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import java.util.Scanner; chapter2.txt

public class Test1 {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter three numbers: ");

Page 2
 chapter2.txt
double number1 = input.nextDouble();
double number2 = input.nextDouble();
double number3 = input.nextDouble();

// Compute average
double average = (number1 + number2 + number3) / 3;

// Display result
System.out.println(average);
}
}

a. 1.0
b. 2.0
c. 3.0
d. 4.0
Key:b

#
4. What is the exact output of the following code?

double area = 3.5;

System.out.print("area");
System.out.print(area);

a. 3.53.5
b. 3.5 3.5
c. area3.5
d. area 3.5
Key:c

#
Section 2.4 Identifiers
4. Every letter in a Java keyword is in lowercase?
a. true
b. false
Key:a

#
5. Which of the following is a valid identifier?
a. $343
b. class
c. 9X
d. 8+9
e. radius
Key:ae

Page 3
 chapter2.txt
Section 2.5 Variables
6. Which of the following are correct names for variables according to Java
naming conventions?
a. radius
b. Radius
c. RADIUS
d. findArea
e. FindArea
Key:ad

#
7. Which of the following are correct ways to declare variables?
a. int length; int width;
b. int length, width;
c. int length; width;
d. int length, int width;
Key:ab

#
Section 2.6 Assignment Statements and Assignment Expressions
8. is the Java assignment operator.
a. ==
b. :=
c. =
d. =:
Key:c

#
9. To assign a value 1 to variable x, you write
a. 1 = x;
b. x = 1;
c. x := 1;
d. 1 := x;
e. x == 1;
Key:b

#
10. Which of the following assignment statements is incorrect?
a. i = j = k = 1;
b. i = 1; j = 1; k = 1;
c. i = 1 = j = 1 = k = 1;
d. i == j == k == 1;
Key:cd

#
Section 2.7 Named Constants
11. To declare a constant MAX_LENGTH inside a method with value 99.98, you write
a. final MAX_LENGTH = 99.98;
Page 4
 chapter2.txt
b. final float MAX_LENGTH = 99.98;
c. double MAX_LENGTH = 99.98;
d. final double MAX_LENGTH = 99.98;
Key:d

#
12. Which of the following is a constant, according to Java naming conventions?
a. MAX_VALUE
b. Test
c. read
d. ReadInt
e. COUNT
Key:ae

#
13. To improve readability and maintainability, you should declare
instead of using literal values such as 3.14159.
a. variables
b. methods
c. constants
d. classes
Key:c

#
Section 2.8 Naming Conventions
60. According to Java naming convention, which of the following names can be
variables?
a. FindArea
b. findArea
c. totalLength
d. TOTAL_LENGTH
e. class
Key:bc

#
Section 2.9 Numeric Data Types and Operations
14. Which of these data types requires the most amount of memory?
a. long
b. int
c. short
d. byte
Key:a

#
34. If a number is too large to be stored in a variable of the float type, it
.
a. causes overflow
b. causes underflow

Page 5
 chapter2.txt
c. causes no error
d. cannot happen in Java
Key:a

#
15. Analyze the following code:

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int n = 10000 * 10000 * 10000;
System.out.println("n is " + n);
}
}
a. The program displays n is 1000000000000
b. The result of 10000 * 10000 * 10000 is too large to be stored in an int
variable n. This causes an overflow and the program is aborted.
c. The result of 10000 * 10000 * 10000 is too large to be stored in an int
variable n. This causes an overflow and the program continues to execute because
Java does not report errors on overflow.
d. The result of 10000 * 10000 * 10000 is too large to be stored in an int
variable n. This causes an underflow and the program is aborted.
e. The result of 10000 * 10000 * 10000 is too large to be stored in an int variable
n. This causes an underflow and the program continues to execute because Java does
not report errors on underflow.
Key:c

#
16. What is the result of 45 / 4?
a. 10
b. 11
c. 11.25
d. 12
Key:b 45 / 4 is an integer division, which results in 11

#
18. Which of the following expression results in a value 1?
a. 2 % 1
b. 15 % 4
c. 25 % 5
d. 37 % 6
Key:d 2 % 1 is 0, 15 % 4 is 3, 25 % 5 is 0, and 37 % 6 is 1

#
19. 25 % 1 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4

Page 6
 chapter2.txt
e. 0
Key:e

#
20. -25 % 5 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 0
Key:e

#
21. 24 % 5 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 0
Key:d

#
22. -24 % 5 is
a. -1
b. -2
c. -3
d. -4
e. 0
Key:d

#
23. -24 % -5 is
a. 3
b. -3
c. 4
d. -4
e. 0
Key:d

#
30. Math.pow(2, 3) returns .
a. 9
b. 8
c. 9.0
d. 8.0
Key:d It returns a double value 8.0.

Page 7
 chapter2.txt
30. Math.pow(4, 1 / 2) returns .
a. 2
b. 2.0
c. 0
d. 1.0
e. 1
Key:d Note that 1 / 2 is 0.

#
30. Math.pow(4, 1.0 / 2) returns .
a. 2
b. 2.0
c. 0
d. 1.0
e. 1
Key:b Note that the pow method returns a double value, not an integer.
#
31. The method returns a raised to the power of b.

a. Math.power(a, b)
b. Math.exponent(a, b)
c. Math.pow(a, b)
d. Math.pow(b, a)
Key:c

#
Section 2.10 Numeric Literals
15. To declare an int variable number with initial value 2, you write
a. int number = 2L;
b. int number = 2l;
c. int number = 2;
d. int number = 2.0;
Key:c

#
32. Analyze the following code.

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int month = 09;
System.out.println("month is " + month);
}
}
a. The program displays month is 09
b. The program displays month is 9
c. The program displays month is 9.0
d. The program has a syntax error, because 09 is an incorrect literal value.
Key:d Any numeric literal with the prefix 0 is an octal value. But 9 is not an octal

Page 8
 chapter2.txt
digit. An octal digit is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7.

