
omhS, all dead vegetable matter is consumed by these bacteria so that
acteru. Compared this, lot of
soil is resulting free
to vegetable matter accumulates in cold humid
regions
a dif notavailable. These vegetable accumulations decay and as
nt
type of infertile soil rich in humus. develop organic acids resulting
 Engineering and
General Geology
502
rocks contribute
also
PARENT MATERIAL. The
and composition of parent
texture, structure evolved. Ihe same
of soils and also the type of soils
remendously towards the rate of development different rates. Granites
result in different types of soils and at
climates may
rOck exposed in different in hot humid climates due to hydration, hydrolysis
and carbonation
result in lot of clays
TOr example, may be fractured and fragmented
without much decomposition.
whereas in cold climates, these may simply even in hot, humid

and other such silica rich rocks may suffer no decomposition

Sandstones, quartzites Numerous such examples
mechanical disintegration.
climates resulting in soils rich in quartz formed due t
the type of soil evolved. Similarly,
can be cited where the parent rock has
exerted a major influence on
texture of the parent
material, at least in the initial stages
the texture of the soil is often related to the and shales whereas
rocks like basalts, limestones
Thus, fine-textured soils develop from fine-grained
sandstones and cherty limestones.
relatively coarse soils result from granites, and
(macroflora: trees, shrubs and herbs)
VEGETATION. Vegetation comprising higher types their
influences the formation of soils. especially
lower types (microflora: bacteria, algae and fungi) of certain bases
differentiation into organic and inorganic-types.
Plants act as conduits of dispersion
lower layers to the upper layers
of the soil. Similarly,
such as calcium, sodium and potassium from
source of humus in the
soils. Bacteria act in a number
accumulation of dead parts of plants fornm the
texture of soils, as for example by consuming
humus, by fixing
of ways to change the composition and
nitrogen from the atmosphere and
so on.

factor. Steeper slopes do not

TOPOGRAPHY. This effects the soil development through slope
allow accumulation of loose particles for greater
thickness; hence. though soil-thickness on the
be more as fresh surface is repeatedly exposed.
slopes may be less, the rate of decomposition may
and fast on the slopes: the slope soils may be paiticularly poor
Similarly, drainage is more effective
out soon after their formation. Poorly drained soils are
in some constituents that might get leached
soluble mineral components.
often rich in original residues and in
TIME. The factor of time operates in a purely logical manner. Since every soil forming process
it is evident that the type of soil in an area would be
requires definite time for its completion, for
defined the time that has been allowed to it to develop into the present form. On slope,
by
instance, a layer of soil may not be allowed to rest for any
considerable time. As such soils on slopes may be young in Depth YYY
|M
age, meaning, they are of only recent formation. Similarly, in the
A-Horizon
older soils a number of well defined zones or horizons may be
found indicative of operation of soil forming processes. The age Solum

of soil may vary fronm place to place. In certain areas soils may 8-Horizon
be as young as a hundred or couple of hundred years; in other
areas they may be mature enough and have been in existence for
thousands of years in more or less the same general form.
C-Horizon
There are regions in the world where soils developed during the
glaciation periods (thousands of years agc) e still intact.

21.5.SOIL PROFILE
During the development of soil from a parent material, the D-Horizon

actual transformation proceeds through certain well defined

stages.
In mature soils, these stages appear as a series of
horizons, or
layers with contrasting properties. Such horizons, when arranged T
in descendingorder, are collectively said to form a Soil Profile Soil Profile
for that particular area.
Pig. 21.3
 503
Solls made
downwards, is generally
tvpical Soil Profile, beginning from surface and proceeding
A
horZOns (there may be many sub-horizons in
each main horizon).
main
af three and extends from
up
A-Horizon. lt is characterized generally by finely divided particles
( The
to as much as a meter or more. It may contain,
in humid regions, loose
centimeters
a few humus. In the basal
decomposed organic matter and good amount of
leaves, incompletely
effects may be seen. (Fig. 21.3)
zone of A-horizon, leaching
often free from the
This zone lies immediately below the A-horizon and is
B-Horizon.
(ii) The in the overlying zone. Moreover,
in arid
humus conspicuous
staining of particles by
as
accumulation is
contain nodules of calcium carbonate or gypsum. Colloid
regions, it may becomes more pebbly and
coarse
in this zone. The lower region of B-horizon
maximum
transition to the C-horizon.
indicating
togetherform the true soil, called Solum.
The A and B horizon
weathered rock than a true soil.
In texture, it is often
more a zone of
(iii) The C-Horizon. It is its parent rock although
in composition, it retains all the evidence of
coarse grained and pebbly;
in it are also indicated unmistakably.
of processes of soil formation having begun
operations horizon is the parent rock
itself:
In a true soil profile, a sample from this
(iv) The D-Horizon. but the solid rock mass
on
it may not be the parent rock,
unaltered as In
yet. some cases,

which the other zones are resting.

soILS
21.6. CLASSIFICATION OFnumber classification systems are
of ways. At present many
Soils have been classified in a The agricultural
classification of soils is
to a particular objective.
available, each system serving different from engineering
classification used by a civil

useful for, crop scientists and is basically classification of soils will be

dealt with
a geologist. Only geological
engineer or the one used by
here, for obvious reasons.

21.6.1. Geological Classification

classifications and divides
all the soils into two main groups:
soil
It is perhaps the simplest of on the evidence
whether soils are
soils. This is based primarily have been
Kesidual soils and Transportedfrom which these are derived by decomposition, or, these distances.
Iound over and above the rocks after transportation for
considerable
occurrence
their present
Cumulated in the region of

A. Residual Soils after their fomation and

are
transport during
or
suffered very little
or no
soils. Their most
as residual
hose soils that have rocks are classified broadly
found more o r less covering their parent
und summarized as below: factors like climate.
P r t a n t characters are depending upon
varies from place
to place have been
Thickness of such soils time for which the soil forming
processes
and the extent of rate of soil
ithology, topography be either due to a rapid
soils may
operative in that region.
Deep residual obstruction.
activities without any
soil forming These would show,
however,
Tormation o r to prolonged stratif+cation.
show no
soils generally operation of soil
S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . Residual developing through ages by
horizons of soil profile
well-distinguished
the nature
defined principally by
forming processes. composition is of the area.
Their chemical determined by the
climate
(iii)
Chemical Composition.
chemicai activity as
trends of
parent rock and the often rich in
humus.
Ot cold climates are
The residual soils in