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Graves, Kathleen. “A framework for course development processes”, from Hall, David (2001)
Innovation in English language teaching : a reader. London : Routledge in association with
Macquarie University and The Open University, pp.178-196.

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Chapter 15

Kathleen Graves

A FRAMEWORK OF C O U R S E

DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES

C u r r i c u l u m design specialists have d e v e l o p e d v a r i o u s F r a m e w o r k s

t h a t b r e a k d o w n t h e p r o c e s s of c u r r i c u l u m and c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o c o m p o n e n t s
and s u b p r o c e s s e s (see, f o r e x a m p l e , D u b i n and O l s h t a i n 1 9 8 6 ; H u t c h i n s o n and W a t e r s 1987;
J o h n s o n 1 9 8 9 ; N u n a n 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 8 a , 1 9 8 8 b ; R i c h a r d s 1 9 9 0 ; W h i t e 1 9 8 8 ) . A f r a m e w o r k of
c o m p o n e n t s is u s e f u l f o r several r e a s o n s : It p r o v i d e s an o r g a n i z e d way of c o n c e i v i n g ot a
c o m p l e x p r o c e s s ; it sets f o r t l i d o m a i n s of i n q u i r y f o r t h e t e a c h e r , in t h a t each c o m p o n e n t
p u t s f o r t h ideas as well as raises issues f o r t h e t e a c h e r t o p u r s u e ; it p r o v i d e s a set ot t e r m s
c u r r e n t l y u s e d in t a l k i n g a b o u t c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h u s a c o m m o n p r o f e s s i o n a l
v o c a b u l a r y a n d access t o tlie ideas of o t h e r s . T h e f r a m e w o r k d e s c r i b e d h e r e , w h i l e d r a w i n g
o n t h e w o r k of o t h e r s , is cast in t e r m s of m y o w n w o r k w i t h t e a c h e r s . It is n o t a f r a m e w o r k
of e q u a l p a r t s : E a c h i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n t e x t d e t e r m i n e s w h i c h p r o c e s s e s n e e d t h e m o s t t i m e
a n d a t t e n t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p r o c e s s e s a r e n o t necessarilv s e q u e n t i a l b u t may b e c a r r i e d
o n in t h e p l a n n i n g , t e a c h i n g , a n d r e p l a n n i n g stages of c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t .
In Table 1 5 . 1 , e a c h c o m p o n e n t is i d e n t i f i e d a n d r e p h r a s e d in q u e s t i o n f o r m t o clarity
its m e a n i n g .

N e e d s assessment
M'Tiat are my students' needs? How can I assess them so that I can address them?
W h a t is n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t , ' a n d w h y d o e s a t e a c h e r u n d e r t a k e it? At its m o s t basic,
n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t involves finding o u t w h a t t h e l e a r n e r s k n o w and can d o and w h a t t h e y
n e e d t o l e a r n o r d o so t h a t t h e c o u r s e can b r i d g e t h e gap ( o r s o m e p a r t of it). T h u s n e e d s
a s s e s s m e n t involves s e e k i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t o n e ' s s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s so
t h a t t h e c o u r s e will a d d r e s s t h e m effectively. H o w e v e r , h o w o n e d e f i n e s a s t u d e n t ' s n e e d s
is a c o m p l e x issue o p e n t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n e way of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g n e e d s is t o distinguish
b e t w e e n "objective" and "subjective" needs (Richterich 1980). Brindley (1989: 70) defines
objective needs as " d e r i v a b l e f r o m d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of factual i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t l e a r n e r s , t h e i r
u s e of l a n g u a g e in r e a l - l i f e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i t u a t i o n s as w e l l as t h e i r c u r r e n t l a n g u a g e
p r o f i c i e n c y a n d l a n g u a g e difficulties" and subjective needs as " t h e c o g n i t i v e a n d affective n e e d s
of t h e l e a r n e r in t h e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , d e r i v a b l e f r o m i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a f f e c t i v e and
c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s s u c h as p e r s o n a l i t y , c o n f i d e n c e , a t t i t u d e s , l e a r n e r s ' w a n t s and e x p e c t a t i o n s
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 179

Tiiltic / )./ l-rann-work (-{mipoiK'nls

N e e d s assessment: What are my students' needs? How can 1 assess them so that I can address
them?

D e t e r m i n i n g g o a l s a n d o b j e c t i v e s : What are the purposes and intended outcomes of the

course? What will my students need to do or learn to achieve these goals?

Conceptualizing content: What will be the backbone of what I teach? What will I include in my
syllabus?

S e l e c t i n g a n d d e v e l o p i n g materials a n d activities: How and with what will I teach the

course? What is my role? What are my students' roles?

