Semantics: first exam

CONTENTS

Organizing text 5
Adding a point 5
Contrast or concession 5
Degree 5
Comparing and contrasting 5
Results and reasons 5
Exceptions and alternatives 6
Sequences 6
Summarizing 6
Making assertions 6
Giving examples 6
Making clear 6
Introducing one side of an option 7
Substitution 7
Ellipsis 7

Articles 8
Depending on the context 8
Groups and classes 8
Ideas 9
Numbers and measurements 9
People 9
Cities, towns, streets, places 10
Illness 10
Exclamations 10
Nationalities 10
Geography 10
School subjects 11
Calendar 11
Home, school, prison, hospital, work 11
Generalized locations and activities 11
Changes of meaning 11

Tenses 11
Present simple 11
Present continuous 12
Colloquial narrative and commentary 13
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 Past simple 13
Past continuous 13
Past perfect simple and continuous 13
Used to do 13
Would 13
Past tenses used as polite forms 13
Present perfect simple 14
Present perfect continuous 14
Present perfect continuous and present perfect simple 14
Will and won’t 14
Shall and shan’t 14
Be going to 14
Will or going to? 14
Be to, be about to, be on the point of, be due to 15
Present simple and continuous 15
Future time clauses 15
Future continuous 15
Future simple and continuous 15
Hope, expect, think, believe, doubt whether 15

Conditionals 15
FIRST CONDITIONAL 15
SECOND CONDITIONAL: 16
THIRD CONDITIONAL: 16
MIXED CONDITIONS 16
ZERO CONDITIONAL 16
Other conditional forms: 16

Have and get something done 18

Causative have 18

Verbs followed by ing or infinitive 19

Followed by -ing 19
Followed by -ing or to infinitive 19
Followed by to infinitive or that clause 20
Followed by bare infinitive or to infinitive 20
Followed by bare infinitive 20
Followed by an object and to infinitive 20

Modal verbs 21
Uses of must 21
Have to/ has to 21
Must not, do not have to 21
Had to, didn’t have to 21
Should, ought to, shouldn’t, ought not to 21
Should have, ought to have, shouldn’t have, ought not to have 21
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 Need to, need 21
Didn’t need to, needn’t have to 22
Be able to, can, could 22
Can/ could 22
May, might, could 22
Can’t be/ couldn’t be 22
Must be 22
Can’t have done, couldn’t have done 22
Must have done 23
Be bound to, be sure to, be certain to 23
Should, ought to 23
Should have, ought to have 23
Can, could 23
Cannon, can’t 23
Can + be + ing 23
Could 23
Couldn’t 23
May 23
Might 24
Shall 24
Shouldn’t have done, needn’t have done 24
Will, won’t 24
Won’t 24
Need doing 24

Passive 24
Agent and instrument 25
Verbs with two objects 25
Verbs with object and complement 25
Verbs and prepositions 25
Make 25
See, hear, feel 25

Participles 25

Verbs and prepositions 26

Emphasis: words with ever 28

Syntax 28
Sentences 29
Clauses 29

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 Semantic roles 29

Semantics 30
Reference 30
Sense 30
Denotation and connotation 30
Semantic anomaly 30
Lexical semantics 30

Pragmatics 31
Inference 31
Entailment 31
Illocution and perlocution 31
Felicity conditions 31
Context and co-text 31

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Organizing text
Connectors:

Adding a point
● Also: used to add a point within a sentence. Beginning in formal speech and writing
● As well as + noun/ -ing form: introductory clause. Beginning and in the middle of a sentence.
o Cars use up valuable energy resources, as well as polluting the environment.
o As well as polluting the environment, cars use up valuable energy resources.
● In addition: used for saying that something else exists or is included.
● Moreover/ furthermore/ what is more: formal connectors which emphasize an additional point.
● Above all: adds a point which is the most important one.
● Besides: INFORMAL. It is the same as anyway, any case.

Contrast or concession
● However: can be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. A FULL STOP OR A COMMA
MUST FOLLOW IT. It cannot be used to connect two clauses.
● Despite (this) + noun/ -ing form: introduces a point which contrasts with a previous statement.
● Nevertheless/ none the less: formal connector used to refer to a point that was previously made.
Beginning and end.

Degree
● To some extent/ to a certain extent: used as a way of saying ‘partly’. Beginning, middle and end.
● In some respects/ ways: used as a connector which limits what comes before or after.
o Some people argue that the only solution to the problem of global warming is new
technology. In some respects, this is true.

Comparing and contrasting

● On the one hand… (but/ while) on the other hand: introduce contrasting points.
● On the contrary: introduces a contrasting positive point after a negative statement.
● Compared to/ in comparison to/ with: Introductory phrase. Beginning or end of a sentence.
● In the same way/ similarly: introduces a point which is similar to the previous one.
● (But) at least: to emphasize an advantage, despite a disadvantage just mentioned.

Results and reasons

● Consequently/ as a result (of)
● Thus (formal)
● Accordingly (formal)
● Hence: links the words after it with the previous ones
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 o This city is the site of ancient spring and Roman bath; hence the name Bath.
● On account of/ owing to: same meaning as because. PREPOSITIONS.
● Due to: it is the same as owing to but a verb to be is before the preposition.

Exceptions and alternatives

● Except (for)
● Apart from: same use as except for or can mean in addition to
● Instead (of): one thing replaces another
● Alternatively: formal way of starting a sentence, meaning or.

