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Chem. Ind. Chem. Eng. Q. 30 (3) 207−221 (2024) CI&CEQ

ANANTHAKUMAR COMBUSTION, EMISSION, AND

SUDALAIMANI1
PERFORMANCE
BARATHIRAJA RAJENDRAN2
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYBRID
THIYAGARAJ JOTHI3
BIOFUEL AT DIFFERENT
MATHANBABU MARIAPPAN4 COMPRESSION RATIOS
Article Highlights
• Future automobile energy utilities
• Hybrid biofuel was prepared by transesterification and pyrolysis methods
• Brake thermal efficiencies of hybrid biofuel fuels were higher than those of
1Department of Mechanical conventional fuel
Engineering, Government
Abstract
College of Engineering.
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India The primary aim of this study is to alternate between conventional fossil
2Department fuels and reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and smoke from diesel
of Mechanical
Engineering, Einstein College of
engines. The current study aimed to improve the performance and emission
Engineering, Near MS characteristics of a variable compression ratio (VCR) diesel engine operated
University, Tirunelveli, Tamil with hybrid biodiesel. Experiments were done with the best hybrid biodiesel,
Nadu, India which was made by mixing 20% rubber seed oil (RSO) with 80% waste
3Department plastic oil (WPO). The tests were done at four compression ratios (CRs):
of Mechatronics
Engineering, Er. Perumal
16:1, 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1. Under a CR of 20:1 and at full load, the engine’s
Manimekalai College of brake thermal efficiency went up by 30.5%, its brake-specific fuel
Engineering, Hosur, Tamil Nadu, consumption went down by 0.347 kg/kWh, and notably diminished
India emissions of carbon monoxide (0.43% volume), hydrocarbons (79 ppm),
4Department and smoke (22%). However, with increasing CRs, NOx emissions rose
of Mechanical
unfavourably (1092 ppm) compared to diesel (820 ppm). Also, diesel and
Engineering, Government
College of Engineering, Bargur, clean (WPO) were compared to see how the CR values affected
Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu, India combustion, performance, and emissions. Compared to diesel, under
maximum load and the CR of 20:1, hybrid biodiesel demonstrated
approximately 3.7% higher brake thermal efficiency. The findings suggest
potential applications for this hybrid biodiesel in the automobile sector, the
power generation industry, and marine applications.
SCIENTIFIC PAPER Keywords: rubber seed oil, waste plastic oil, performance, emission,
variable compression ratio.
UDC 621.436-222:662.61:665.3

The emissions from the CI engine create major air many researchers explored different alternate fuels
pollution, which can affect human health. Therefore, that minimized air pollution. They combined two
biofuels that can be utilised in CI engines as an
alternative fuel. Liu et al. [1] produced rubber seed oil
(RSO) using an ultra-stable Y (USY) zeolite catalyst.
Correspondence: B. Rajendran, Department of Mechanical This catalyst is suitable for producing liquid fuels from
Engineering, Einstein College of Engineering, Near MS RSO. Wuttichai et al. [2] studied the composition and
University, Tirunelveli – 627 012, Tamil Nadu, India.
properties of the extracted RSO and high-free fatty acid
E-mail: [email protected]
Paper received: 3 February, 2023 oil after transesterification using different catalysts like
Paper revised: 28 August, 2023 CaO, sodium metasilicate-based egg shells, and CaO
Paper accepted: 7 September, 2023
with waste coral fragments. Christine et al. [3] studied
https://doi.org/10.2298/CICEQ230203024A the synthesis of WPO by catalytic pyrolysis using
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nitrogen as a carrier gas. The WPO is extracted from engine performance is increased. Gandure and
polythene bags. The catalysts used are silica, alumina, Ketlogetswe [9] compared the performance of marula
barium carbonate, Y zeolite, and zeolite. seed oil and diesel on a VCR engine. According to the
Recent studies have been performed by many findings, the engine performance with marula oil is very
researchers on the combustion and performance close to that with diesel at CR 16:1. The operation
parameters of a CI engine operated with alternate fuels behaviour of the engine, exhalation smoke properties,
such as waste palm oil [4], apple seed oil [5], biodiesel and flame efficiency of a VCR engine employed on
derived from chicken waste [6], rice bran oil [7], tamanu waste cooking and sunflower oil methyl esters and their
oil [8], and marula seed oil [9]. A variable compression mixes of 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80% were studied by
ratio (VCR) engine's combustion efficacy and Muralidharan and Vasudevan [14].
exhalation smoke properties were studied by The findings show that increased CR values are
Nagaraja et al. [4]. Their CR values varied from 16:1 to associated with a greater ignition interval and a slower
20:1 with 90 °C pre-heated palm oil, and their blends heat dissipation rate. Amarnath et al. [15] assess the
ranged from 5% to 20%. The outcome shows that the engine operation behaviour and exhalation qualities of
output smoke temperature is diminished for all smoke in a VCR engine using the methyl esters of
experiments and that CO and HC emissions drop as Karanja and Jatropha. According to the findings, both
blend percentages and CR values increase. biodiesels function better at superior CR values. In
Using Eagle Marmelo oil, Krishnamoorthi and comparison to diesel pollutants, biodiesel produces
Malayalamurthi [10] investigated the effect of varying fewer emissions. Ashok Kumar et al. [16] researched a
CR and nozzle holes. The findings show that a higher VCR engine fuelled with Pinnai oil blends at CR ranging
CR value improves combustion characteristics. from 15:1 to 18:1 and investigated the performance
Elevation in the CR is also associated with decreased parameters. They also examined the engine's
BSFC, HC, CO, and smoke emissions and improved operations, combustion efficiency, and emission
thermal efficiency. Singh and Shukla [11] investigated behaviour. The findings showed that the mixes' BSFC
the combustion characteristics of the VCR engine by values were extremely close to those of diesel.
varying CR from 15:1 to 18:1 using castor biodiesel The CI engine operations, flame efficiency of the
blends varying from B00 to B50. The results indicated engine, combustion efficiency, and exhalation qualities
that cylinder pressure reached its maximum at the CR of smoke were examined by Ravi et al. [17]. As the CR
of 18:1 and B50 blend, and the net heat release rate rises, the engine’s performance improves. They
decreased for B00 at CR 15:1. provided a detailed analysis of NOx reduction methods
Mohit et al. [7] conducted tests on a VCR diesel like EGR. Rinaldini et al. [18] assessed the
engine using rice bran oil blends ranging from 10% to performance of a CI engine running on WPO and the
40% at CR values ranging from 15:1 to 18:1. The study behaviour of its emissions. The findings indicated that
focused on analysing the performance and exhaust WPO causes an increase in NOx emissions. According
emission parameters of these tested blends. to Mani et al. [19], the WPO was used as fuel in a CI
Mohammed et al. [12] explored the impact of different engine, and though CO and HC exhalations were
waste cooking oil blends ranging from 10% to 50% at relatively excessive, the BTHE of the WPO was equal
CR values of 14:1, 16:1, and 18:1 on a CI engine. The to that of diesel. Devaraj et al. [20] investigated WPPO
study delved into assessing performance, emission, blended with 5% and 10% diethyl ether in a CI engine
and combustion parameters in this context. The and looked at the engine parameters, emission
findings suggest that brake-specific fuel consumption characteristics, and combustion efficiency. The findings
decreases as the compression ratio (CR) increases for showed that although smoke pollution has decreased,
all blends. BTE with WPPO has improved. In their study,
Tamanu oil blends were experimentally examined Ibrahim et al. [21] examined a compression-ignition
on VCR engines (16:1, 18:1, 20:1, and 22:1) by Antony engine's emissions and combustion efficacy utilizing a
and Bose [8]. In contemplation of an increase in 50:50 volume percentage blend of crude RSO and palm
performance and lower emissions, the test findings oil. According to reports, higher blend ratios result in
showed that this alternative fuel could be mixed with higher NOx emissions and exit smoke temperatures
diesel up to 40% at an ideal CR value of 20:1. while decreasing CO emissions.
Moreover, according to researcher suggestions, as the Coir-pith gas and RSO blends are analysed in a
CR values rise, the BTHE values rise as well. By diesel engine by Ramadhas et al. [22]. Higher specific
employing esterified tamanu oil, Raj and energy consumption and increased exhaust emissions
Kandasamy [13] experimented to ascertain the are obtained with blends at all load conditions.
operating conditions of the VCR engine. The outcome Senthilkumar and Sankaranarayanan [23] investigated
demonstrates that emissions are decreased, and the diesel engine characteristics at WPO. The findings