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f c o n t e n t a n d activities; How will I organize tlie content and activities? What

systems will I develop?

Evaluation: How will I assess what students have learned? How will I assess the effectiveness of the
course?

C o n s i d e r a t i o n ol" r e s o u r c e s a n d constraints: What are the givens of my situation?

w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e l e a r n i n g of English and t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l c o g n i t i v e style a n d l e a r n i n g

.strategies."
In assessing o b j e c t i v e n e e d s , o n e can i n c l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s t u d e n t s ' b a c k g r o u n d s
' c o u n t r y a n d c u l t u r e , e d u c a t i o n , family, p r o f e s s i o n , age, l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n , a n d so o n ;
s t u d e n t s ' abilities o r p r o f i c i e n c y in speaking, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , r e a d i n g , a n d WTiting English;
and s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s w i t h r e s p e c t t o how the)' will u s e o r deal w i t h English o u t s i d e of t h e
c l a s s r o o m . In assessing s u b j e c t i v e n e e d s , o n e can i n c l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s t u d e n t s '
a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e t a r g e t language and c u l t u r e , t o w a r d l e a r n i n g , a n d t o w a r d t h e m s e l v e s
as l e a r n e r s ; s t u d e n t s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e m s e l v e s and of t h e c o u r s e ; s t u d e n t s ' u n d e r l y i n g
p u r p o s e s - o r lack t l i e r e o f - in s t u d y i n g English; and s t u d e n t s ' p r e f e r e n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
h o w t h e y will l e a r n .
D i f f e r e n t s t u d e n t s have d i f f e r e n t n e e d s , and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h n e e d s
a s s e s s m e n t can h e l p a t e a c h e r m a k e c h o i c e s as t o w h a t t o t e a c h a n d h o w t o t e a c h it. F o r
e x a m p l e , s t u d e n t s w h o wish t o a t t e n d u n i v e r s i t i e s in E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s will have
n e e d s r e l a t e d t o a c a d e m i c tasks and a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e . O b j e c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r
p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e in a c a d e m i c s e t t i n g s , tlieir level of English, a n d tlieir field of s t u d y can
c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t e a c h e r ' s decisions a b o u t h e r c o u r s e . T h e i r subjective n e e d s m a y b e r e l a t e d
t o c o n c e r n s a b o u t a d j u s t i n g t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y s e t t i n g a n d t o a n e w c u l t u r e , t h e i r level of self-
c o n f i d e n c e , o r t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g w h a t and h o w t h e y will b e t a u g h t . S u b j e c t i v e
n e e d s a r e o f t e n as i m p o r t a n t as o b j e c t i v e n e e d s . T e a c h e r s m a y find t h a t u n l e s s s u b j e c t i v e
n e e d s a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , o b j e c t i v e n e e d s may n o t b e m e t .
W h o p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t needs? W h o d e t e r m i n e s t h e needs? A n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t
can i n c l u d e i n p u t f r o m s t u d e n t s as well as f r o m t h e v a r i o u s p e o p l e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c o u r s e ,
s u c h as t e a c h e r s , f u n d e r s , p a r e n t s , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d e m p l o y e r s . In a u n i v e r s i t y ESL
s e t t i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e s t u d e n t s ' f u t u r e p r o f e s s o r s r e g a r d i n g w h a t tlie
s t u d e n t s will b e e x p e c t e d t o r e a d , r e s e a r c h , a n d p r e s e n t can h e l p t h e t e a c h e r s h a p e h e r
c o u r s e ( T a r o n e a n d Y u l e 1 9 8 9 ; see also H e w i n g s and H e w i n g s , p. 71 this v o l u m e ) . T e a c h e r s
180 KATHLEEN GRAVES

mav h a \ c t o w o r k w i t h a c o n c e p t i o n ol n e e d s d e t e r m i n e d hy t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n o r othei- |)art\