Sequences
● There are a number/ several ways of…: list of points
● First of all/ secondly/ thirdly/ next/ finally: used to number points in a sequence
● Point, issue, problem, advantage: can be also be used for the same thing
o The first problem facing the government is…
● In conclusion: introduces the conclusion after the argument.

Summarizing
● To sum up: used to introduce a summarizing comment at the end of an argument
● And so forth, and so on: used to say further points we don’t mention. (we don’t go into detail)

Making assertions
● Utterly and simply: emphasize an adjective. Utterly is used with negative adjectives whereas simply
can be used with both.
● Utter and sheer: used ONLY with nouns to emphasize the size/ amount. Utter is used with negative
nouns and sheer can be used with both.
● Merely: stronger than Only I. It makes what it follows unimportant.
o Mere is used with nouns, same meaning.
● Literally: to emphasize that we are not exaggerating and that what we have said is true.

Giving examples
● For example/ examples include/ to take an example: punctuation needed before and after
● E.g: abbreviation
● Such as: to introduce an example
● As far as (subject) (be) concerned: way of introducing a specific example.
● Namely: introduces a more specific reference after a general one.

Making clear
● In other words: used to introduce a point we want to make clear by repeating it in different ways.
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 ● To put it in another way
● That is to say/ i.e: used to explain exactly what we mean

Introducing one side of an option

● In a way/ in some ways/ in some respects: mean ‘from one point of view’. They introduce one side
of an opinion

Describing types

● A kind of/ a sort of: can describe a type of something. They can be used with adjectives or verbs to
mean rather. (INFORMAL)

Substitution
● Pronouns: they replace nouns or noun phrases to avoid repetition.
● One/ ones: can be used in the place of a noun or to avoid repetition
● Mine/ yours: used alone or with one/ones (not that common)
● Some/ any: used to avoid repetition of plurals and uncountables.
● So:
o used after believe, expect, guess, hope, imagine, suppose, think, afraid, etc. to avoid
repeating a clause.
o After say/ tell, to avoid repeating all the words used.
o So and say/ tell can also be used with inversion when we mean ‘’ that’s what’’
▪ Jack is a genius, or so his teachers believe.
o After if to replace information as a conditional clause
▪ There may be snow tomorrow. If so, the school will be closed.
o With less/more/very/much/ to avoid repeating an adverb or a verb.
▪ Everything is going smoothly, more so than usual in fact.
● Do so: used to avoid repeating a verb phrase.
● Do: to refer an action (INFORMAL)
● So/ neither do I: when we agree with another’s person statement.

Ellipsis
● Clauses joined by AND or BUT: we don’t have to repeat the subject in the second clause. We can
also omit repeated subjects, auxiliaries, and verbs.
o Maria went into the room and opened the cupboard.
o I’ve read the article and summarized all the points
● Second clause + repeated phrasal verb: we can use the auxiliary part only

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 o I’ve been to Russia, but Tina hasn’t.
● Phrase + be + adjective repeated: the second adjective can be omitted.
o I’m interested in this, but Harry isn’t
● Repeated verb phrase + to-infinitive/ not to infinitive: can be omitted.
o Anna doesn’t play tennis now, but she used to
● Reported questions: repeated words can be omitted.
o He said he would meet us soon, but he didn’t say when.

Articles

Types of articles

Definite articles (the) Indefinite articles (a/an) Zero article

Used with indefinite uncountable

It is used before a noun to
nouns (e.g., milk) and plural
define it as something specific
It is used before a noun that is countable nouns (e.g., eggs). It is
(e.g., something previously
general or when its identity is also the preferred means of
mentioned or known, something
not known. describing generic or nonspecific
unique, or something being
nouns, especially in the plural
identified by the speaker).
count form.

Depending on the context

● Referring to something already mentioned: definite article
o First, I grate some cheese. Then, I sprinkle the cheese into the sauce.
● Nouns: can be definite if we add details after it (POST-MODIFICATION)
o There’s a tower over there Yes, it’s the London Tower
● Knowledge shared between the speaker and the hearer: definite article
o Jim is at the pub
● Names of groups/ groups of people: definite article.
o The unemployed

Groups and classes

● Things/ instruments: indefinite article
o A barometer is used to measure air pressure

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 ● A class of things/people: indefinite article
o Peter is a German Maria is a teacher
● Set of named things: indefinite article
o They’ve bought a Picasso = a work of art This is a Henry Moore sculpture
● Plurals and uncountables (referring to a class of things or people in general): zero article
o Teachers often work very long hours Water is becoming a scarce resource
o The water tastes funny (definite article used to refer to a specific group/thing)
● Singular noun describing a class of things used: definite article
o The bicycle is becoming increasingly popular The whale is in danger of extinction

Ideas
● Abstract ideas: zero article
o Health is one of the most important things in life
o The health of millions od people may be at risk (definite use because an abstract noun can
be specific)

Numbers and measurements

● Rates and speed: indefinite article
o The car was going at 50km an hour The rent is $500 a month
● Large whole numbers/ fractions/ singular nouns/ weights/ distances: indefinite article
o A hundred/ a million/ a third/ two and a half