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demonstrate that WPO increases carbon monoxide, increasing HC emissions and smoke opacity.
NOx, and HC pollution more rapidly than diesel. In their Therefore, many researchers, including Samuel et
research, Kasiraman et al. [24] investigated the al. [33], explored alternate fuels that minimise air
operational parameters of a compression-ignition (CI) pollution.
engine using neat cashew nut shell oil (CSNO) and The literature review highlights that the VCR
camphor oil (CMPRO) as fuel. It is reported that the engine exhibits optimal performance, achieving
CMPRO 30 blend showed good performance maximum power output while maintaining low
compared with diesel in terms of BTE and heat energy emissions when fuelled with unmixed pure biodiesel
dissipation at full load. Hifjur et al. [25] evaluated the and hybrid alternative fuels. However, no prior research
diesel engine using Mahua and Simarouba oil blends has been conducted on the utilization of a specific
B10 and B20 in 50:50 volumes. It is reported that the hybrid alternative biodiesel comprising a blend of
B10 blend can be used for long-term use based on 20% RSO and 80% waste plastic oil (WPO),
assessing fewer soot deposits after 100 hours of engine particularly at varying CR values ranging from 16:1 to
operation than diesel. 20:1. The primary objective of this research is to
HCCI-DI engines powered by acetone-butanol- analyse and compare the effects of different CR values
ethanol were studied by Ibham et al. [27]. As a result of on several performance and combustion
the addition of acetone, butanol, and ethanol, NOx characteristics, including BTHE, BSFC, cylinder peak
emissions were successfully reduced, and brake pressure, ignition delay, and HRR. Additionally, the
thermal efficiency and fuel consumption were also study aims to evaluate emissions, such as EGT, NOx,
improved. Christopher et al. [28] evaluated the HC, CO, and smoke opacity, when using the
performance parameters of biodiesel produced from aforementioned hybrid alternative biodiesel.
local South African canola and sunflower oil Comparisons will be made with the performance and
feedstocks. According to their report, the smoke emissions characteristics of conventional diesel and
emissions from biodiesel and its diesel blends were neat WPO. This analysis is valuable for engine
lesser than those from pure diesel, but there was an manufacturers who produce high CR engines in large
increase in nitrogen oxide emissions. Garavand et volumes, as it assists in selecting an optimum CR.
al. [29] utilized a combination of diesel, waste fish oil Allowing these manufacturers to enhance engine
biodiesel, and 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% ethanol to fuel performance and emissions control will also lead to the
diesel engines while incorporating graphene quantum development of more environmentally friendly and
dots to enhance their properties. Their findings efficient engines.
revealed that the mixture containing 45 ppm GQD, 6%
ethanol, 10% biodiesel, and 90% diesel exhibited the
highest braking force and engine torque and lower MATERIALS AND METHODS
unburnt hydrocarbon and NOx emissions. Production of RSO methyl esters
Samuel et al. [30] researched a hydrodynamic RSO is a non-edible oil made from rubber seeds.
cavitation reactor for producing biodiesel from low-free- It is usable as biodiesel. Biodiesel is created when RSO
fat acid RSO. They studied the impacts of is transformed into methyl, ethyl, or butyl esters. Due to
transesterification variables, including 3%—5% wt. its low volatile property and excessive viscous
KOH, 30—50 minutes of reaction time, and a 3.5/7.0 behaviour compared to diesel, biodiesel in IC engines
ethanol/RSO molar ratio. The study found that at a 6/1 causes issues such as pumping, atomization, injector
ethanol/oil molar ratio, a 4.5 wt. % KOH concentration, choking, piston wear, etc. The raw RSO contains
and a 40-minute reaction period, RSO production saturated and unsaturated fatty acid compositions. The
reached 92.5% of the maximum. Singh et al. [31] unrefined RSO contains 22% free fatty acids (FFA).
focused on utilising microalga Spirulina blends with Methanol is a reactant in the biodiesel synthesis
diesel in a VCR engine with various loads, CRs, and process because it is more reactive and readily
blend concentrations. At a 16:1 CR and 20% blend available on the market. The RSO consists of three
concentration, the engine had a 31.357% BTE and a esters and around 20% glycerine. The glycerine can be
0.274 kg/kWh BSFC. It also had lower nitrogen oxide replaced with alcohol to make a less viscous biodiesel
levels of 1804.9 ppm, CO2 levels of 869.075 g/kWh, and by transesterification.
PM levels of 0.2807 g/kWh. Hananto et al. [32]
examined how the emissions from the CI engine create Non-edible RSO has been considered a potential
major air pollution, which can affect human health. feedstock in India. Therefore, it has been selected as
Their findings indicated that the introduction of butanol fuel in the present investigation. Eq. (1) describes the
into diesel engines led to lower exhaust gas chemical process that transforms unprocessed RSO
temperatures and CO emissions while simultaneously into a methyl ester of RSO. R1, R2, and R3 represent
long hydrocarbon or fatty acid chains. The transesteri-
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fication process requires two stages because the RSO After that, using potassium hydroxide as an additive,
contains 22% free fatty acids. The first stage is acid the low FFA prior-processed oil can undergo second-
esterification, in which the reactant methanol and stage alkaline esterification processing to transform the
sulfuric acid catalyst react with the FFA present in raw triglycerides into methyl esters and the fatty acids into
RSO to produce methyl ester and water. It is given by soap and water. It is given in Eq. (3):
Eq. (2). This process reduces the free fatty acid level.