#
15. Which of the following are the same as 1545.534?
a. 1.545534e+3
b. 0.1545534e+4
c. 1545534.0e-3
d. 154553.4e-2
Key:abcd

#
Section 2.11 Evaluating Expressions and Operator Precedence
24. The expression 4 + 20 / (3 - 1) * 2 is evaluated to
a. 4
b. 20
c. 24
d. 9
e. 25
Key:c

#
Section 2.12 Case Study: Displaying the Current Time
58. The System.currentTimeMillis() returns .
a. the current time.
b. the current time in milliseconds.
c. the current time in milliseconds since midnight.
d. the current time in milliseconds since midnight, January 1, 1970.
e. the current time in milliseconds since midnight, January 1, 1970 GMT (the
Unix time).
Key:e

#
24. To obtain the current second, use .
a. System.currentTimeMillis() % 3600
b. System.currentTimeMillis() % 60
c. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 % 60
d. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 / 60 % 60
e. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 / 60 / 60 % 24
Key:c

#
24. To obtain the current minute, use .
a. System.currentTimeMillis() % 3600
b. System.currentTimeMillis() % 60
c. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 % 60
d. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 / 60 % 60
e. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 / 60 / 60 % 24
Key:d

Page 9
 chapter2.txt

#
24. To obtain the current hour in UTC, use _.
a. System.currentTimeMillis() % 3600
b. System.currentTimeMillis() % 60
c. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 % 60
d. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 / 60 % 60
e. System.currentTimeMillis() / 1000 / 60 / 60 % 24
Key:e

#
Section 2.13 Augmented Assignment Operators
24. To add a value 1 to variable x, you write
a. 1 + x = x;
b. x += 1;
c. x := 1;
d. x = x + 1;
e. x = 1 + x;
Key:bde

#
25. To add number to sum, you write (Note: Java is case-sensitive)
a. number += sum;
b. number = sum + number;
c. sum = Number + sum;
d. sum += number;
e. sum = sum + number;
Key:de

#
26. Suppose x is 1. What is x after x += 2?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
e. 4
Key:d

#
27. Suppose x is 1. What is x after x -= 1?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. -1
e. -2
Key:a

Page 10
 chapter2.txt
28. What is x after the following statements?

int x = 2;
int y = 1;
x *= y + 1;

a. x is 1.
b. x is 2.
c. x is 3.
d. x is 4.
Key:d

#
29. What is x after the following statements?

int x = 1;
x *= x + 1;

a. x is 1.
b. x is 2.
c. x is 3.
d. x is 4.
Key:b

#
29. Which of the following statements are the same?

(A) x -= x + 4
(B) x = x + 4 - x
(C) x = x - (x + 4)

a. (A) and (B) are the same

b. (A) and (C) are the same
c. (B) and (C) are the same
d. (A), (B), and (C) are the same
Key:a

#
Section 2.14 Increment and Decrement Operators
21. Are the following four statements equivalent?
number += 1;
number = number + 1;
number++;
++number;
a. Yes
b. No
Key:a

Page 11
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 chapter2.txt
#
34. What is i printed?
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int j = 0;
int i = ++j + j * 5;

System.out.println("What is i? " + i);

}
}
a. 0
b. 1
c. 5
d. 6
Key:d Operands are evaluated from left to right in Java. The left-hand operand of a
binary operator is evaluated before any part of the right-hand operand is evaluated.
This rule takes precedence over any other rules that govern expressions. Therefore,
++j is evaluated first, and returns 1. Then j*5 is evaluated, returns 5.

#
35. What is i printed in the following code?

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int j = 0;
int i = j++ + j * 5;

System.out.println("What is i? " + i);

}
}
a. 0
b. 1
c. 5
d. 6
Key:c Same as before, except that j++ evaluates to 0.

#
36. What is y displayed in the following code?

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 1;
int y = x++ + x;
System.out.println("y is " + y);
}
}
a. y is 1.
b. y is 2.

Page 12
 chapter2.txt
c. y is 3.
d. y is 4.
Key:c When evaluating x++ + x, x++ is evaluated first, which does two things: 1.
returns 1 since it is post-increment. x becomes 2. Therefore y is 1 + 2.

#
37. What is y displayed?

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 1;
int y = x + x++;
System.out.println("y is " + y);
}
}
a. y is 1.
b. y is 2.
c. y is 3.
d. y is 4.
Key:b When evaluating x + x++, x is evaluated first, which is 1. X++ returns 1 since
it is post-increment and 2. Therefore y is 1 + 1.

#
Section 2.15 Numeric Type Conversions
38. To assign a double variable d to a float variable x, you write
a. x = (long)d
b. x = (int)d;
c. x = d;
d. x = (float)d;
Key:d

#
17. Which of the following expressions will yield 0.5?
a. 1 / 2
b. 1.0 / 2
c. (double) (1 / 2)
d. (double) 1 / 2
e. 1 / 2.0
Key:bde 1 / 2 is an integer division, which results in 0.

#
39. What is the printout of the following code:

double x = 5.5;
int y = (int)x;
System.out.println("x is " + x + " and y is " + y);
a. x is 5 and y is 6
b. x is 6.0 and y is 6.0

Page 13
 chapter2.txt
c. x is 6 and y is 6
d. x is 5.5 and y is 5
e. x is 5.5 and y is 5.0
Key:d The value is x is not changed after the casting.

#
40. Which of the following assignment statements is illegal?
a. float f = -34;
b. int t = 23;
c. short s = 10;
d. int t = (int)false;
e. int t = 4.5;
Key:de

#
41. What is the value of (double)5/2?
a. 2
b. 2.5
c. 3
d. 2.0
e. 3.0
Key:b

#
42. What is the value of (double)(5/2)?
a. 2
b. 2.5
c. 3
d. 2.0
e. 3.0
Key:d

#
43. Which of the following expression results in 45.37?
a. (int)(45.378 * 100) / 100
b. (int)(45.378 * 100) / 100.0
c. (int)(45.378 * 100 / 100)
d. (int)(45.378) * 100 / 100.0
Key:b

#
43. The expression (int)(76.0252175 * 100) / 100 evaluates to .
a. 76.02
b. 76
c. 76.0252175
d. 76.03
Key:b In order to obtain 76.02, you have divide 100.0.