People
● Names of people: zero article (unless it is specific)
o Tom lives in Bristol Is he the Tom Davis you went to school with?
● Names meaning ‘A person called…’: indefinite article
o Is there a Tom Davis stating here?
● Names of groups (plural): definite article
o The democrats
● Noun + proper name: zero article
o Manchester United supporters
● Names of music groups: vary a lot
o The who Primal scream
● Many groups of people: definite article + singular adjective (describing)
o The unemployed The dead

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Cities, towns, streets, places
● Proper names: zero article, unless there is a post modification.
o I live in Alian Road in Bristol in an area called Redland
● Names of shops and places (general reference): definite article
o At the cinema/ the supermarket
● Name of a person/place at the beginning of the name: zero article (tendency)
o London bridge Waterloo Station
● Name of the place used as an adjective: definite article.
o The London rush hour can cause long delays

Unique objects

● Familiar objects (thought as one): definite article

o The sun was setting over the sea. The moon rose into the sky

Illness
● Headache/cold: indefinite article
o Have you got a cold/ headache/ toothache…?
● Most illnesses: zero article
o I’ve got a flu She’s suffering from appendicitis

Exclamations
● What a/ such a…!: indefinite article
o What a fantastic sight!
● Emphasizes on singular nouns: indefinite article
o This is such a great film!

Nationalities
● Nationality adjectives ending in ese, ch, sh, ss: definite article
● Plural nationality nouns: definite article
● Singular examples: indefinite article
● Some nationalities ending with man woman: indefinite article

Geography
● Names of water bodies and geographical areas: definite article
● North, south, etc: definite article
● Continents and countries: zero article
● Collective names: definite article

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 ● Names of mountains: can have definite or zero article
● Name of islands: zero article unless they have post-modifications
● Deserts: zero article

School subjects
● Subjects: zero article
● Subjects used as an article + noun: indefinite/definite article

Calendar
● Days, months, parts of the day: zero article
● Particular day of the week, particular month of the year: definite article
● Days (typical example): indefinite article

Home, school, prison, hospital, work

● At home/school, in hospital/prison (place in general): indefinite article
o Jack is in hospital (he is ill)
● Building, place: definite article
o The bus stops outside the school (the building)

Generalized locations and activities

● To describe what people are doing or where they are in general: zero article
o On holiday, on tour, on location, at work, etc
● For specific examples: a/an or the
o He ran onto the stage They decided to take a holiday

Changes of meaning
● Some nouns can be countable or uncountable and the article will change the meaning

a/ an A coffee A cup of coffee Can I buy you a coffee?

The The coffee Grains or beans Put the coffee in the jar

Zero coffee In general Do you like coffee?

● Things can change meaning when used as single object

Glass A glass For holding water

Iron An iron For smoothing clothes

Paper A paper A newspaper or published research

● Food nouns can have indefinite articles when referring to a specific type of food.
o I try to eat as much fresh fruit as I can
o This is a fruit that only grows in the tropics

Tenses
Present simple
● For facts or things that always happen
● Routines, habits

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 ● For state verbs
o Belong, consists of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, matter own, possess, resemble
o Believe, imagine, know, prefer, realize, understand, mean
o Seem
o Realize, regret, understand
● In informal spoken instructions, with you
o You open this part of the camera here. Then you take out the battery
o Formal written instructions use the imperative form
● In headlines to describe events
o Three die in plane crash MPs say no to green laws
● Accept, apologize, dare, deny, understand, see are verbs which describe an action as the word is spoken.
o I agree with you I accept your offer I see
● Gather, hear, see, tell, say, understand are reporting verbs
o I hear you’ve a got new job People tell me she’s difficult to work with
● Here comes, there goes, here lies we use inversion of the verb and the subject
o Here comes trouble! Here lies John Smith (tomb)

Present continuous
● For actions happening at the moment of speaking, which are not finished
● Actions happening around the time of speaking
● Cost (state verb): process that is still going on
o We’re having our house built, and it’s costing a fortune!
● Verbs that describe activities which continue for some time (the activity may not be going on at the exact
moment of speaking): play, rain, read, work, write, etc.
● Verbs that describe a changing situation: change, get + adjective, grow, increase, etc.
● Present continuous + adverbs (continually, forever, constantly, always) = criticize that we feel irritating or
annoying. Exaggerated. Everyday speech, informal.

Verbs with state and action meanings

Verb State Action

Do What do you do? =what’s your job What are you doing? = explain your
actions

Be, have This house is over 100 years old He is being very silly!

Do you have a car? I’m having a great time here

Imagine, suppose, think, expect I suppose this is Jim You’re supposing he is guilty
=assumption
I imagine you feel the same
Ghosts! No, you’re imagining things!
What do you think? =opinion}
What are you thinking?
I don’t expect him to understand
I’m thinking of changing jobs
=considering

Are you expecting someone?

Hope, wonder I hope you haven’t been waiting We’re hoping to continue the talks
long next week (less definite)

Enjoy, like, love I enjoy/love going for long walks Are you enjoying the party?