and c o n d u c t t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t a c c o r d i n g l y
W h e n does one conduct a needs assessment? D e p e n d i n g on one's context, needs
a s s e s s m e n t can b e c o n d u c t e d in stage 1, t h e p l a n n i n g stage; in stage 2, t h e t e a c h i n g stage;
a n d also in stage 3, t h e r e p l a n n i n g s t a g e , if o n e d e t e r m i n e s that t h e a s s e s s m e n t m u s t b e
m o d i f i e d in s o m e way. T e a c h e r s w h o have c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r s t u d e n t s p r i o r t o t e a c h i n g the
c o u r s e can u n d e r t a k e a p r c c o u r s c n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t . In m a n y cases, h o w e v e r , a f o r m a l
p r e c o u r s e n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t is n e i t h e r n e c e s s a r y n o r a p p r o p r i a t e . S o m e t e a c h e r s a r e able
t o m a k e fairly a c c u r a t e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o u r s e
o n t h e basis of p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e c o u r s e o r w i t h t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r s t u d e n t s . In man\'
cases, p r e c o u r s e a s s e s s m e n t is simply n o t feasible b e c a u s e t h e t e a c h e r d o e s n o t ha\ e c o n t a c t
witli tlie s t u d e n t s until t h e first day of class.
A n o t l i e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in d e c i d i n g w h e n t o assess n e e d s is t h e t e a c h e r ' s view o( t h e
p u r p o s e of n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t . N e e d s a s s e s s m e n t can also be a t e a c h i n g t o o l b e c a u s e it can
h e l p s t u d e n t s b e c o m e m o r e a w a r e and m o r e p u r p o s e f u l in t h e i r learning. M a n v t e a c h e r s
see it as an o n g o i n g p a r t of t e a c h i n g , o n t h e o n e h a n d , b e c a u s e it may take t i m e t o establish
d i e k i n d of r a p p o r t witli s t u d e n t s t h a t alloA\ s f o r a clear u n d e r s t a n d i n g of n e e d s a n d , on t h e
o t h e r , b e c a u s e t h e y v i e w it as a t e a c h i n g t o o l t h a t e n a b l e s t h e m t o w o r k in p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h
tlieir s t u d e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e n e e d s and e n s u r e that t h e c o u r s e m e e t s t h o s e n e e d s . T e a c h e r s
w h o u s e n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t as an o n g o i n g p a r t of t h e i r classes d c \ c l o p acti\ itics that h e l p
s t u d e n t s clarifv a n d f o c u s t h e i r n e e d s . Such activities can i n c l u d e m i n d m a p p i n g ( c r e a t i n g
w o r d m a p s b a s e d o n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e w o r d writing) and s t u d e n t - g e n e r a t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
( G r a n t and Shank 1 9 9 3 ) . [. . .]
H o w d o e s o n e c o n d u c t a n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t ? T e a c h e r s u s e a v a r i e t v of m e t h o d s .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a r e a c o m m o n n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t t o o l . T h e y can be w r i t t e n in English or,
w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e a n d feasible, in t h e native language of t h e s t u d e n t s . O n e of t h e c h a l l e n g e s
in d e s i g n i n g a q u e s t i o n n a i r e is c h o o s i n g q u e s t i o n s that M ill be i n t e r p r e t e d c o r r e c t l y and will
p r o v i d e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s o u g h t , especially if o n e is s e e k i n g s u b j e c t i v e data, h i t e r v i e w s w i t h
s t u d e n t s and o t h e r s ( s u c h as e m p l o y e r s o r p r o f e s s o r s ) a r e a n o t h e r c o m m o n wav of finding
o u t s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s . O t l i e r m e a n s i n c l u d e o b s e r v a t i o n of or, in s o m e eases, p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
t h e s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h s t u d e n t s will use English. T e a c h e r s may o b t a i n s a m p l e s ot w r i t t e n
m a t e r i a l s , such as m a n u a l s o r t e x t b o o k s , that s t u d e n t s will have t o use. S t e r n ( 1 9 9 2 ) cautions
against g a t h e r i n g so m u c h data t h a t o n e c a n n o t analyze and p u t it t o use.
Tests a n d i n t e r v i e w s t h a t m e a s u r e p r o f i c i e n c y a r c also a p a r t of n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t
b e c a u s e t h e y h e l p d e t e r m i n e w h a t s t u d e n t s already k n o w and w h e r e t h e v a r e lacking. M a n v
i n s t i t u t i o n s a d m i n i s t e r p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t s f o r p l a c e m e n t p u r p o s e s . T e a c h e r s mav also design
in-class activities f o r t h e first days of class t h a t m e a s u r e s t u d e n t s ' p r o f i c i e n c y in r e a d i n g ,
w r i t i n g , s p e a k i n g , o r listening.
H u t c h i n s o n a n d W a t e r s ( 1 9 8 7 ; 5 4 ) m a k e a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t y v e e n tarqet needs ( " w h a t
t h e l e a r n e r n e e d s t o d o in t h e t a r g e t situation") and learning needs ( " w h a t t h e l e a r n e r n e e d s
t o d o in o r d e r t o l e a r n " ) . N e e d s a s s e s s m e n t is clearly a sensible u n d e r t a k i n g w h e n s t u d e n t s
have t a r g e t n e e d s — real-life l a n g u a g e n e e d s a n d a c o n t e x t f o r using t h e l a n g u a g e skills gained
in class, as f o r i m m i g r a n t s t o an E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r y , s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g o r p l a n n i n g t o
s t u d y in E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g s c h o o l s , o r p e o p l e w h o u s e English in t h e i r yvork. H o w e v e r , even
w h e n n e e d s a r e clear, as w i t h i m m i g r a n t s l e a r n i n g t o f u n c t i o n in a n e w c u l t u r e , t h e y may b e
so g e n e r a l t h a t t h e t e a c h e r has t o find ways t o assess and d e f i n e t h e m so t h a t t h e y can be
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o realistic g o a l s . T h e c h a l l e n g e b e c o m e s f o c u s i n g t h e n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t so as t o
p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e b u t n o t o v e r w h e l m i n g d a t a o n w h i c h t o b a s e decisions.
In o t h e r c o n t e x t s — p a r t i c u l a r l y , b u t n o t only, EEL c o n t e x t s — t e a c h e r s face a d i f f e r e n t
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 181