Page 14
 chapter2.txt
#
44. If you attempt to add an int, a byte, a long, and a double, the result will
be a value.
a. byte
b. int
c. long
d. double
Key:d

#
Section 2.16 Software Life Cycle
1. is a formal process that seeks to understand the problem and

document in detail what the software system needs to do.

a. Requirements specification
b. Analysis
c. Design
d. Implementation
e. Testing
Key:a
#
1. System analysis seeks to analyze the data flow and to identify the

system’s input and output. When you do analysis, it helps to identify what the
output is first, and then figure out what input data you need in order to produce
the output.
a. Requirements specification
b. Analysis
c. Design
d. Implementation
e. Testing
Key:b

#
0. Any assignment statement can be used as an assignment expression.
a. true
b. false
Key:a

#
1. You can define a constant twice in a block.
a. true
b. false
Key:b
#
44. are valid Java identifiers.
a. $Java
b. _RE4
Page 15
 chapter2.txt
c. 3ere
d. 4+4
e. int
Key:ab

#
2. You can define a variable twice in a block.
a. true
b. false
Key:b

#
3. The value of a variable can be changed.
a. true
b. false
Key:a

#
4. The result of an integer division is the integer part of the division; the
fraction part is truncated.
a. true
b. false
Key:a

#
5. You can always assign a value of int type to a variable of long type without
loss of information.
a. true
b. false
Key:a

#
6. You can always assign a value of long type to a variable of int type without
loss of precision.
a. true
b. false
Key:b

#
13. A variable may be assigned a value only once in the program.
a. true
b. false
Key:b

#
14. You can change the value of a constant.
a. true
b. false

Page 16
 chapter2.txt
Key:b

#
2. To declare a constant PI, you write
a. final static PI = 3.14159;
b. final float PI = 3.14159;
c. static double PI = 3.14159;
d. final double PI = 3.14159;
Key:d

#
3. To declare an int variable x with initial value 200, you write
a. int x = 200L;
b. int x = 200l;
c. int x = 200;
d. int x = 200.0;
Key:c

#
4. To assign a double variable d to an int variable x, you write
a. x = (long)d
b. x = (int)d;
c. x = d;
d. x = (float)d;
Key:b

#
8. Which of the following is a constant, according to Java naming conventions?
a. MAX_VALUE
b. Test
c. read
d. ReadInt
Key:a

#
9. Which of the following assignment statements is illegal?
a. float f = -34;
b. int t = 23;
c. short s = 10;
d. float f = 34.0;
Key:d

#
10. A Java statement ends with a .
a. comma (,)
b. semicolon (;)
c. period (.)
d. closing brace

Page 17
 chapter2.txt
Key:b

#
11. The assignment operator in Java is .
a. :=
b. =
c. = =
d. <-
Key:b

#
12. Which of these data types requires the least amount of memory?
a. float
b. double
c. short
d. byte
Key:d

#
13. Which of the following operators has the highest precedence?
a. casting
b. +
c. *
d. /
Key:a

#
17. If you attempt to add an int, a byte, a long, and a float, the result will
be a value.
a. float
b. int
c. long
d. double
Key:a

#
18. If a program compiles fine, but it terminates abnormally at runtime, then
the program suffers .
a. a syntax error
b. a runtime error
c. a logic error
Key:b

#
24. What is 1 % 2?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
Page 18
 chapter2.txt
Key:b

#
26. What is the printout of the following code:

double x = 10.1;
int y = (int)x;
System.out.println("x is " + x + " and y is " + y);

a. x is 10 and y is 10
b. x is 10.0 and y is 10.0
c. x is 11 and y is 11
d. x is 10.1 and y is 10
e. x is 10.1 and y is 10.0
Key:d

#
32. The compiler checks .
a. syntax errors
b. logical errors
c. runtime errors
Key:a

#
33. You can cast a double value to _.
a. byte
b. short
c. int
d. long
e. float
Key:abcde
#
34. The keyword must be used to declare a constant.
a. const
b. final
c. static
d. double
e. int
Key:b

#
37. pow is a method in the class.
a. Integer
b. Double
c. Math
d. System
Key:c

Page 19
 chapter2.txt
#
38. currentTimeMills is a method in the class.
a. Integer
b. Double
c. Math
d. System
Key:d

#
39. 5 % 1 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 0
Key:e

#
40. 5 % 2 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 0
Key:a

#
41. 5 % 3 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 0
Key:b

#
42. 5 % 4 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 0
Key:a

#
43. 5 % 5 is
a. 1

Page 20
 chapter2.txt
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 0
Key:e

#
43. -5 % 5 is
a. -1
b. -2
c. -3
d. -4
e. 0
Key:e

#
43. -15 % 4 is
a. -1
b. -2
c. -3
d. -4
e. 0
Key:c

#
43. -15 % -4 is
a. -1
b. -2
c. -3
d. -4
e. 0
Key:c

#
43. A variable must be declared before it can be used.
a. True
b. False
Key:a

#
43. A constant can be defined using using the final keyword.
a. True
b. False
Key:a

#
43. Which of the following are not valid assignment statements?
a. x = 55;

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Other documents randomly have
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 Fig. 100. Norfolk Wherry.