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 I’m loving every minute of my new
job

Appear Your visa appears to be out of date Tom is appearing in Hamlet at the
Grand Theatre

Look (meaning seem) This book looks interesting -

Look (appearance) Jim looks ill Helen is looking well

See, hear I see/hear you’ve had your hair cut Jane is seeing Harry = spending time
with
I didn’t hear any noises
You’re hearing things! =imagining

Feel, see, smell, taste The room smells awful! I’m smelling the flowers! (active
choice)

Ache, feel, hurt My foot hurts My foot is hurting

I feel sick I’m feeling sick

Weigh, measure This bag weighs more than 25 kilos I’m weighing the parcel before I post
it

Colloquial narrative and commentary

● In jokes we can use present simple and present continuous for the narrative
o A man goes to see his psychiatrist. He says he is having problems because he imagines he’s pair of
curtains. The psychiatrist tells him to pull himself together.
● In sports commentaries, present simple is used to describe events happening as the commentator speaks.
Present continuous is used for changing events.
● Plot summaries are in present simple.

We can choose between present simple or present continuous depending in the attitude of the writer/speaker in
explanations/ descriptions of situations

● Professor Thorne explains that some patients eat too much because they grow up in families with
poor eating habits (general true)
● Professor Thorne explains that some patients are eating too much because they are growing up in
families with poor eating habits (is not always the case)

Past simple
● For finished events in the past which have a definite time
● In narrative
● For past habits and routines with a time expression
● For recent events without a time expression
● In conditionals with It’s time
o It’s time we left

Past continuous
● To describe a continuing unfinished action in the past
● For a continuing unfinished action interrupted by a sudden past action
● For activities as background description
● For two continuing events happening at the same time
● To emphasize that an action was still continuing
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 ● To describe a changing situation
● With forever, continually, always, etc to criticize actions we feel annoying

Past perfect simple and continuous

● To refer to events in the past which happened before other events in the past.
● After verbs such as realize, remember, know, understand, etc.
● In reported speech

Used to do
● To describe habits and states in the past, to make contrasts with the present.

Would
● To describe a person’s habitual activity. CANNOT BE USED WITH STATE VERBS.

Past tenses used as polite forms

● Used when the speaker is more polite or less direct
o Did you want to see me about anything?

Present perfect simple

● To refer to events connected to the present, without a definite past time.
● To refer to indefinite events that happened at an unknown time in the past.
● To refer to indefinite events with a result in the present
● To describe what has been done or how many things completed in a period of time
● To describe a living person’s experiences
● To describe a state that last up to the present
● To refer to a repeated action in a period of time up to the present
● With since, for and already
● For unfinished time actions that can continue in the present
● To show the speaker attitude
o I’ve left my book at home = recent event or the speaker is still near home
● With time expressions
o I haven’t been to the cinema for ages
o It’s ages since I went to the cinema

Present perfect continuous

● For recent continuing activities that continue up to the present
● To express a present situation
● To emphasize the length of a continuing activity
● For a repeated activity to emphasize the repetition
● With how long questions
● With lately, recently, all day, every morning, for, since, etc.
● With sit, stay, wait, etc.

Present perfect continuous and present perfect simple

● With state verbs such as live, work to show little contrast
● To emphasize completion
o I’ve written my letters (finished)
o I’ve been writing letters (activity during a recent period)

Will and won’t

● For factual predictions
o Can include adverbs as definitely, probably, no doubt
● Habits that the speaker disapproves

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 ● For assumptions taken from facts
● For immediate decision
● To offer something
o I will carry that for you
● To refuse
o They won’t give me my ball back!

Shall and shan’t

● Forms of will used in first person (singular and plural). Used with formal verbs
o We shall inform you of the rules of the library

Be going to
● For personal plans and intentions
● When the cause of a possible event in present
● For decisions about the future

Will or going to?

● In predictions, will can be replaced by going to in everyday speech.
● Going to cannot be replaced by will without changing the meaning
● Was going to: to describe events that were supposed to happen, but didn’t

Be to, be about to, be on the point of, be due to

● Be to: describes arrangements with future reference
● Was/were to have done: for past arrangements
● Be (just) about to: describes what is going to happen very soon
● Was about to: event in the past which was going to happen soon
● Be due to do, be due: what is expected to happen

Present simple and continuous

● Present continuous can be used for fixed arrangements . Going to gives the same information.
● Present simple can be used for fixed future events. No personal choice

Future time clauses

● After soon as, after, before, by the time, immediately, the moment, until, when, etc. we use present simple,
going to or present perfect

Future continuous
● Events or to state at a future point
● Events that have been arranged for a future date
● Very formal requests

Future simple and continuous

● Used for look back from a future point
o By the time exams begins, I’ll have forgotten everything!
● To express an assumption

Hope, expect, think, believe, doubt whether

● Show our attitude to future actions
● With think, expect, believe we show negative meaning by using don’t
● Hope + will/present tense. The others are followed by will.

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Conditionals

FIRST CONDITIONAL
● If+ present simple + will/won´t (do): Shows results in the future of a real situation, with possible or
likely results
● Variants: if can be followed by can/can’t, present perfect, going to and present continuous with
future meaning.
● The second clause can contain could requests, be able to, going to, imperative, had better, could
and might.
● Future results: will is used in the if clause when the if sentence describe the possible result of an
offer.

Examples: If you don't hurry, you will miss the train / If you are going to buy a car/ I’ll send you some of
the money / If you can´t do exercise 1, you won´t be able to do exercise 2 / If I give you her number, Could
you call her?

SECOND CONDITIONAL:
● If + past simple + would (do): Shows the results which could follow from an imaginary situation,
with impossible or unlikely results.
● Could and might can be used instead of would (other modals too)

Examples: If you went to bed earlier, you would not be so tired / if we do the exercise together, we could
finish earlier.