𝑂
∥
𝐻2 𝐶 − 𝑂 − 𝐶 − 𝑅1
| 𝑂 𝐻2 𝐶 − 𝑂𝐻
| ∥ 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝐻3 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑅1 | (1)
𝐻𝐶 − 𝑂 − 𝐶 − 𝑅2 + 3𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝐻3 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑅2 + 𝐻𝐶 − 𝑂𝐻
𝐾𝑂𝐻
| 𝑂 𝐻3 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑅3 |
| ∥ 𝐻2 𝐶 − 𝑂𝐻
𝐻2 𝐶 − 𝑂 − 𝐶 − 𝑅3
𝑂 𝑂
∥ ∥ (2)
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐻𝑂 − 𝐶 − 𝑅 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝐻3 𝐶 − 𝑂 − 𝐶 − 𝑅 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑂 𝑂
∥ ∥ (3)
𝐻𝑂 − 𝐶 − 𝑅 + 𝐾𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝐾𝑂 − 𝐶 − 𝑅 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Using methanol as the reactant and sulfuric acid sheet surrounds and insulates the outer layer with glass
as the catalyst, 22% of the FFA is reduced to less than wool. The distillation plant consists of a pressure
2% within the initial stage of acid esterification. The gauge, a pressure relief valve, a feed hopper with a
second phase of transesterification is finished when control valve, a thermocouple sensor, an oil level
potassium hydroxide, a catalyst, is applied to the indicator, a control panel, and a slag drain.
previously processed oil for alkaline esterification to
produce the methyl ester of RSO. The The slag drain removes the residual oil after
transesterification conditions leading to the production distillation. The outlet of the plant is connected to the
of RSO methyl ester encompassed a water-cooled condenser. The condensed liquid from
4/10 methanol/RSO molar ratio, 6 ml of H2SO4 acid the pyrolysis plant is poured into the distillation plant
catalyst, 6 g of KOH alkaline catalyst, a reaction time of through a feed hopper with a control valve. The valve is
60 minutes, a magnetic stirrer speed set at 1000 rpm, fully closed after pouring the oil. The heat is transferred
and a reaction temperature of 60 °C. These conditions from the coil to the silicone oil and then to the plastic oil.
resulted in a yield of 76% relative to the maximum The reactor temperature increases from 200 °C to
possible output. 350 °C, evaporating the plastic vapours. The plastic
vapour from the plant is passed through the condenser.
Production of the WPO The condensate liquids are gathered at the fractioned
oil collector, creating WPO.
The thermochemical pyrolysis process breaks
waste plastics down into valuable yields at elevated The pyrolysis conditions in this study involved (i)
temperatures, also without oxygen. Pyrolysis produces maintaining the pyrolysis plant reactor temperature
volatile fractions and impurities such as carbonised between 500 °C and 700 °C and (ii) maintaining the
char or solid residues. Saturated and fragrant inside temperature of the distillation plant reactor
hydrocarbons and non-condensable gas with a between 200 °C and 350 °C, based on equivalent petro-
significant calorific value comprise the volatile fractions. diesel fractional properties. The optimum yield of WPO
The distillation process converts volatile fractions into was calculated as follows: Initially, 10 kg of waste
WPO [19]. plastic was used. After degradation, WPO yielded 75%
Figure 1a depicts the distillation plant's to 80%, leaving 20% to 25% of waste. The fractionated
conceptual layout. A thin cylindrical vessel encloses the plastic oil obtained after distillation accounted for 60 to
stainless steel reactor. The silicone oil fills the gap 65% of the conversion. The liquid fuel was delivered
between the reactor and the cylindrical vessel, and an approximately 3.5 hours after the initiation of the
electrical heating coil is submerged in the oil. A metallic pyrolysis process.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of (a) Distillation plant (b) Experimental setup.

Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) phase ions according to mass/charge ratio and their
analysis of WPO sequential detection. The mass spectrometry (MS)
The main feature of GC-MS is that it combines the instrument is operated at a temperature of 220 °C, with
features of gas-liquid chromatography and mass the ion source temperature set at 200 °C, covering
spectrometry. The WPO is characterised using a GC mass-to-charge numbers from 20 to 1200 m/z.
instrument. The working principle of a mass Figure 2a illustrates the schematic diagram of the GC-
spectrometer is followed by the separation of gas- MS instrument. The GC-MS chromatogram of WPO is
depicted in Figure 2b.

Figure 2. Diagram of (a) GC-MS instrument (b) GC-MS chromatogram of WPO.

Physio-chemical properties of RSO, WPO and diesel

The foremost constituents of WPO obtained from
GC-MS analysis are given in Table 1. It can be seen Table 2 summarises the essential physical and
that the WPO consists of 20 compounds. From Table 1, chemical characteristics of RSO, WPO, and diesel in
the compounds are in the range from C7 to C22 accordance with ASTM standards.
approximately. It shows that WPO has similarities to
diesel. In addition, the oil properties of C12H25 are Experimental setup
closest to diesel. From the area percentage, the Figure 1b illustrates the experimental
average chemical formula of the WPO is calculated as arrangement. The engine used for this research is the
C11.55H21.8, but the average chemical formula of Kirloskar (AV1) engine, a vertical, direct-injection,
common diesel is C12H24. water-cooled, naturally aspirated engine with a rated
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Table 1. Main components of WPO obtained from GC-MS analysis.

Peak Reaction Time (min) Area % Chemical formula Chemical compounds
Cyclopentanone,
1 2.440 60.54 C9H16O
2-(1-methylpropyl)-
2 3.281 16.71 C10H8N2O2S2 N-(4-Oxo-2-thioxo-thiazolidin-3-yl)-benzamide
3 3.701 100 C7H14O2S trans-2, 4-Dimethylthiane, S, S-dioxide
4 4.386 18.59 C9H8 Benzene, 1-ethynyl-4-methyl-
5 5.122 93.42 C11H24O 1-Undecanol
6 5.901 33.63 C12H22O3 1, 3-Dioxan-4-one, 2-heptyl-6-methyl
7 6.518 80.52 C7H14O2S trans-2, 4-Dimethylthiane, S, S-dioxide
8 7.644 89.56 C12H25F Dodecane, 1-fluoro-
9 8.407 62.9 C18H36 5-Octadecene, (E)-
10 9.18 43.05 C7H14O2S trans-2,4-Dimethylthiane, S, S-dioxide
11 10.000 32.67 C7H14O2S trans-2, 4-Dimethylthiane, S, S-dioxide
12 10.934 26.48 C12H25F Dodecane, 1-fluoro-
13 11.831 27.87 C12H25F Dodecane, 1-fluoro-
14 12.745 32.86 C12H25F Dodecane, 1-fluoro-
15 13.653 33.85 C14H30O Heptane, 1, 1'-oxybis-
16 14.732 32.79 C14H30O Heptane, 1, 1'-oxybis-
17 15.64 39.08 C12H25F Dodecane, 1-fluoro-
18 16.346 31.8 C12H25F Dodecane, 1-fluoro-
19 17.461 16.77 C22H46 2, 2-Dimethyleicosane
20 18.359 4.77 C12H10O4S 2-Hydroxy-3-(thiophen-2-yl)methyl-5-methoxy-1, 4-benzoquinone

Table 2. Physio-chemical properties of diesel, RSO and WPO.

Properties ASTM Method Biofuel ASTM D6751 limits Diesel RSOME WPO R 20 P 80
Specific gravity at 15 °C D 4052 0.87 to 0.89 0.82 0.8102 0.9155 0.893
Net calorific value, kJ/kg D 4809 - 44800 38650 43340 41362.4
Flashpoint, °C D 93 Min. 130 50 66 54 56
Fire point, °C D 93 - 57 68 56 58
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C, cSt D 445 1.9 to 6.0 2 12.75 3.18 3.704
Cetane index D 613 48 to 70 50 56 51 38.4
Water content, wt. % D 2709 Max. 0.050 0.025 0.3 0.01 0.065
Oxygen by difference, % E 385 - Nil 22 1.5 5.6

power of 3.7 kW at 1500 rpm. The CR of the engine is Total cylinder volume (Vs +Vc ) (4)
Compression ratio =
modified from 16:1 to 20:1. Legion Brothers of Clearencevolume (Vc )
Bangalore is responsible for the modification work.
where Vs=πd2l/4 is the swept volume of the
Table 3 contains all of the test engine's specifications.
cylinder (m3), Vc is the clearance volume of the cylinder
(m3), d is the bore diameter (80 mm), and l is the stroke
VCR arrangement
length (110 mm).
A manual change of CR is possible by using a
specially designed CR graduation disc attached to the Combustion parameters measurement
cylinder head. The graduation disc will not affect the Combustion pressure sensor with charge amplifier
combustion chamber geometry. In the current study,
It is necessary to obtain the values of cylinder gas
the cylinder head disc plate is rotated and moved up
pressure and crank angle to acquire essential
and down to alter the clearance volume of the cylinder,
combustion characteristics like peak pressure, peak
which in turn alters the CR.
pressure occurrence, maximum rate of pressure rise,
Figure 3 depicts a photograph of a CR graduation HRR, combustion duration, ignition delay, mass
disc and tightening lever. The calculation for the CR percentage burned, etc. The in-cylinder gas pressure
values is found in Eq. (4): was measured using a piezoelectric pressure
transducer manufactured by Cityzen (model CY-CP-
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Table 3. Technical specifications of the experimental setup.