Curiously Dutch-like, too, is the Norfolk wherry seen in Fig. 100,

with her one enormous sail, her mast fitted in a tabernacle for ease
in lowering, unsupported by shrouds or rigging of any sort other
than the forestay by which the mast is eased down. Only one
halyard is required for both peak and throat, which are raised by
means of a winch forward of the mast. She has no leeboards,
nevertheless she draws under three feet of water: although I have
heard her sweepingly condemned as defying all existing rules, yet
the way she can sail right close into the wind is incredible to those
who have not seen her. In running with her bonnet off and her sail
close reefed she gripes badly and is a veritable handful as she comes
sailing into Great Yarmouth from across Breydon Water or tearing
through the rushes of Barton Broad and down the tortuous and
narrow Ant. Within recent years, now that the Norfolk and Suffolk
waterways have become a tourist resort, the wherry has changed
her face a little and become smarter, and the tanned sail is often
allowed to remain white, while the hatches have been taken away
and a cabin roof, allowing plenty of head-room with ladies’ saloons,
pianos and other luxuries, have come in. But all the time the wherry
remains as a useful cargo boat for bringing coals and timber from
the ports of Lowestoft and Yarmouth inland to Norwich and the East
Anglian villages, returning with eels, or marsh hay for thatching.
Sometimes one notices them, in settled weather, with a fair wind
steal quietly out from Lowestoft harbour and make a sea passage
round to Yarmouth, but as Mr. Warington Smyth well says in his
“Mast and Sail,” “in the smallest wind and sea the wherry loses her
head entirely and develops a suicidal tendency to bury herself and
crew.”
Fig. 101. Dhow-rigged Yacht.
 Fig. 102. Suez Dhows, with a Sibbick Rater.

After the squaresail had for so many centuries held sway among
the earliest dwellers of the earth, the lateen began stealthily to
assert itself as we saw in the first chapters. Although Holland set the
example in the sixteenth century of cutting up the lateen shape into
the cutter rig, yet in the Mediterranean, along the East Coast of
Africa and in the Indian Ocean generally, the lateen has refused to
be made obsolete. The illustration in Fig. 101 represents a Bombay
yacht of the second half of
the nineteenth century
rigged with a couple of
lateens, and masts that
rake forward at a
considerable angle. Every
tourist to Egypt is familiar
with the picturesque
lateens and lofty yards of
which Fig. 102, showing a
fleet of these with a small
Sibbick rater in between,
affords a study in contrast
between the conservative
East and the progressive
West. The sketch was
made at Suez. The felucca
in Fig. 103 is a well-known
lateen type in the
Mediterranean, with her
white and green, her
square stern and single
deck. The sketch here Fig. 103. Mediterranean Felucca.
shown has been made From the model in the South Kensington
from a charming little Museum.
model in the South
Kensington Museum, and
represents one of the familiar two-masters seen off the Spanish
coast. The tack and sheets and rigging are shown so clearly that we
need not stop to indicate them. In old paintings and prints we see
that the felucca type in the Mediterranean developed into vessels of
considerable tonnage with three masts. The Venetians and Greeks
and Genoese, as well as the piratical Moors and the other
Mediterranean inhabitants, used them both as cargo carriers and
ships of war. They are in fact the lineal descendants of the ancient
galleys. Further modifications include the addition of a jib, though
the Southerner has not followed the universal Northern practice of
transforming his lateen into a mainsail. Sometimes we find old prints
showing a felucca with the addition also of a mizzen spritsail similar
to that on the modern barge. The French signified by the word
brigantin a two-masted lateen-rigged galley with oars as auxiliary.
But there came into use that compromise between lateen and
squaresail that in Northern Europe we have seen to exist between
the pure fore-and-after and the square-rigger. Thus, for instance,
one finds ships rigged with a large lateen on the foremast, the
mainmast being square-rigged with mainsail, topsail and t’gallant,
while the mizzen has a lateen with square topsail. The reader who
wishes to see the different varieties of lateen and lateen-plus-square
rig is referred to Mr. Warington Smyth’s interesting volume “Mast and
Sail,” while for details as to design and rigging he will find some
valuable information in Admiral Paris’ “Souvenirs de Marine.”

Fig. 104. Hailam Junk.

 Fig. 105. Chinese Junk.
From the model in the South Kensington
Museum.

The Chinese in their own independent way went on developing

from the early Egyptian models and have been not inaptly called the
Dutchmen of the East in their nautical tendencies. They developed
quickly but then remained at a standstill, whilst the European has
gone on by slow steps of progression. Adopting rather the sail of the
lugger than the old Egyptian squaresail, the Chinese made it into a
balance-lug and stiffened it with bamboo-battens. The illustration in
Fig. 104 was sketched by Mr. Warington Smyth (through whose
courtesy it is here reproduced) near Kaw Sichang, and represents a
Hailam junk. The sail of the Chinaman is hoisted up a pole-mast, the
halyard passing through a large double block attached to the yard
and a treble block at the masthead, a hauling parrel keeping yard to
mast and helping to peak the sail when reefed. Reefing with the
Chinese consists simply in letting go the halyard, when the weight of
sail and battens brings the sail into the topping lifts: two or more
battens are bunched together along the boom. The illustration in Fig.
105 will show in further detail the rigging of a Chinese junk. This has
been specially sketched from a fine model in the South Kensington
Museum. Built of soft wood, she has a full bottom and water-tight
compartments. The mizzen mast will be noticed to be in duplicate,
one on each quarter, only the leeward one being used under way,
the sails being of matting. The rudder is remarkable, unwieldy, and
projecting deep into the water, but capable of being raised by means
of a windlass when in shallows. The windlass in the bows raises the
three anchors, which are made of hard wood, the flukes being
tipped with iron, whilst the stock is in the crown instead of in the top
of the shank as in European anchors. Very similar to this model was
the famous Chinese junk Keying, which caused some sensation by
sailing from Canton to the Thames in 1847-8. These craft, owing to
their light draught and bulky tophamper, are not much good going to
windward, so that one is not surprised that the Keying took 477 days
on the voyage to England. In crossing China seas they usually take
advantage of the favourable monsoons. Their enormous crescent-
shaped sheer makes them excellent bad weather ships. Their
tonnage varies between 300 and 800. The Keying came round the
Horn, and her rudder, when let down, drew 22 feet of water. It hung
loose, as seen in the model, and was perforated, weighing nearly
eight tons. Under way it necessitated fifteen men, as well as a luff-
tackle purchase, to work the helm. She had no keelson, and the
mast, instead of being stepped, was supported by a toggle. The
seams of the vessel were paid with a kind of putty-cement made out
of burnt pounded oyster shells and oil from the chinam-tree. The
mainsail weighed no less than nearly nine tons, and took the crew
two hours to hoist. Towards the end of last year (1908) the
Australian Customs officials saw with amazement the arrival in their
waters of another Chinese junk, the Whang-Ho. This craft, which
was over a hundred years old, and was previously a pirate ship, set
out from China for a voyage to San Francisco. Afterwards she sailed
for the eastern side of America, but in making an attempt to round
the Horn was less fortunate than the Keying, a wave carrying away
her huge rudder; but she eventually reached Australia. She had
previously touched at Tahiti, and nothing was heard of her until she
reached Thursday Island, 100 days out.
Returning now to Northern Europe, we find the lug-sail surviving
especially in fishing craft for which it possesses certain peculiar
advantages. In Fig. 106 we have the sail plan of a Blankenberg boat.
Those who are acquainted with the coast-line around Ostend cannot
have failed to notice these craft with their leeboards raised, hauled
up the sandy beach. Here the standing lug is set after the French
style, the old mediæval bowline being still preserved from the
squaresail to set the lug straight when on a wind. Notice that the
foresail is right in the eyes of the ship, so that the rig looks as if it
was no distant relative of the vessel with the artemon that carried
St. Paul on his voyage.
 Fig. 106. Blankenberg Boat.