THIRD CONDITIONAL:
● If + past perfect + would have (done) / (passive would have been done): Results that would follow
from an imaginary past situation. Impossible condition
● Passive forms are common.
● Could, might and other models can be used instead of would have.

Examples: If I had accepted that promotion, I would have been working in Milan / if he ship had been
travelling more slowly, it might have avoided the iceberg

MIXED CONDITIONS
● If + past perfect + would (do) : imagined or actual event in the past with results in the present
● If + past simple + would have (done): present state that has influenced past events.

Examples: If I had worked harder at school, I would have a better job now / if we had looked at the map,
we wouldn't be lost

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ZERO CONDITIONAL
● If+ present simple, present simple: This conditional is used when the result will always happen

● The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the meaning.

Examples: If you study, you pass your exam / if you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.

Other conditional forms:

-Unless: if something doesn’t happen, something else will happen as a result.

Unless I phone you, you can assume the train’s on time.

-Otherwise: if not. Can also appear at h end of a separate sentence.

We’d better send it express, otherwise it’ll take days

-If only: can be used to emphasize if or alone as an exclamation

If only you´d told me, I could have helped you

-Provided/providing that, as long as, on condition that: only…if

They may do whatever they like provided that it is within the law / you can play in the living room as long
as you don’t make a mess /

-Even if: to emphasize if

Even if you begged him to take the money, he wouldn´t accept

-If (you) should….: emphasizes that an event is not very likely, or to make a request seem more indirect or
polite

If you should see her next week, could you give her this letter?

- If you happen to…: similar effect and can also be used with should to emphasize unlikelihood or distance.

If you happen to be in the neighborhood, do drop in ad see us.

-If (I) were to: to speculate about the future in writing or to make an event seem less likely.

If the government were to lower taxes, they would certainly win votes.

-If (it) were/was not for/hadn’t been for: describes how an event depends on another.

If it were not for Helen, our team would be the worst in the area

If it hadn´t been for Jim, the child would have drowned

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-but for: “if it were not for”

But for your assistance, we would not have succeed

-supposing, suppose, imagine: to express condition without if.

Supposing you lost your passport, you’d have to go to the embassy

-If so/if not: refer to a previous sentence and form a condition

If Jean is too ill to play, Mary can play instead

-Leaving out if: imperative phrase + and + will clause

Come over here and I´ll show you what I mean

-If + adjective: we leave out the verb to be with adjectives such as interested

If interested, phone this number

-If I might, if I can/could: used in an if-clause which stands alone as a polite request

If I could just have another look

-Had (I)… were (I)… should (I): to begin formal conditional sentences

Had I known you were waiting outside, I would have invited you to come in

Have and get something done

Causative have
● Have something done: for a service someone does for us. We can use present continuous, going to,
present perfect and past simple.
o Have + object + past participle

Present continuous We’re having our flat decorated

Going to She’s going to have a tooth taken out
Present perfect He has had his nose altered
Past simple I had my hair cut a week ago
Infinitive We want to have our car repainted

o We don’t mention the agent unless is important

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 o We can mention the place where we have things done if we want to.
o Can use causative have to mention unfortunate events that have happened to other people

● Get something done: the same as have something done but more informal. We can use present
continuous and past simple BUT NOT PRESENT PERFECT.
Present continuous We’re getting our flat decorated
Present continuous He getting his nose altered
Past simple He got his nose broken in a fight

● Get something done (manage): achieving something.

o I got my work finished in the end = I manage to do it in the end
o Jack is difficult to work with, but he gets the job done = he manages to do the job
● Get + ing: start doing something (giving an order)
o Get moving!
● Get/have someone to do something: we make someone do something
o I got him to check the figures a second time just to make sure
o I had him check the figures a second time just to make sure
● Get married, arrested, etc.
o He got arrested on the way out of the stadium
o They’re getting married in Paris next month
o I got accepted for the job!

Verbs followed by ing or infinitive

Followed by -ing
● Admit, avoid, consider, delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape, face, fancy, feel like, finish, can’t help,
involve, keep, mention, mind, miss, practice, risk, spend/ waste time
● Admit, consider, deny and mention can be followed by a that clause
● Ing + possessive
o I dislike your being on your own so much

Followed by -ing or to infinitive

● Mean + doing: involve
● Mean + to do: intend
● Suggest + someone does
● Suggest + doing
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 ● Suggest + that someone should
● Can’t bear + love/ like/hate /prefer + ing: Means that the activity is enjoyed (or not).
● Can’t bear + love/ like/hate /prefer + to-infinitive: describes a habit that we choose to do or think
it is a good idea.
● Can’t bear + love/ like/hate /prefer + person + to-infinitive: to talk about another person’s wishes
● Forget/ remember to do something: things we intended to do and we didn’t do them
● Forget/ remember doing something: thinking about a past event
● Try to do something: attempt
● Try doing something: describes an experience, or an experiment
● Go on, continue: both can be used to talk about continuing an action
● Go on to do something: used to talk about the next in a series of events or action
o Hilary Clinton went on to become president three years later
● Regret doing something: being sorry for a past action
● Regret to do something: person’s feelings when something happens.
● Stop doing something: to stop an action
● Stop to do something: stop one action in order to do another
● Consider doing something: planning to/ thinking of
● Consider to be something: what someone is
● Imagine doing: hypothetical situation
● Image something to be: to believe that something is as we think
● Imagine that: I thought it was in a way, but it wasn’t
● Need + ing: We can use this form when we want to talk about something that is necessary for
someone to do and WE DON’T MENTION WHO IS GOING TO DO IT
● Need + to be + verb: We can use this form when we want to talk about something that is necessary
for someone to do and WE DO MENTION WHO IS GOING TO DO IT
● Need to: emphasis on the person who I’m asking to do something.