pi (il)l(. in bcc ausc- many ol their s t u d e n t s have n o target n e e d s , n o clearly anticipated use for
the skills gained t h r o u g h study, l-.nglish may be a r e q u i r e m e n t for an exit or e n t r a n c e e x a m .
It may be viewed as a s u b j e c t like m a t h or science, o r it may be a social u n d e r t a k i n g like t h e
study ol music. For these s t u d e n t s , t h e n o t i o n of n e e d s o u t s i d e t h e classroom is t e n u o u s .
T h e locus ol t h e n e e d s assessment shifts t o the l e a r n i n g n e e d s o r subjective n e e d s of t h e
s t u d e n t s so as to increase motivation and to help s t u d e n t s find p u r p o s e and i n t e r e s t in w h a t
they are d o i n g in the c o u r s e . For e x a m p l e , G o r s u c h ( 1 9 9 1 ) describes a t e c h n i q u e f o r helping
s t u d e n t s in a conversation class in Japan articulate their n e e d s and set p e r i o d i c and achievable
goals t o m e e t those n e e d s .

hsues

N e e d s asses.sment is n o t a value-free process. It is influenced by t h e t e a c h e r ' s view of w h a t

the c o u r s e is a b o u t , the institutional c o n s t r a i n t s , and t h e s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of w h a t is
b e i n g asked of t h e m . For e x a m p l e , o n e t e a c h e r of i m m i g r a n t s m i g h t ask t h e m t o list
situations in whicli they use o r e x p e c t to use English, w i t h t h e aim of p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n
in the language and behavior necessary t o deal w i t h those situations. A n o t h e r t e a c h e r m i g h t
ask t h e s a m e s t u d e n t s t o a r t i c u l a t e o r e n a c t p r o b l e m s they face in a d j u s t i n g t o t h e n e w
c u l t u r e , with the aim of h e l p i n g t h e m e x e r t c o n t r o l over the a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s .
For many s t u d e n t s , n e e d s assessment is an u n f a m i l i a r p r o c e d u r e , and t h e y may have
difficulty a r tic u la tin g their p u r p o s e s o r n e e d s . T h e process itself may e n g e n d e r u n c e r t a i n t y
in the s t u d e n t s , as k n o w i n g their n e e d s is p r e s u m a b l y the responsibility of t h e t e a c h e r o r
institution. Q u e s t i o n s may be i n t e r p r e t e d differently by d i f f e r e n t s t u d e n t s o r may n o t elicit
the anticipated answers. S t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of n e e d s may n o t m a t c h t h o s e of t h e teacher.
T h e t e a c h e r ' s view of the s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s may conflict w i t h those of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n .
T h e c o n t e n t and m e t h o d of n e e d s assessment should be evaluated as t o a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s
and effectiveness in achieving t h e i r p u r p o s e of i d e n t i f y i n g the n e e d s of t h e s t u d e n t s . It may
take several t r i e s t o d e v e l o p effective n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t tools. T h o s e t o o l s s h o u l d n o t b e
viewed as " o n e t i m e only" p r o c e s s e s . N e e d s a s s e s s m e n t s h o u l d b e v i e w e d as an o n g o i n g
process, b o t h in its d e v e l o p m e n t and in its use.