Every one who has cruised down Channel is familiar with the
French Chasse-Marée, a curious figure on the sea-line, with her lug-
sails and three crazy-looking masts. Over the mainmast she sets a
square topsail, while forward she carries a long bowsprit with a small
jib, the latter being in shape more of an equal-sided triangle than
the modern English jib, while the French lug-sail is sheeted very
high, as will be seen from the sketch (see Fig. 107).
 Fig. 107. French “Chasse-Marée.”

At one time Norfolk was famous for its beach yawls. Those who
have visited Great Yarmouth will have noticed these very large open
boats painted white with (if I remember correctly) a riband of green
running along the gunwale. Double-ended, they are now usually
rigged cutter fashion and used as pleasure boats. Clinker-built, they
have a very fine entrance and a clean run, and sometimes measure
50 feet in length and 10 feet beam. They used to carry three lug-
sails and jib owing to French influence. In the days when sailing
ships were more frequent than to-day, Yarmouth Roads were usually
a crowded anchorage, and these yawls would be launched almost
every day during the winter to assist a vessel that had been picked
up by the shoals. Nowadays one still sees them used for bringing
pilots ashore, but it is at the Yarmouth and Lowestoft regattas that
one is able to realise alike their enormous speed on a reach and the
dexterity of each crew, numbering about twenty. The three-masted
lug rig of olden days has now given way to a two-master with a
dipping lug for the main and standing mizzen, besides a small jib
forward.
 Fig. 108. Scotch “Zulu.”

Until about 1860 the Scotch fishing boat was entirely influenced by
Norway, and even to-day no one could deny that this influence is
altogether wanting. But at last the fisherman began to seek the
herring further out to sea, and so a bolder, decked ship was evolved,
and clinker-build gave way to carvel, and the design was given finer
lines and greater draught. I have watched a fleet of such vessels as
in Fig. 108 running into Scarborough Bay with an onshore breeze in
the soft light of a September afternoon, with their yacht-like lines
and their fine massive hulls suggesting an ideal combination of
strength and beauty. Most of these large “Zulus,” as they are called,
carry steam capstans for getting in the heavy nets, hoisting sail and
warping into harbour. Within the last few years they have been fitted
with steering wheels instead of helms. They are good boats to
windward, and are able to carry their enormous lugs longer than
most vessels could keep aloft a similar area of sail.

Fig. 109. Penzance Lugger.

The Cornish lugger is able to carry a larger mizzen but a smaller

lug forward than his Scotch cousin. Fig. 109 is an example of a
Penzance lugger. She draws also more water aft than the “Zulu.” The
Penzance luggers are famous all over England for their
seaworthiness and easy lines. They are usually about fifteen or
twenty tons, have in proportion to their size very high bulwarks to
encounter the Atlantic seas, and an exaggerated outrigger over the
stern unsupported by stays and cocked up at an angle to clear the
sea when the ship is pitching. Her mizzen is longer than her
mainmast, and rakes forward at a great angle. Sometimes they set a
topsail, as seen in the sketch over the mizzen: and at times they also
run out a bowsprit and jib.
 Fig. 110. Deal Galley Punt.