Followed by to infinitive or that clause

● Agree, arrange, decide, demand, expect, hope, hurry, learn, plan, pretend, promise, swear,
threaten, wish
● Appear, happen, seem + to infinitive/ it + verb+ that clause

Followed by bare infinitive or to infinitive

● Help: can be used with both
● Make: meaning force

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 o Make + object + bare infinitive: They made him give them the money
o Made + to infinitive = passive: he was made to give them the money

Followed by bare infinitive

● Let

Followed by an object and to infinitive

● Assist, beg, command, dare, employ, enable, encourage, invite, select, send, teach, tell, train, warn
+ to infinitive
● Teach, tell, warn + that clause
● Advise, instruct, order, persuade, recommend, urge + to infinitive

Modal verbs

Uses of must
● For a necessary action You must keep this door locked
● To give an order to someone You must be more careful
● To describe a duty Everyone must recycle as much as possible
● To make a strong recommendation You really must go and see The History Boys
● To emphasize an intention I must lend you this book
● Formal questions Must I go?

(have is used for spoken English)

Have to/ has to

● Necessary action
● For a rule
● For emphasis can be used both. Have to is longer son you give even more emphasis.
● Have to is more common for questions
● Have/ has got to more informal way. It is the same as have to

Must not, do not have to

● Must not: it is not allowed
● Do not have to/ have or has not got to: it is not necessary

Had to, didn’t have to

● Had to: past form of must

Should, ought to, shouldn’t, ought not to

● To make a recommendation
● To say what we think is a right thing to do

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 ● To say that something is correct or incorrect
● Should can have similar meaning as must but is politer (FORMAL)

Should have, ought to have, shouldn’t have, ought not to have

● Use to say that we think someone has made a mistake
● Had better (not): recommendation. Right thing to do.
● Be to: formal way of saying must in instructions
o You are to leave here at once!

Need to, need

● Need is used in questions and negatives. Similar meaning to have to. No 3rd person form
● Need to is a normal verb.

Didn’t need to, needn’t have to

● Didn’t need to: describes a past situation. Something was not necessary so it wasn’t done
● Needn’t have to: past situation. Something was not necessary but it was done.

Be able to, can, could

● Be able to: emphasizes that a difficulty has been overcome
● Be able to (ability): time references not covered by can/could or to describe more definite than can
● Could: general past ability
● Was/were able to: having the ability and doing something successfully
● Couldn’t/ wasn’t able to: lack of ability in the past.

Can/ could
● Can: used to make statements about what is generally possible
● Could: used to refer to past possible situations
● Could easily: used to emphasize a possibility with could
● Could always: possible choice or decision
● Can or could: questions about possibility
● Can/could hardly: something is impossible
● Can/could only: we are sure about an answer

May, might, could

● Might/ could: to describe what is possible in particular situations
● May/ might/ could be + well: to emphasize possibility
● May/ might as well: there is no reason to not do something (disappointed)
● May not/ might not: negative possibilities.
● May/ might/ could have: possible events in the past

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 ● May not have/ might not have: negative forms
● Might have/ could have: to show annoyance or when someone fails to do something we fell they
should have done.
● Might/ could have: shocked because something nearly happened.

Can’t be/ couldn’t be

● Can’t/ couldn’t: certain that something is not possible

Must be
● Used when we are certain that something is true

Can’t have done, couldn’t have done

● Can/ couldn’t have: certain that something in the past was impossible
● Can’t have: to emphasize we don’t believe what has happened
● Can’t/ couldn’t have been: certain that something was not true.
● Could or can + hardly/only: same meaning as couldn’t/can’t have been

Must have done

● Used when we are certain that something in the past was true

Be bound to, be sure to, be certain to

● Used to when we need to describe a future event that we are sure will happen.

Should, ought to
● To describe something we think is probably to be true or has failed to happen

Should have, ought to have

● To describe what we expect has probably happened or has failed to happened.

Can, could
● Could is politer than can
● They can be used for:
o Requests
o To ask permission
o To make an offer
o To suggest

Cannon, can’t
● When something is not allowed
● To emphasize something is unbelievable

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Can + be + ing
● You wonder what is happening

Could
● To express surprise
● To emphasize how you feel

Couldn’t
● When you mean that it doesn’t matter at all
● As a comparative for emphasis

May
● Polite requests
● Be that as it may: meaning ‘perhaps that is true but…’ as an idiom
● Try as I may: meaning ‘Although I try I can’t remember’ (FORMAL)

Might
● Try as I might: meaning you couldn’t do something
o Try as I might, I couldn’t reach the shelf (I tried to reach it but I wasn’t able to do it)
● As an emphatic form of ‘Perhaps I will do that’
● To express annoyance/ bad habits
● As an emphatic from of ‘although you are…’

Shall
● Use for an offer
● To ask for advice when uncertain
● Use in formal legal language (all persons)