Particulars Specifications
VCR multi-fuel, vertical, water-cooled, direct injection, naturally aspirated
engine. Legion Brothers, Bangalore, modified the engine to change the
Make and Model
compression ratio arrangement. The Kirloskar AV1 engine makes the base
crankcase.
Compression ratio range 6:1 to 20:1
Rated brake power 3.7 kW
Rated speed 1500 rpm
No. of cylinders / No. of strokes 01 / 04
Bore x Stroke 80 x 110 mm
Displacement volume 552.64 cc
Nozzle opening pressure 200 bar
Maximum load 10 kg
Software “Engine Test Express v14” Engine performance analysis software

200B), integrated with a Cityzen charge amplifier. acquisition system (DAS) with a resolution of 0.5 °CA is
Through the action of a diaphragm on the quartz employed to eliminate the impact of cycle-to-cycle
components, the cylinder gas pressure detected by the changes. The DAS uses a high-impedance connection
sensor becomes an electrostatic charge. The to capture the charge amplifier's output and save it in
experiment involves measuring the crank angle and in- an Excel file on the PC. The low-level charge is
cylinder gas pressure for 50 consecutive cycles. A data converted into a proportional voltage by the amplifier.

Figure 3. Photographic image of CR graduation disc and pointer.

Experimental errors and uncertainties values on CI engine operations, combustion, and

The tests utilized standardized measuring emission parameters for the VCR engine when it is run
instruments, and the error rates for each instrument on hybrid alternative fuel (R-20/P-80 blend) at various
were computed to minimize the measurement error rate CR values of 16:1, 17:1, 18, and 20:1. Furthermore,
to the lowest possible percentage. The first reading of diesel and neat WPO are also compared.
the independent variables like load, speed, and others
were computed using the percentage uncertainty of the Pressure-crank angle graph
corresponding instruments provided in Appendix 1. The In terms of crank angle, the pressure computation
total percentage of uncertainty was ± 2.28 %. is a crucial instrument. It also provides enough data to
perform a combustion analysis and calculate the heat
release rate from the fuel. An engine's maximum
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION pressure rises as more fuel is consumed during the pre-
mixed combustion stages. Figure 4a represents the
In this segment, we examine the effects of the CR
fluctuation in engine pressure at maximum load
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conditions for hybrid alternative fuel (R-20/P-80 blend), Heat Release Rate (HRR)
neat WPO, and diesel. Typically, raising the CR values In C.I. engines, the HRR value is measured as the
enhances engine pressure and engine operations. sum of the work done and the change in internal or
According to Figure 4a, diesel has a peak pressure of chemical energy of the fuel released during the
62 bar, and hybrid alternative fuel has a peak pressure combustion process. Figure 4b compares the heat
of 66 bar at a 16:1 CR. The hybrid alternative fuel with release rates of WPO and diesel at full load with
a 17:1 CR has a peak pressure of 66.5 bar. When fully different CRs for hybrid alternative fuel. The HRR
loaded, the peak pressures at the 18:1 and 20:1 CRs values of hybrid alternative fuel (R-20/P-80 blend) are
are 68.5 bar and 70 bar, respectively. WPO maximum 80, 82.5, 83.8, and 85.38 J/℃A, with CR values of 16:1,
pressure was also attained at 67 bar at a 16:1 CR. The 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1. At a 16:1 CR, the diesel and WPO
elevated pressure at 20:1 CR is higher for hybrid have maximum heat release rates of 73.8 and 83 J/℃A,
alternative fuel than the peak pressure at 16:1 CR. As respectively. The HRR value increased with an
a result of the higher viscous property, lower volatile enhancement of the CR value because of the excellent
behaviour, and higher oxygen content of biofuels, this spray developed in the combustion chamber, the
increase in cylinder pressure is made possible by enrichment air entrainment phenomenon, enhanced
enhancing the CR, which is more advantageous for biofuel volatility properties, faster prior mixing of blends,
biofuels than diesel. Higher CRs seem to improve the and greater diffusive combustion stages [5—8].
performance of biodiesel [5—8].

Figure 4. Variation of Engine parameters at full load conditions: (a) Pressure versus crank angle; (b) HRR versus crank angle.

Ignition delay burning. Thus, the ignition delay is decreased.

Figure 5 (a) illustrates the relationship between Compared to 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1 CRs, the 16:1 CR
the load and the ignition delay for the tested fuels at results in a longer ignition delay for hybrid alternative
varying CRs. The hybrid alternative fuel has ignition fuel because there are more premixed combustion
delays at full load of 11.6 °CA, 11.5 °CA, 10.6 °CA, and phases and less diffusion combustion, respectively
10.5 °CA, respectively, with CR values of 16:1, 17:1, [6—9].
18:1, and 20:1. Similarly, the diesel and WPO ignition
delays were observed at 10.8 °CA and 11.8 °CA, Cylinder peak pressure/ Engine maximum pressure
respectively, at a CR value of 16:1 with maximum load The degree of engine maximum pressure mainly
settings. depends on the volume of diesel or alternative fuel
evaporated during the ignition gap interval. However,
In this study, the fuel-air mixture's pre-ignition
the evaporation of liquid fuel is significantly influenced
creates a rise in cylinder heat, which causes the ignition
by viscosity. The change in engine maximum pressure
delays to reduce with increasing loads at different CRs.
with full load for the tested fuels at various CRs is
Moreover, the ignition delay gets shorter as CRs rise.
shown in Figure 5b. The maximum engine pressure for
The air and gas temperature inside the cylinder rises
hybrid alternative fuel is 58, 59, 61, and 62.1 bar,
due to higher CR values, aiding in the charge's early
respectively, at the no-load state for CRs of 16:1, 17:1,
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Figure 5. Variation of engine parameters at different load conditions: (a) Ignition delay versus load; (b) Cylinder peak pressure versus
load.