We could not close our list of characteristic luggers without

including that brave little ship the Deal galley-punt (see Fig. 110).
Chapman in his “Architectura Navalis Mercatoria,” published in 1768,
[117] shows a Deal lugger (or as she is called then a Deal cutter)
with three spritsails, the mizzen having a bumpkin, whilst a jib is set
on a bowsprit forward: but this type has become obsolete. In those
days they were engaged in taking out from the shore heavy anchors
and cables to vessels in the Downs which stood in need of them.
With the advent of steam and improved holding gear their days of
usefulness departed. But a smaller type, the Deal lugger, of which
we now speak, is still a feature of the sailing craft at the eastern end
of the Channel as she goes about her business “hovelling” or
hovering on the look-out for such odd jobs as taking pilots ashore or
attending on shipping between Dungeness and the North Foreland.
Never a ship gets picked up by the treacherous Goodwins but the
Deal lugger comes running out in any weather, ready for a salvage
job and a third of its value as a reward. Even whilst these lines are
passing through the press, they have been busy standing by the
Mahratta liner stranded on the Goodwins, and hurrying ashore with
the passengers and cargo of tea salved from the hold of the big
steamer. These little craft sail very close to the wind and are out in
the worst of weathers, and require considerable skill in handling. The
one lug-sail has to be lowered and hoisted at each tack, but they are
wonderfully quick both under sail and when rowed. Any sailing man
will tell you how excellent a sail for lifting a boat the lug-sail is, and
well the little Deal galley needs it. The yard of the sail hooks on to a
traveller and is hoisted by halyards up the mast, a purchase being
used to “sweat” it down taught. The rudder is made easily
detachable, supported on pintles with a rope-strop attached. It is her
length in proportion to her beam that gives her such speed. Clinker-
built, the Deal lugger is about thirty feet long. Her mast is placed
some distance from the bows, and is very stumpy, but in spite of this
the Deal galley punt is a wonderful little ship on a reach.
Having shown the directions in which the development of smaller
ships has taken place, and especially in the trading and fishing craft,
let us now turn our attention to that very modern development, the
yacht. As we set out not to write a history of yachting but of sailing
ships, we shall consider not the marvellous growth of the queen of
sports, but the influence which that has had in developing a
particular species of ship used entirely for the purpose of pleasure
and racing. We alluded in an earlier chapter to King Edgar, whose
“sommer progresses and yerely chiefe pastimes were the sailing
round about this whole Isle of Albion.” He at least showed the real
spirit of a yachtsman, and had he lived in later times he might have
established the sport on a sound footing many years before it began
to prosper.
But let us make no mistake about this word yacht. Of Dutch
derivation, and related to the Norwegian jaegt, the word in the
seventeenth century signified a transport for royalty or some
individual of distinguished rank. In that way we could include those
esneccas mentioned earlier in this volume which were prepared for
carrying British royalty across from these shores to France. But it
was not until the early part of the seventeenth century that the
yacht as a special type of vessel, distinct from one temporarily
adjusted for a short voyage, was produced. As other fore-and-afters
first saw light in Holland at this time, so it was but natural that the
yacht should originate there. From old paintings and prints we see
them rigged after the manner of those Dutch fore-and-afters which
we mentioned as to be seen there in previous pages of this chapter.
Especially popular for yachts was the sloepe rig with the two masts
and sails but no headsails, although the boomless but gaff mainsail,
fitted with brails not unlike the rig of the bawley, was also found.
The high sterns, square and much decorated with carving and gilt,
the comparatively low bluff bows and the pair of leeboards were the
most conspicuous features. The rig was usually cutter or sloop (in
the sense of having one mast mainsail and foresail, but without jib).
Later on we find ketches being favoured.
In 1660 the Dutch presented Charles II. with a yacht called the
Mary, “from whence,” writes Sir Anthony Deane to Pepys, “came the
improvement of our present yachts; for until that time we had not
heard of such a name in England.” This Mary was of a hundred tons
and was the first yacht to appear on our Navy list. She was lost in
1675 near Holyhead. From this model Christopher Pett in 1661 built
the Anne at Woolwich, her tonnage, beam, and length of keel being
the same as those of the Mary, but she drew three feet less water.
In the same year Charles was presented with another but smaller
yacht of only 35 tons, called the Bezan, which also came from the
Dutch. From the arrival of the Mary various sized yachts began to be
built in England, of which the tonnage gradually increased. The
Katherine, built in 1661, was captured by the Dutch in 1673. So far
had this new departure progressed in our country that in 1674 a
design was made for two yachts to be built at Portsmouth for the
King of France in imitation of Charles II.’s. But the largest built about
this time was the new Mary, to replace the first one lost. Of 166
tons, she was launched in 1677. The smallest yachts were the Minion
of 22 tons, and the Jemmy of 25 tons, and the Isle of Wight of a like
tonnage. Incidentally we find in the Naval MSS. of the time that the
dimensions of the biggest yacht’s mast of the year 1683 were:
length 20 yards, “bigness” (i.e., thickness) 20 inches.
 It was during the reign of that apostle of hedonism, Charles II.,
that the yacht became not merely the vessel of state but of
pleasure. He introduced into England yacht racing, although the
Dutch had for a long time delighted in regattas and naval sham
fights with yachts. In 1661 Charles sailed in a match from Greenwich
to Gravesend and back. One impulse that had been given to the
Dutch to build so-called yachts with finer lines and high capabilities
of speed was the trade carried on to the East by their Dutch East
India Company, and it was this company that had made Charles the
present of the first yacht he ever possessed. During the eighteenth
century yachting began to be a new sport for noblemen and wealthy
gentlemen, especially in the neighbourhood of Cork. By the end of
the century the Solent was becoming the cruising ground for a large
number of English yachts, and in 1812 a yacht club was started at
the Medina Hotel, East Cowes. In 1817 this newly-formed yacht club
was joined by the Prince Regent, who used to cruise between the
Wight and Brighton in the Royal George.[118] George III. had also
patronised yachting, and the illustration in Plan 4 gives some idea of
his yacht the Royal Sovereign. Launched at Deptford in 1804 she
drew 9 feet forward and a foot more aft. She was copper-bottomed
with a streak of yellow painted above, with another streak of blue
above that, while her stern was ornamented with medallions of the
cardinal virtues. Neptune presided over the stern, while the
figurehead represented her Majesty. It will be seen at once how
similar in colouring and decoration she was to the type of ships
prevalent in Charles II.’s time. She was said to have been very fast
and beautifully decorated, as well inside as out. She was 96 feet 1
inch long on deck with a breadth of 25 feet 7 inches. Her tonnage
was 28018 94
. She was ship-rigged and carried royals and stuns’ls,
judging from a print of 1821. In the external decoration of this yacht
we can see the influence which is still manifested in the royal steam
yachts of this country to-day. The lavish display of gold leaf, the
heavy stern and general clumsiness—all vile inheritances from the
days of Charles II. when naval architects knew no better—were all
reproduced in the old Victoria and Albert and have been perpetuated
even in the newest royal yacht the Alexandria.
It is only with the nineteenth century that yachting really begins,
but it was not till after the Crimean War that the sport began in
earnest. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the cutters were
built on the lines of the revenue cutters, which as we saw just now,
owed much to Dutch influence. The reader who wishes to see what
clumsy creatures they were has only to look at Turner’s pictures
(see, for example, the cutter in Fig. 71). In such a painting as
Charles Brooking’s The Calm, numbered 1475 in the National Gallery,
we readily see the square topsails above the fore-and-aft mainsail
and headsails. Brooking lived from 1723 to 1759, but fifty years later
the cutter had remained much the same. The spars these yachts
carried were enormous, and they were built of such strength that
they were up to the Government standard. Although the cutters
were of large dimensions, sometimes having a tonnage of 150, yet
they were very tubby, round creatures, their proportions being three
beams in length and heavily ballasted after the mediæval manner
with gravel, yet sometimes also with iron ore. But as match sailing
became commoner, naturally a means was sought for making the
cumbersome craft less heavy. The heavy ballast remained, but both
timbers and planking were of less thickness. Hitherto of clinker build,
this gradually gave way to carvel-work. One of the most famous
yachts of the first quarter of the century was the Arrow, built clinker
fashion in 1822 and still in existence.
Fig. 111. The Yacht “Kestrel,” 202 Tons. Owned by the Earl of Yarborough,
Commodore of the R.Y.S.