D e t e r m i n i n g goals a n d o b j e c t i v e s
What arc the purposes and intended outcomes of the course? What will mj students need to do or learn
to achieve these goals? W h a t are goals and objectives and w h a t is t h e relationship b e t w e e n
t h e m ? G o a l s are g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s of t h e overall, l o n g - t e r m p u r p o s e s of t h e c o u r s e .
Objectives express the specific ways in w h i c h the goals will be achieved.The goals of a c o u r s e
r e p r e s e n t t h e d e s t i n a t i o n ; t h e objectives, the various p o i n t s t h a t c h a r t t h e c o u r s e t o w a r d
the d e s t i n a t i o n . To arrive at the d e s t i n a t i o n , o n e m u s t pass each of t h e s e p o i n t s . [. . .]
W h y set goals and objectives? Setting goals and objectives p r o v i d e s a sense of d i r e c t i o n
and a c o h e r e n t f r a m e w o r k f o r the t e a c h e r in p l a n n i n g h e r c o u r s e . Breaking goals d o w n i n t o
objectives is very m u c h like m a k i n g a m a p of t h e t e r r i t o r y t o be e x p l o r e d . It is a way f o r t h e
t e a c h e r t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e h e r c o u r s e in t e r m s of teachable c h u n k s . Clear goals and objectives
give t h e t e a c h e r a basis f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h c o n t e n t and activities are a p p r o p r i a t e f o r h e r
c o u r s e . T h e y also p r o v i d e a f r a m e w o r k for evaluation of t h e effectiveness or w o r t h of an
activity: D i d it h e l p s t u d e n t s achieve o r m a k e p r o g r e s s t o w a r d t h e goals a n d objectives?
Clearly, t h e r e are m a n y r o u t e s (objectives) t o a given destination, s o m e m o r e circuitous than
o t h e r s , and t h e lengtli and n a t u r e of the r o u t e will d e p e n d on one's d e p a r t u r e p o i n t .
H o w d o e s o n e c h o o s e a p p r o p r i a t e goals and objectives? T h e r e is n o simple a n s w e r t o
this q u e s t i o n . To a r r i v e at t h e goals, o n e asks t h e q u e s t i o n , " W h a t are t h e p u r p o s e s a n d
182 KATHLEEN GRAVES

i n t e n d e d o u t c o m e s ot t h e c o u r s e ? " t he answ e r may he inlUienced by an analysis ol s t u d e n t s '

n e e d s , t h e policies of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , and t h e w a\ t h e t e a c h e r coiiceptualixes c o n t e n t , a n i o n u
o t h e r f a c t o r s . S t e r n ( 1 9 9 2 ) p r o p o s e s f o u r t y p e s of goals f o r language l e a r n e r s : proHciency
goals, c o g n i t i v e goals, affective goals, and t r a n s f e r goals. ProHciency goals i n c l u d e g e n e r a l
c o m p e t e n c y , m a s t e r y of t h e f o u r skills (speaking, listening, r e a d i n g , and w r i t i n g ) , o r m a s t e r y
of specific l a n g u a g e b e h a v i o r s . C o g n i t i v e goals i n c l u d e m a s t e r y of linguistic k n o w l e d g e and
m a s t e r y of c u l t u r a l k n o w l e d g e . A f f e c t i v e g o a l s i n c l u d e a c h i e v i n g p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s and
f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e , a c h i e \ ing c o n f i d e n c e as a u s e r of t h e l a n g u a g e , and
a c h i e v i n g c o n f i d e n c e in o n e s e l f as a l e a r n e r . T r a n s f e r goals i n v o k e l e a r n i n g hov\' t o learn so
t h a t o n e can call u p o n l e a r n i n g skills g a i n e d in o n e s i t u a t i o n t o m e e t f u t u r e l e a r n i n g
c h a l l e n g e s . T h u s goals may a d d r e s s n o t only t h e a t t a i n m e n t ol k n o w l e d g e and skills h u t also
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a t t i t u d e a n d a w a r e n e s s .
Goals s h o u l d also b e realizable. R i c h a r d s ( 1 9 9 0 : 3) gives t h e e x a m p l e of a goal stated
as " S t u d e n t s will d e v e l o p favorable a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e p r o g r a m . " H e g o e s o n t o p o i n t o u t ,
" H o w e v e r , w h i l e this goal m i g h t r e p r e s e n t a s i n c e r e wish o n t h e p a r t ol t e a c h e r s , it should
a p p e a r as a p r o g r a m goal only if it is t o b e a d d r e s s e d c o n c r e t e l y in t h e p r o g r a m . "
T h e f o r m u l a t i o n of o b j e c t i v e s p r o v i d e s t h e c h e c k as t o w h e t h e r t h e goals will be
a d d r e s s e d . T o a r r i v e at objcctix cs, o n e asks, " W h a t d o s t u d e n t s n e e d t o learn o r d o t o achiexe
tliese p u r p o s e s ? " O n e of t h e c h a l l e n g e s in f o r m u l a t i n g o b j e c t i \ es is t h i n k i n g of o b j e c t i v e s
t h a t a r e c o n g r u e n t wi t l i t h e goals and t h a t are n o t so n a r r o w that they e n m e s h t h e t e a c h e r
in an u n n e c e s s a r y level of d e t a i l .
H o w d o e s o n e state o b j e c t i v e s ? As N u n a n ( 1 9 8 8 b : 6 0 ) has p o i n t e d o u t , " O b j e c t i v e s are
really n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a p a r t i c u l a r way of f o r m u l a t i n g o r stating c o n t e n t and acti\ ities,"
T h u s h o w o n e c o n c e p t u a l i z e s and states o b j e c t i v e s d e p e n d s o n h o w o n e c o n c e p t u a l i z e s t h e
c o n t e n t of t h e c o u r s e . C o n t e n t as k n o w l e d g e m i g h t be s t a t e d as " S t u d e n t s will k n o w . . .,"
" S t u d e n t s will l e a r n t h e . . .," o r " S t u d e n t s will l e a r n that . . ." C o n t e n t as skill m i g h t be
s t a t e d as " S t u d e n t s will b e able t o . . . , " " S t u d e n t s will k n o w h o w t o . . .," o r " S t u d e n t s w ill
d e v e l o p t h e ability t o . . ." P e r f o r m a n c e o r b e h a v i o r a l o b j e c t i v e s a r e m o s t o f t e n associated
w i t h c o n t e n t as skill; h o w e v e r , this r e p r e s e n t s a n a r r o w v i e w as t h e y s p e c i f y t e r m i n a l
b e h a v i o r r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of skills, s u c h as t h o s e n e e d e d t o r e a d , w r i t e , listen
a n d s p e a k effectively ( R i c h a r d s 1 9 9 0 ) . C o n t e n t as a t t i t u d e and a w a r e n e s s w o u l d b e stated
as " S t u d e n t s will b e a w a r e t h a t . . " " S t u d e n t s will d e v e l o p an a w a r e n e s s of . . . , " " S t u d e n t s
w i l l d e v e l o p an a t t i t u d e of . . .," o r " S t u d e n t s will e x p l o r e t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s . . ."
O b j e c t i v e s s t a t e d in this w a y can h e l p t e a c h e r s a d d r e s s affective a s p e c t s of learning.
T h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n suggest w h a t s t u d e n t s will knoy\, k n o w h o w t o d o , o r b e a w a r e of
as a r e s u l t of t h e c o u r s e . O b j e c t i v e s may also be s t a t e d in t e r m s of w h a t s t u d e n t s will d o in
t h e c o u r s e . Saphier a n d G o w e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) list five k i n d s of o b j e c t i v e s , all i n t e r r e l a t e d . T h e first
t h r e e c o n c e r n w h a t s t u d e n t s will d o ; t h e last t w o , w h a t t h e y will have m a s t e r e d .