Shouldn’t have done, needn’t have done

● To express thanks for a gift

Will, won’t
● Used to make an assertion about a result
● Use for an offer or agreement
● Use for a promise
● Use for a threat

Won’t
● Present refusal

Need doing
● The dustbin needs emptying
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 ● Someone needs to empty it

Passive
Be + past participle

Present simple passive The machines are controlled by computer

Present continuous passive The crime is being investigated

Will passive The building will be completed next year

Past simple passive The new school was opened by the Mayor

Past continuous passive The man died while he was being taken to hospital

Present perfect passive A thousand new books have been published this month

Only transitive verbs can be made passive. (become, fit, get, have, lack, let, like, resemble, suit CANNOT BE
TRANSITIVE)

● Used to move important information to the beginning of the sentence

● TO be impersonal
● When the performer is general, obvious, unimportant or intentionally not named from the context
● It + passive + decide: to show impersonal decision

Agent and instrument

● To mention who or what performed the action using by and a word or phrase
● The agent is not mentioned if it is unknown, general, obvious or unimportant. It is mentioned when the
speaker wants to drag attention to it.
● Passive voice + with: when something was done with a deliberately purpose
o During the robbery, the manager was hit with a baseball bat.
● Passive voice + by: something was accidental, not deliberate.
o Two passengers were hit by flying glass

Verbs with two objects

Bring, give, lend, pass, pay, promise, sell, send show, tell can be passive

They gave Sarah a prize They sent me a letter

Sarah was given a prize I was sent a letter

A prize was given to Sarah A letter was sent to me

Verbs with object and complement

When these verbs are made passive, the complement still follows the verb

People consider her attractive They elected Jim class representative

She is considered attractive Jim was elected class representative

Verbs and prepositions

When a prepositional verb is made passive, the preposition goes at the end of the sentence and has no object

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 Someone is looking after the children Someone shot at them

The children are being looked after They were shot at

Make
Make + to infinitive

● They made Helen write the test again Helen was made to write the test again

See, hear, feel

See, hear, feel, watch, notice, etc have different meaning when followed by bare infinitive or ing

I saw him leave (completed) I saw him leaving (incomplete)

When see/ hear + to infinitive = passive. Verb is followed by to infinitive

He was seen to leave (complete) He was seen leaving (incomplete)

Participles
Are used to link two actions in a sentence without using a clause.

● When they finished, they cleared up Having finished, the cleared up

● The thieves fled and left a terrible mess behind The thieves fled, leaving a terrible mess behind
● Because they were being buffeted by the strong winds, the yachts ran for shelter
○ Buffeted by the strong winds, the yachts ran for shelter

Present active Eating Present passive eaten

Past active Having eaten Past passive having been eaten
Present passive being eaten
continuous

Verbs and prepositions

Preposition Verb + preposition Meaning

At To reach an agreement about
Arrive at
something
To try to imagine something when
Guess at you have little knowledge or
experience
To talk about something in an
Hint at
indirect way
To think about a subject carefully so
Look at
that you can decide about it.
To look at something and feel or
Marvel at express astonishment, wonder or
admiration
To get a quick, cursory loot at
Peep at
someone or something
Peer at To examine, scan or stare at
someone or something in an
inquisitive or searching manner
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 To gaze at someone or something in
Stare at
an intense, prolonged manner
To be amazed, shocked or surprised
Wonder at
at someone or something
To be persistent or diligent in one’s
Work at
effort or task
Be engaged in To take part in something
To involve or incorporate someone
Be included in
in something
To be curious about something
To arouse the interest of someone
in someone or something
Be interested in
To want something (purchase)
To have romantic feelings for
someone
To have confidence in someone
else’s abilities
Believe in
To be convinced in the existence of
In something
To take great pleasure from
Delight in
someone or something
To become embroiled in some
Get involved in
event, situation or predicament
To do something for one’s own
pleasure or enjoyment
Indulge in
To choose to drink/eat something
that is not healthy
To use money with the hope of
Invest in
future benefits
Persist in To continue doing something
Take a pride in Be proud of something
On Act on To take action in a situation
To make a remark about someone
Comment on
or something
To choose someone or something,
Decide on
usually after a period of deliberation
Depend on To rely on someone or something
To begin a journey or a course of
Embark on
action
To perform tests on someone or
Experiment on something in order to gain insight
and data about it
To involve oneself on something in a
Intrude on way that is meddlesome or
unwelcome
To use some resource as one’s
means of survival or financial
Live on
security
To survive
To perform surgery
To have some established position
Operate on
from which someone or something
functions
Work on To put forth the effort toward
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 creating or achieving something
To repair something
To convince someone
To consider something right, good
Approve of
or appropriate
Be mindful of something or
Beware of
someone that might be dangerous
To have something as components
Consist of
To be made up of something
To fantasize about someone or
Of Dream of
something as a goal or ambition
Smell of To smell like something
To believe that someone is guilty of
Suspect of some crime, but there is lack of
evidence
To consider something as a possible
Think of
plan or idea
Account for Explain or justify something
Apologise for To express regret for something
To make an urgent, emotional
Beg for
request for something or someone
To be hopeful that something will
Hope for
happen
To pay money for something
For
To cover the expense of someone
Pay for else
To suffer as a punishment for some
wrongdoing
Prepare for To be ready for something
Desire to obtain or achieve
Wish for
something
To share the same opinion as
Agree with
another person/group
To consider sameness between two
Compare with
people or things
Conflict with To clash with something
To fight with someone or an animal
Fight with for possession of someone or
With
something
Interfere with To make changes with something
To combine something with
Mix with
something else
To discuss something with one in a
Reason with reasonable way in order to achieve
agreement

Emphasis: words with ever

Wh- questions can be more emphatic by adding an -ever at the end to express surprise

 Take whichever you fancy— they’re all for sale

 Why ever did they do it that way?
 However did you manage that?
 Whoever you are, you have no right to come barging in here.