Fig. 112. The Yacht “Xarifa.” Owned by the Earl of Wilton.

 The illustration in Fig. 111 represents the Kestrel, 202 tons,
belonging to the Earl of Yarborough, Commodore of the Royal Yacht
Squadron. In the early ’forties she was a well-known ship. She is
rigged as a Hermaphrodite brig, that is to say she is brig-rigged on
her foremast but schooner-rigged on her main. She also carries a
tier of guns. The influence, indeed, of the Royal Navy on these early
yachts is notable. The cutters were influenced by the Government
revenue cutters and the bigger yachts by the Naval brigs. Fig. 112
also shows a yacht of this period. This is the Xarifa which belonged
to the second Earl of Wilton. She is rigged as a topsail schooner and
also carries guns. The rigging of yachts at this time was chiefly of
hemp, but, as will be seen from the accompanying illustrations, the
sails were very baggy.
In the ’fifties racing between yachts went rapidly ahead. The crack
cutters of the south coast were the Arrow, 84 tons, the Lulworth, 82
tons, the Louisa, 180 tons, and the Alarm 193 tons. A general
improvement was taking place. The old-fashioned gravel ballast was
thrown out and lead was slowly but surely introduced in spite of the
criticism that it would strain the ship and cause her to plunge badly
in a seaway. Next, instead of inside the lead was put outside below
the keel. Finally the tubby proportions vanished and yachts were
given greater length, greater depth but narrower beam. Early in the
’fifties Thomas Wanhill of Poole introduced the raking sternpost.
Instead of the Dutch-like bow the long clipper bow, now famous
among the mercantile ships, was coming into popularity.
But a new force was to come from across the Atlantic which had
far-reaching effects on the yachts of this country. Let us return once
more to Massachusetts. The theory of the advantage possessed by a
sharp entrance and hollow water-lines had been proved, in the case
of the Gloucester fishing and pilot schooners, to be sound and
correct. Then it was decided to build a yacht on similar but improved
lines: so in 1851 was launched the famous America, costing £4000.
She was sailed across to England and on August 22, 1851, was the
winning yacht for the special cup offered by the Royal Yacht
Squadron. In the race round the Isle of Wight she beat the pick of
our cutters and schooners so handsomely as to make yachtsmen and
yacht-builders, designers and sail-makers open their eyes in
amazement. The cup was afterwards presented by the owners of
America to the New York Yacht Club as a perpetual challenge trophy
to be raced for by yachts of all nations. The reader is well aware that
in spite of various plucky attempts we have not yet succeeded in
bringing it back to the country where it was manufactured.

Photo. West & Son.

Fig. 113. The Schooner “Alarm” as she appeared when rebuilt in 1852.
From a contemporary print, by kind permission of the Royal Victoria Yacht
Club, Ryde.

After the success of America a change was made in the old type of
yacht. The Alarm which had been built in 1834 as a cutter of 193
tons, was in 1852, consequent on America’s victory, lengthened 20
feet by the bow and converted into a schooner of 248 tons. The
illustration in Fig. 113, which is reproduced by kind permission of the
Royal Victoria Yacht Club, Ryde, shows the Alarm after she had been
rigged after the manner of America with one headsail, having its foot
laced to a boom, with a foresail having gaff but no boom, and with a
mainsail with both gaff and boom. As here seen she justified the
alterations made in her and remained for many years the fastest
schooner of the fleet. But not only in rig and design did America
make a complete revolution. Hitherto our sails had been mere wind-
bags, but the America had her sails made so as to lace to the spars,
while ours had been loose-footed on the boom. The American
yacht’s canvas thus set flatter and she could hold a better wind than
our craft. Henceforth English sail-makers adopted the new idea.
Schooners at least took to the new shape at once but the cutters
were a little time before they followed the lead thus given to them.
It was to America, therefore, that the last existing relic of
mediævalism in British ships was banished off the face of the waters
for ever.

Fig. 114. The “Oimara.” Built in 1867.

 In 1852 the famous cutter Arrow, for the same reason as had
transformed the Alarm, was rebuilt. Her previous length when she
was first built as far back as 1823 was only 3·35 times her beam. In
1852, also, Mr. William Fife of the famous “Fife of Fairlie” firm came
into prominence with the Cymba. Sail-making in the hands of
Lapthorn & Ratsey proceeded along scientific lines, and eventually
cotton was used instead of flax. In the ’sixties, following the example
set by the builders of the clipper-ships, iron framework was used in
combination with wooden skin, and from the early ’seventies to the
’eighties the clipper-bow had attained such success on big ships that
it became of great popularity on yachts. But during the ’sixties the
old straight-stem cutters were at the height of their fame. The
Oimara, seen in Fig. 114 with the long bowsprit of the period, was a
famous racing craft of the south coast. Built in 1867 by Mr. William
Steele of Messrs. Robert Steele & Co., Greenock, the well-known
builder of clipper-ships, her tonnage was 163. She sailed a
memorable race round the Isle of Wight in August of the following
year against the American schooners Sappho, Aline and others.
Going east about, Oimara led the fleet until the Needles were
rounded, but running back to Cowes against the ebb tide, she was
beaten by the schooners. This fine ship is still afloat in Poole harbour
above the bridge, and is used as a houseboat.
The Aline just mentioned was another beauty of her day. Built by
Messrs. Camper & Nicholson of Gosport in 1860, she was the first
yacht to get away from the raking mast so well seen in the
illustration of the Alarm. In the Aline the mast was stepped almost
upright and she was also given a running bowsprit and jib. Another
fast ship was the famous Egeria, 153-ton schooner, built by Wanhill
at Poole. She was at her prime during the ’sixties, and beat Aline
during the former’s maiden race in 1865.
 Fig. 115. The “Bloodhound.” Built in 1874.