1 Coverage objectives a r t i c u l a t e w h a t will b e c o v e r e d . E x a m p l e : We will cover the first five

units of the course book.
2 Activity objectives a r t i c u l a t e w h a t t h e s t u d e n t s will d o . E x a m p l e s : Students will write six
dfferent kinds of paragraphs. Students will do paragraph development exercises.
3 Involvement objectives a r t i c u l a t e h o w t o m a x i m i z e s t u d e n t i n v o l v e m e n t a n d i n t e r e s t .
E x a m p l e s : Students will engage in discussions about which paragraphs they like best. Students
will brainstorm lists of interesting topics to write about.
4 Mastery objectives a r t i c u l a t e w h a t s t u d e n t s will b e able t o d o as a r e s u l t of t h e i r t i m e in
class. E x a m p l e : Students will be able to write an interesting paragraph that contains a topic
sentence and supporting details.
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 183

S irilical thinkintj objeclives a r t i c u l a t c which l e a r n i n g skills s t u d e n t s will d e v e l o p ,

h x a n i p l e ; Slinlcnis will be able io Jcicrmine characteristics oj a fjood paragraph and say why
they chink a paragraph is good.

Tension o l t e n exists b e t w e e n coverage objectives and m a s t e r y objectives b e c a u s e t h e

t i m e it takes t o m a s t e r skills o r k n o w l e d g e o r t o d e v e l o p awareness m a y n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o
the t i m e allotted in a syllabus.This tension can create d i l e m m a s for t e a c h e r s w h o m u s t cover
and test t h e m a t e r i a l in the syllabus yet wish t o e n s u r e t h a t s t u d e n t s have m a s t e r e d t h e
material p r i o r t o m o v i n g o n . T h e tension can also p u t t e a c h e r s at o d d s w i t h t h e i r s t u d e n t s
o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n if t h e t e a c h e r believes t h a t success is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h d e m o n s t r a t e d
m a s t e r y b u t the s t u d e n t s e x p e c t coverage to mean mastery.