18, and 20:1. The engine maximum pressure of hybrid thermal efficiency is attained when the pressure is
alternative fuel at CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1 is maintained above the threshold limit. Additionally,
66, 66.5, 68.5, and 70 bar, respectively, at maximum when the CR is lowered to 16:1 or 17:1, it is discovered
loaded condition. The engine maximum pressure of that the BTHE values of the hybrid alternative fuel are
diesel and alternative biofuel WPO at a CR of 16:1 is worse than diesel. The hybrid alternative fuel's
62 bar and 67 bar, respectively. Because of a greater extended ignition delay at low CRs (16:1 or 17:1) is
combustion temperature in the quicker prior mixing of responsible for the inadequate combustion
air-fuel combustion stages and a decrease in CV characteristics.
values, which raises the density of the blends in the
course of combustion [7—11]. In addition, the cylinder Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
peak pressure of hybrid alternative fuel (R-20/P-80 Figure 6b depicts the change in BSFC for the
blend) is higher at a higher CR of 20:1. different blends under varied loads and CR values.
Figure 6b clearly shows that the BSFC falls as the CR
Brake thermal efficiency (BTHE) rises, and the BSFC of the WPO and its RSO blends
Figure 6a depicts the impact of the CR values on also reflects a similar trend compared to diesel. The
the BTHE of the tested fuels. According to the BSFC values of WPO and diesel at a 16:1 CR are
experimental results, the BTHE values increased with 0.465 kg/kWh and 0.375 kg/kWh, respectively, at
increasing load under all test conditions. At maximum maximum load. For CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18, and 20:1, the
load conditions, the BTHE for diesel, WPO, and hybrid BSFC values for the hybrid alternative fuel under 25%
alternative fuel at a 16:1 CR are 26.8%, 23.4%, and load circumstances are 0.75, 0.721, 0.68, and
25.8%, respectively. The BTHE of an R-20/P-80 blend 0.66 kg/kWh, respectively. The BSFC values for the
at CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18, and 20:1 is 12%, 12.8%, hybrid alternative fuel at maximum load conditions are
14.2%, and 15%, respectively, at 25% load. At full load, 0.41, 0.39, 0.362, and 0.347 kg/kWh for CRs of 16:1,
the BTHE for hybrid alternative fuel at CRs of 17:1, 17:1, 18, and 20:1. By comparing the BSFC values of
18:1, and 20:1 is 26.8%, 28.74%, and 30.5%, diesel and WPO at CRs of 18:1 and 20:1. It is found that
respectively. The BTHE values of hybrid alternative the hybrid alternative fuel has lower BSFC values due
fuels are higher than diesel and WPO. At full load, the to a lower clearance volume, better combustion, and
CR of 17:1 offers almost similar efficiency, but the lower heat losses. The above factors produce more
BTHE values increased when the CRs of 18:1 and 20:1 heat energy to obtain the desired brake thermal
for the R-20 / P-80 blends were increased because the efficiency. Higher CRs also result in higher maximum
fuels burn more efficiently at higher temperatures and engine pressure, significantly boosting engine power
pressures and have reduced volatility at higher CRs, production while lowering fuel consumption per unit of
which are supported by the intake air's higher output [10—15]. Additionally, the more considerable
temperature and pressure [8—14]. According to the clearance volume, the least amount of heat generated,
results of the experimental research, the threshold CR and the lower cylinder gas temperature are the causes
for hybrid alternative fuel is 17.1, and higher brake of the rise in the BSFC values of the hybrid alternative
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Figure 6. Variation of engine parameters at different load conditions: (a) Brake thermal efficiency; (b) Brake specific fuel
consumption; (c) Exhaust gas temperature.