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Syntax
Syntax is concerned with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and how the speaker uses
sentences that can be more or less acceptable given the context (UTTERANCE). Spoken language consists of
incomplete utterances, but it is not less grammatical.

Phrases

Grammar Clauses

Sentences
Syntax

Synthecally
Tense
Anallytically
Person

Number
Inflectional Grammatical
morphemes categories
Gender

Case

Comparison

Sentences
Have an internal structure which is hierarchical
Sentences
To analyse sentence structure, we have to classify word
into classes/ parts of speech. We have 2 kinds of word
classes:
Clauses
 Lexical (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
 Functional words: (determiners, pronouns,
prepositions, conjunctions) Phrases
Lexical words are open set, functional words are a closed
system. Word
clases
Reclusiveness of grammar it’s the unlimited embedding
and coordination of phrases within other phrases in a
sentence. This means that phrases are packed inside other, which lead to the hierarchy.

Clauses
A clause consists of a referring expression (phrase) and a predication. A complete English sentence will always have a
noun phrase and a verb phrase. Syntactic roles define the functional relationship of all constituents (arguments) to
the verb. The noun phrase will be the subject of the sentence. On the other hand, the verb can be intransitive (no
object), monotransitive (Direct object), ditransitive (double object), etc.

Semantic roles
The verb will determinate the semantic roles within a sentence.

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  Agent: doer of the action
 Patient: the one affected by the agent
 Experiencer: the entity that experiences the action
 Instrument: tool used to complete the action
 Goal: the location towards the entity is moving
 Benefactive: the entity that benefits from the action
 Recipient: special goal related to possessive verbs
 Time: when the action occurs
 Place: where the action occurs
 Source: from where the entity moves

Dependent clauses can be finite (inflected verb + agreement with subject) or non-finite (not-tensed, subordinates
only). Non-inflected verbs are participles, gerunds and infinitives.

Fronting is when a special construction (passive) or the elements of a sentence break the word order. This happens
more in spoken language than in written language.

Semantics
Semantics it’s concerned with the conventional meaning of words and sentences. We analyse words by their value
and the kind of information the content words carry.

Reference
The referent of an expression is the thing we are alluding to in a sentence. I f I say ‘Sally’s cat’ I’m talking about a
specific Sally who owns a specific cat. Referring expressions change over time, as the referent can change as well. No
definite referents (a bunch of people, nobody, etc) have no referents (juas)

Sense
Other expressions can’t have a finite reference, as they point something fictional (Santa Claus). When the meaning of
an expression is separated of its reference, we talk about sense. Sense it is only applied to nouns. We can have
multiple senses in an expression.

Denotation and connotation

Denotation: is the literal and restricted sense of an expression

Connotation: depends on community’s values. Affected by society.

Semantic anomaly
When an expression doesn’t make sense, that’s when the expression violates the conventional meaning.

Semantic roles allow us to explain ‘Who does what’:

 Agent: doer of the action

 Patient: the one affected by the agent
 Experiencer: the entity that experiences the action
 Instrument: tool used to complete the action
 Goal: the location towards the entity is moving
 Benefactive: the entity that benefits from the action

Semantic features entail the need that constructions have to have to be semantically acceptable.

Lexical semantics
Used to describe the relationship between terms

 Word fields: set of words that are related to one another in meaning
 Synonym: Sameness two terms share

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  Antonymy: the meaning of 1 term is the opposite of the other
 Hyponymy: hierarchy between terms
Colour (superordinate)
 Blue, green, orange (hyponymy)
 Meronomy: a part of something (like a tire is part from a car)
 Homophones: similar sound pattern
 Homonyms: terms which are pronounced and written identically but have different meaning
 Polysemy: individual word with many meanings associated with the same word
 Metaphors: explains certain aspects of human cognition.

Pragmatics
Is concerned with how people use language within a context and how time, place and relationships affect the use of
language.

Inference
The total meaning of an utterance is all the information we got and the background context. This meaning can be
inferred by the listener (they interpret the meaning)

Implicature is when the speaker includes meaning beyond the literal message.

Entailment
Is related to semantics. When 1 sentence is true, another sentence related to the 1 st one is also true

Sam was assassinated = he is dead

Illocution and perlocution

Describes the meaning a speaker wants to convey and what the listener interprets:

 Locution: The utterance itself

 Illocution: The meaning intended by the speaker
 Perlocution: the interpretation by the listener

Speech act is when the speaker express emotions, questions and/or requests.

Felicity conditions
Infelicitous: when speech acts don’t work as intended, when the utterance is illogical, when the requirements are
not met and when the speaker is lying.

Context and co-text

Context: the world around us, the situation in which the discourse happens (deixis)

Co-text: the surrounding discourse (anaphora)

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