Issues

T h e main issue is that many t e a c h e r s d o n o t f o r m u l a t e goals and objectives at all o r d o so

only a l t e r having t h o u g h t a b o u t what they will t e a c h and how. Studies o n t e a c h e r p l a n n i n g
u n d e r s c o r e this lact (Clark and P e t e r s o n 1986). My o w n w o r k w i t h t e a c h e r s has s h o w n t h a t
they c o n s i d e r the setting of goals and objectives a valuable p r o c e s s b u t o n e t h a t they find
dil'licult to a r t i c u l a t e and organize. T h e y feel that they m u s t first b e clear a b o u t w h a t t h e y
are t e a c h i n g and h o w they view t h e c o n t e n t . T h e y r e p o r t f r o m e x p e r i e n c e t h a t they c a n n o t
clearly f o r m u l a t e t h e i r goals and objectives until a f t e r they have t a u g h t t h e c o u r s e at least
o n c e . ( R e t u r n i n g t o the m a p analogy, o n e c a n n o t m a p a r o u t e until o n e has traveled it.)
T h u s for many t e a c h e r s , this is n o t the e n t r y p o i n t into t h e p r o c e s s of c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t .
A n o t h e r issue involves claritv w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s . It is easier t o set goals
in situations w h e r e these n e e d s are clear; o t h e r w i s e , t h e goals of t h e c o u r s e m a y shift and
be r e d e f i n e d as the c o u r s e progresses. Finallv, goals and objectives are a s t a t e m e n t of i n t e n t ,
subject t o r e e x a m i n a t i o n and change o n c e t h e c o u r s e is u n d e r way.

Conceptualizing content
What will be the backbone oJ what I teach? What will I include in my syllabus?
W h e n a t e a c h e r c o n c e p t u a l i z e s c o n t e n t , she is figuring o u t w h i c h aspects of language
and language l e a r n i n g she will include, emphasize, and i n t e g r a t e in h e r c o u r s e . This is n o t
the relatively simple process it o n c e w a s . T w o decades ago, language teacliing was still heavily
inHuenced by a s t r u c t u r a l view of language (Richards and R o d g e r s 1 9 8 6 ) . This i n f l u e n c e
r e s u l t e d in a " o n e size fits all" a p p r o a c h t o c o n t e n t and m e t h o d s , m e a n i n g that, f o r e x a m p l e ,
an EFL t e a c h e r c o u l d use the s a m e t e x t b o o k and t h e s a m e drills o r p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e f o r
f a c t o r y w o r k e r s , college s t u d e n t s , and h o u s e w i v e s . T h e r e was n o t m u c h q u e s t i o n a b o u t
c o n t e n t ; It was g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and vocabulary.
M u c h has c h a n g e d in r e c e n t years in t h e fields of a p p l i e d linguistics a n d l a n g u a g e
acquisition and in a p p r o a c h e s t o language t e a c h i n g . T h e p r o f i c i e n c y m o v e m e n t , t h e c o n c e p t
and various m o d e l s of c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e , the advent of ESP (Enghsh f o r specific
p u r p o s e s ) , t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of m e t h o d s of language teaching, a n d t h e diversification of t h e
p o p u l a t i o n of English l e a r n e r s have all p r o v i d e d t h e t e a c h e r w i t h m a n y m o r e o p t i o n s t o
c o n s i d e r in d e c i d i n g w h a t will b e the b a c k b o n e of h e r c o u r s e (Canale 1 9 8 3 ; H u t c h i n s o n
and W a t e r s 1 9 8 7 ; O m a g g i o H a d l e y 1 9 9 3 ; R i c h a r d s 1 9 9 0 ; Savignon 1 9 8 3 ; Y a l d e n 1 9 8 7 ) .
N o w t h e c h o i c e s a t e a c h e r m a k e s are m u c h m o r e c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t a n d so involve a
n u m b e r of f a c t o r s such as w h o t h e s t u d e n t s are, t h e i r goals and e x p e c t a t i o n s in l e a r n i n g
English, t h e t e a c h e r ' s o w n c o n c e p t i o n of w h a t l a n g u a g e is a n d w h a t will b e s t m e e t t h e
s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s , t h e n a t u r e of t h e c o u r s e , and t h e institutional c u r r i c u l u m . A c o u r s e f o r
184 KATHLEEN GRAVES

i m m i g r a n t s in an E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r y will likely stress tllFlerent c o n t e n t t h a n a c o u r s e