fuel at CRs of 16:1 and 17:1. The combustion chamber results in more efficient and thorough fuel burning, is
must consume more blends to accomplish it. one of the potential causes of the decrease in EGT at
higher CRs of 18:1 and 20:1 [14—19]. This fuel blend
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) burns more efficiently than diesel and converts more
Figure 6c depicts the temperature fluctuations of energy per unit of fuel.
the exhaust gases for the operated fuels as a function
of different load and CR conditions. According to Oxides of nitrogen emissions
experimental findings, the EGT values of hybrid Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are
alternative fuel rise with increasing load and fall with often referred to as "oxides of nitrogen emission”—the
increasing CRs, as shown in Figure 6c. Furthermore, interaction of oxygen and nitrogen gases during
the minimum EGT contributes to the maximum BTHE. burning fresh air and fuel results in NOx emissions. The
Due to its higher viscosity and density than diesel, the crucial factors for generating NOx pollution are the
EGT values of the hybrid alternative fuel at 16:1 and extreme burnt gas temperature, the degree of oxygen
17:1 CRs are higher than diesel during the operational content, and the residence time for the reactions. A tiny
period. quantity of N2 in gasoline derived from vegetable oils
helps create NOx emissions in addition. Figure 7a
EGT values for the hybrid alternative fuel for CRs
illustrates the variance in nitrogen oxide emanations
of 16:1, 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1 are 215 °C, 214 °C,
from diesel, WPO, and hybrid alternative fuel exhaust
210 °C, and 202 °C, respectively, with no load. The
at various CR values and loads. For CRs of 16:1, 17:1,
EGT values of the exhaust gas temperature of the
18:1, and 20:1, the hybrid alternative fuel emits 205
hybrid alternative fuel at CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18:1, and
ppm, 250 ppm, 300 ppm, and 330 ppm of NOx,
20:1, are 410 °C, 405 °C, 387 °C and 366 °C
respectively. When the engine is operating at maximum
respectively, at maximum load. Similarly, the EGT
load, and a standard CR value of 16:1, diesel and the
values of the WPO and diesel for the 16:1 CR are
hybrid alternative fuel emit 820 ppm and 920 ppm of
455 °C and 400 °C, respectively, at maximum load
NOx, respectively; meanwhile, the NOx emission
conditions. The increase in blend temperature inside
values for CRs of 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1 are 960 ppm,
the cylinder, which reduces the ignition period and
1050 ppm, and 1095 ppm, respectively. Similar to this,
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WPO emits 1010 ppm of NOx at full load and a standard oxygen supply at lower CRs of 16:1 and 17:1, which
CR value of 16:1. According to experimental results, the causes incomplete fuel combustion and lower in-
maximum cylinder temperature causes the NOx cylinder temperatures. However, higher CRs produce
emission for the hybrid alternative fuel to rise at the more NOx pollution because more oxygen is available,
higher CRs of 18:1 and 20:1, in comparison to diesel resulting in complete combustion and proper
and WPO. As a result, as the CR values rise, the fuel- breakdown of the fuel particles when the fuel is injected.
burning temperature rises, releasing more NOx into the When the cetane number is reduced, it prolongs the
atmosphere [15—21]. ignition delay period, increasing fuel accumulation and
leading to higher NOx emissions.
Low NOx emissions are caused by insufficient

Figure 7. Variation of emissions with different load conditions: (a) Oxides of nitrogen; (b) Hydro carbon; (c) Carbon monoxide;
(d) Smoke opacity.

Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions

Increased CR reduces the ignition period,
The amount of HC released by engines in their effectively reducing the over-mixing of the A/F values
exhaust smoke is a sign of inefficient fuel burned while and emitting a low quantity of HC particles into the
the engine is running and an indicator of combustion atmosphere. Because of the increased temperature
efficiency. The fuel characteristics and engine and pressure during combustion in the engine cylinder
operating circumstances majorly impact the HC and the oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons, HC
emissions into the atmosphere, which are made up of emissions are decreased at greater CRs [18—22]. The
partially burned fuel. The change in HC emission levels increased combustion temperature might negatively
for the samples with various CR values and loads is impact NOx emissions. More gasoline is gathered in the
shown in Figure 7b. At CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18, and 20:1, delay period for CRs of 16:1 and 17:1. Additionally,
the HC emission from hybrid alternative fuel is 39 ppm, there will be insufficient compression heat and ignition
37 ppm, 31 ppm, and 30 ppm, respectively, with no delays. Due to this, HC emissions are higher than those
load. For a full load, the HC emission from hybrid of diesel.
alternative fuel is 89 ppm, 85 ppm, 81 ppm, and
79 ppm, respectively, at CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18, and Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
20:1. While the HC emissions from diesel and WPO are In many nations, CO pollution is the most
delivered at 84 ppm and 101 ppm at conditions of prevalent harmful air and a toxic gas. Additionally, it has
maximum load and 16:1 CR, respectively. no flavour, colour, or odour. The A/F relation to the
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stoichiometric proportions significantly impacts CO emission. The formation of smoke opacity emissions
emissions caused by inadequate blend combustion. occurs due to the extreme air deficiency in the CI
Figure 7c depicts the variation of carbon monoxide engine, and the smoke opacity output rises as the A/F
emissions for tested fuels with loads and CRs. The CO values fall. Figure 7d presents the fluctuations of smoke
emissions for diesel and R 20 P 80 blend at a standard opacity emission with various CR values and loads for
CR of 16:1 are found to be 0.5% volume and 0.57% tested fuels. At full load conditions, the smoke opacity
volume, respectively, at full load. emissions for diesel, WPO, and hybrid alternative fuel
at a 16:1 CR are 25%, 30%, and 26%, respectively. At
At no load, hybrid alternative fuel emits 0.078%
no load, the hybrid alternative fuel's smoke opacity
volume, 0.076% volume, 0.065% volume, and 0.05%
emission at CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18, and 20:1 is 7.5%,
volume of CO pollution at CRs of 16:1, 17:1, 18, and
6.8%, 6.6%, and 5.8%, respectively. At maximum load,
20:1. The CO pollution emitted by hybrid alternative fuel
the smoke opacity emission for hybrid alternative fuel
at full load for CRs of 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1 is 0.55%
at CRs of 17:1, 18:1, and 20:1 is 25.5%, 23.5%, and
volume, 0.45% volume, and 0.43% volume,
22%, respectively.
respectively. Similarly, the CO pollution emitted by
WPO at full load for CRs of 16:1 is 0.65% volume. The According to experimental results, the smoke
factors influencing the CO emissions for hybrid opacity emission rises when the engine load levels are
alternative fuel are lower CRs of 16:1 and 17:1, higher increased, while the emission declines with an increase
spray coverage, bigger fuel droplets, improper swirling, in CRs from 16:1 to 20:1. When a blend's CR is
and a lower cylinder temperature. The improved air-fuel increased, it improves fuel combustion and raises
mixing, greater air temperature within the combustion combustion temperature, both of which reduce smoke
chamber, and shorter ignition lag may contribute to opacity. Higher CR values result in greater brake
lower CO emissions at higher CRs [20—24]. The fuel thermal efficiency, which claims to support the
burns quicker and more thoroughly as a result. preceding fact, whereas at a lower CR of 16:1 and 17:1,
incomplete combustion of fuel takes place. Hence,
Smoke opacity emissions more smoke opacity emission is produced [22—26].
The most noticeable byproduct of a diesel engine Table 4 gives the percentage increase or decrease of
is the emitted gas flow, which contains trapped solid combustion, performance, and emission parameters at
soot molecules and is known as smoke opacity different CRs for hybrid alternative fuel at full load.