During the ’seventies and till the ’eighties, the tendency was to
build yachts whose dimensions were still deeper, narrower and
longer. Beam was thought deserving of little consideration and
altogether undervalued until the year 1886, when an entire change
of feeling came. The illustration in Fig. 115 shows the wonderful old
Bloodhound. She was built by Mr. William Fife of Fairlie in 1874 for
the Marquis of Ailsa and was one of the famous class of 40-tonners
which flourished during the ’seventies and into the ’eighties. During
the six years she belonged to her first owner she won about £2500
worth of prizes, and afterwards changed hands. Last year, however,
Lord Ailsa re-purchased her, and with new sails the old ship showed
that her marvellous turn of speed had not deserted her. She did
remarkably well during Cowes week until she had the misfortune to
be sunk in collision with L’Esperance, and lay for some time at the
entrance to Cowes fairway, a sad sight, with her masts showing
above water and her crew at work salving what they could. She has
since been raised, and this year is again racing with surprising
success.

Photo. West & Son.

Fig. 116. The Auxiliary Topsail Schooner-Yacht “Sunbeam.”
Registered Tonnage, 227. Owned by Lord Brassey.

Few yachts, perhaps, are so well-known in name, at least, to the

general reader, as the Sunbeam, in Fig. 116. Built in 1874, and
owned by that enthusiastic yachtsman and experienced navigator
Lord Brassey, the Sunbeam is an auxiliary topsail-yard schooner. She
was designed by Mr. St. Clare Byrne and is built of teak with iron
frames. Her length over all is 170 feet; beam 27½ feet; depth 13¾
feet. Her displacement is 576 tons; her registered tonnage 227; her
draught 13½ feet; while her sail area as now altered is 7950 square
feet. She has cruised round the world, and been into almost every
port where she could get. She raced across the Atlantic in 1905 to
the Lizard, with the Valhalla among the competitors, although it was
not to be expected that she would come in first against such an
extreme type as the Atlantic. In her time she has covered as her
best run under canvas, 299 knots from noon to noon, whilst her
highest speed, also under sail alone, was 15 knots. She is still
happily with us, and is a familiar sight at Cowes, where she fits out.

Fig. 117. The Yawl “Jullanar.” Built in 1875.

During the ’seventies, thanks to Mr. William Froude and others,

experiments of the highest educative value were made to discover
the laws which governed the resistance of water to bodies moving
through it. This led to a scientific basis on which to model the lines
of yachts’ hulls. But suddenly and unexpectedly, from Maldon, on the
Blackwater, in a remote corner of Essex, a Mr. E. H. Bentall, not a
professional naval architect but an agricultural implement maker,
who had received but little training in naval architecture, designed
and had built the now famous yacht the Jullanar, in 1875. Since
length means speed, he gave her much of this, whilst for stability
she was given a fairly deep draught. But getting right away from
existing conventions, he had the courage to dispense with the old-
fashioned straight stem and stern, and cut away all dead-wood from
both. And so the Jullanar, with her easy lines, and rigged as a yawl,
came into being. She had a tonnage of 126 (Thames measurement);
length over all 110½ feet; beam 16·6 feet; and a draught of 13½
feet. She immediately displayed such remarkable speed and was so
successful as a racer that her lines considerably influenced the late
Mr. G. L. Watson, the famous yacht architect of the nineteenth
century, in designing the Thistle, although this ship did not come
into being until 1887. The sketch in Fig. 117, showing the hull and
rigging of the Jullanar, has been made from the fine little model in
the South Kensington Museum.
 Photo. West & Son.
Fig. 118. The “Satanita.” Built in 1893.
 Photo. S. Cribb.
Fig. 119. King Edward VII.’s Cutter “Britannia,” launched 1893, showing the
Mainsail being hoisted by Fourteen of the Crew.

Yacht-design has been considerably modified by contemporary

existing measurement rules. Thus, when in the ’eighties the only
taxed dimensions were, not length over all, but length on water-line
and sail area, the temptation to introduce overhang both at bow and
stern was irresistible. In Jullanar the germ of the idea existed, but it
developed to its fullest extent during the ’nineties, and so by a
curious fatality one becomes witness of still another revival, more
strange and curious than all the others, the revival of that which was
indeed one of the most characteristic features of the Egyptian craft
in the early dynasties, the overhanging bow and stern. In 1893 was
built the Satanita, in which this last-mentioned feature is well shown.
(See Fig. 118.) This powerful beauty has on the water-line 97·7 feet,
and an extreme beam of 24·7 feet, and a draught of 16·5 feet. Her
sail area (Y.R.A.) was in her Solent days 9923 square feet. The
beautifully-fitting sails seen in the accompanying illustration are in
wonderful contrast to those hollow bags used in the pre-America
days. In the same year was launched King Edward’s (then Prince of
Wales’) Britannia, which with Captain Carter at her helm, won both
fame and a considerable number of prizes during the ’nineties. Her
length on the water-line is 87·8 feet; her extreme beam 23·66 feet;
and draught 15 feet. The illustration in Fig. 119 of the counter of
Britannia has been specially included to give the reader some idea of
the weight of her mainsail, which, as will be noticed, is being hoisted
by no less than fourteen hands on the halyard, including the ship’s
cook and steward. The year 1893 was made memorable by the
launch also of the Valkyrie, one of the famous trio of yachts of the
same name. She measured on the water-line 86·8 feet; her extreme
beam was 22·33 feet. The illustration in Fig. 120 shows Valkyrie I. It
was during this year that beam, being no longer taxed, was allowed
to show its value, and ever since that time the tendency has
continued for a more wholesome type of boat, instead of the vicious
old plank-on-edge class of craft.
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