Table 4. A comparison of hybrid biodiesel with different compression ratios to diesel at full load.
Sl. No. Parameter 16:1 CR 17:1 CR 18:1 CR 20:1 CR
Combustion Parameters
1 Ignition delay (°CA) +7.41 +6.48 -1.85 -2.78
2 Maximum heat release (J/°CA) +9.59 +13.01 +14.79 +16.96
3 Maximum cylinder pressure (bar) +6.45 +7.26 +10.48 +12.9
Performance parameters
1 Brake thermal efficiency (%) -3.73 0 +7.24 +13.81
2 Brake-specific fuel consumption (kg/kWh) +9.33 +4 -3.47 -7.47
3 Exhaust gas temperature (°C) +2.5 +1.25 -3.25 -8.5
Emission parameters
1 Oxides of nitrogen emission (ppm) +12.19 +17.07 +28.05 +33.54
2 Hydrocarbon emission (ppm) +5.95 +1.19 -3.57 -5.95
3 Carbon monoxide emission (% volume) +14 +10 -10 -14
4 Smoke opacity emission (%) +4 +2 -6 -12
“+” indicates percentage increase; “-” indicates percentage decrease.

CONCLUSION combustion process in the engine when using hybrid

biodiesel, aiding in design improvements, (iii)
An experiment was carried out using RSO evaluating the engine's performance during cold starts
blended with WPO (R-20/P-80) on a single-cylinder, and warm-up phases when operating on hybrid
water-cooled VCR engine. The combustion, biodiesel at different CRs, (iv) assessing the
performance, and emission properties of the hybrid compatibility of the engine's fuel system components
alternative biofuels were compared to diesel and neat with the hybrid biodiesel to ensure reliable and
WPO. To achieve a robust study soon, (i) conducting consistent fuel delivery, (v) examining the engine's
extended durability tests to assess the engine's long- components and systems for any potential wear and
term performance and reliability when running on tear caused by the use of hybrid biodiesel at varying
hybrid biodiesel at different CRs, (ii) developing CRs and (vi) conducting on-road or real-world testing of
computational models to simulate and analyse the the engine with hybrid biodiesel to evaluate its
performance, fuel economy, and emissions in real-
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world driving conditions can be additional examined. SFC - Specific fuel consumption, kg/kWh
The results of this investigation lead to the following VCR - Variable compression ratio
deductions: WPO - Waste plastic oil
WPPO - Waste plastic pyrolysis oil
At 20:1 CR, the cylinder peak pressure of the
hybrid biofuels (70 bar) is higher due to the higher wt. - Weight, kg

combustion temperature, and the ignition lag is less

than that of diesel (62 bar). As the CR values increase,
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ANANTHAKUMAR KARAKTERISTIKE SAGOREVANJA, EMISIJE I

SUDALAIMANI1 PERFORMANSI HIBRIDNOG BIOGORIVA PRI
BARATHIRAJA RAJENDRAN2 RAZLIČITIM ODNOSIMA KOMPRESIJE
THIYAGARAJ JOTHI3
MATHANBABU MARIAPPAN4 Primarni ciljevi ove studije su naizmenično korišćenje konvencionalnih fosilnih goriva,
smanjenje emisija gasova sa efektom staklene bašte i dima iz dizel motora, kao i
poboljšanje karakteristika performansi i emisija štetnih gasova dizel motora sa
promenljivim kompresijom koji radi sa hibridnim biodizelom. Eksperimenti su rađeni sa
najboljim hibridnim biodizelom, koji je napravljen namešavanjem 20% kaučukovog ulja
sa 80% ulja od otpadne plastike . Ispitivanja su obavljena pri četiri stepena kompresije:
1Department 16:1, 17:1, 18:1 i 20:1. Pri stepenu kompresije od 20:1 i pri punom opterećenju, termička
of Mechanical
efikasnost motora porasla je za 30,5%, specifična potrošnju goriva pala je za
Engineering, Government
College of Engineering. 0,347 kg/kWh, a značajno je smanjena emisija ugljen-monoksida (0,43% v/v),
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India ugljovodonike (79 ppm) i dima (22%). Međutim, sa povećanjem stepena kompresije,
emisije azotovih oksida su porasle nepovoljno (1092 ppm) u poređenju sa dizelom
2Department of Mechanical
(820 ppm). Takođe, upoređeni su dizel i čist biodizel of ulja otpadne plastije da bi se
Engineering, Einstein College of
videlo kako vrednosti stepena kompresije utiču na sagorevanje, performanse i emisije. U
Engineering, Near MS University,
poređenju sa dizelom, pod maksimalnim opterećenjem i stepenom kompresije od 20:1,
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
hibridni biodizel je pokazao približno motora. Nalazi ukazuju na potencijalnu primenu
3Department of Mechatronics ovog hibridnog biodizela u automobilskom sektoru, industriji proizvodnje energije i
Engineering, Er. Perumal pomorskim aplikacijama.
Manimekalai College of
Engineering, Hosur, Tamil Nadu, Ključne reči: kaučukovo ulje, ulje otpadne plastike, performance, emisije,
promenljivi stepen kompresije.
India
4Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Government
College of Engineering, Bargur,
Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu, India

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