f o r high s c h o o l s t u d e n t s in t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y .
L e t us l o o k at s o m e ways of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g and c a t e g o r i z i n g c o n t e n t . T h e b o u n d a r i e s
b e t w e e n c a t e g o r i e s a r e p e r m e a b l e ; they o v e r l a p c o n c e p t u a l l y a n d a r e n o t e x c l u s i v e of each
o t l i e r . T h e t e a c h e r ' s c h a l l e n g e is t o figure o u t w h i c h o n e s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r h e r c o u r s e and
h o w she will i n t e g r a t e t h e m . T h e y will b e d e s c r i b e d and t h e n o u t l i n e d in a syllabus g r i d ,
w h i c h will b e a d d e d t o w i t h e a c h successive c o m p o n e n t . In my e x p e r i e n c e , t e a c h e r s d o n o t
usually use syllabus g r i d s t o lay o u t t h e c o n t e n t of a c o u r s e b u t a g r i d is a g r a p h i c way to
i l l u s t r a t e possible c a t e g o r i e s .
T h e t r a d i t i o n a l way of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g c o n t e n t , w h i c h m a n y t e a c h e r s have e x p e r i e n c e d
in t h e i r o w n l e a r n i n g of l a n g u a g e , is as g r a m m a r s t r u c t u r e s , s e n t e n c e p a t t e r n s , and
vocabulary. T h e s e a s p e c t s of language a r e relatively s y s t e m a t i c and r u l e - g o \ e r n e d and are
o f t e n t h e basis of c o n t e n t f o u n d in t e x t b o o k s . T h e y i n c l u d e r u l e s of w o r d f o r m a t i o n
( m o r p h o l o g y ) , r u l e s of p r o n u n c i a t i o n ( p h o n o l o g y ) , a n d g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and
relationsliips a m o n g w o r d s at t h e s e n t e n c e level ( s y n t a x ) . A syllabus g r i d that i n c l u d e s these
aspects of l a n g u a g e m i g h t l o o k like this:

Grammar Pronunciation Vocabularv

For l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s , t h e possibilities f o r w h a t t o i n c l u d e in a syllabus o p e n e d u p with

t h e a d v e n t of w h a t has c o m e t o b e called t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e a p p r o a c h ( L a r s e n - F r e e m a n
1 9 8 6 ) . T h e w o r k of sociolinguists such as F l v m e s ( 1 9 7 2 ) and Halliday ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 ) and ol
a p p l i e d linguists s u c h as W i l k i n s ( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d Van Ek ( 1 9 7 5 ) has h e l p e d r e o r i e n t t h i n k i n g
a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of language. T h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e a p p r o a c h is based o n ideas a b o u t language,
o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d a b o u t t h e p u r p o s e s of l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g , o n t h e o t h e r . L a n g u a g e is
used- in. a c o n t e x t , w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s and c o n s t r a i n s tlie c h o i c e s t h a t l a n g u a g e u s e r s m a k e
w i t h r e s p e c t t o p u r p o s e , style, register, and t o p i c . L e a r n e r s m u s t use t h e language and ha\ e
p u r p o s e s f o r using it. F r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g c o n t e n t , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e
a p p r o a c h a d d e d several d i m e n s i o n s . F i r s t , it a d d e d t h e d i m e n s i o n of l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s ,
s u c h as t o a p o l o g i z e , t o p e r s u a d e , t o convey i n f o r m a t i o n . It also a d d e d t h e d i m e n s i o n ol
n o t i o n s , w h i c h f o r m a c o n t i n u u m f r o m g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s s u c h as t i m e , s p a c e , and
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o specific t o p i c - r e l a t e d n o t i o n s such as h o u s e a n d h o m e , w e a t h e r , and p e r s o n a l
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (Van Ek 1 9 7 5 ) . L a n g u a g e w a s s e e n as b e i n g u s e d f o r c o m m u n i c a t i v e p u r p o s e s
in situations w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , w h i c h call o n t h e l e a r n e r t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o botli tlie c o n t e n t
of t h e l a n g u a g e a n d its a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s w i t h r e s p e c t t o f o r m a l i t y , n o n - v e r b a l behavior, t o n e ,
a n d so o n . C o m m u n i c a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s m i g h t i n c l u d e o r d e r i n g f o o d in a r e s t a u r a n t , b u y i n g
s t a m p s at t h e p o s t office, e x t e n d i n g an i n v i t a t i o n t o a social e v e n t . T h u s w e can a d d these
c a t e g o r i e s t o o u r syllabus g r i d :

Functions Notions and topics C o m m u n i c a t i v e situations

Grammar Pronunciation Vocabulary

T h e p r o f i c i e n c y m o v e m e n t a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p r o f i c i e n c y g u i d e l i n e s have
e m p h a s i z e d a f o u r - s k i l l s - b a s e d a p p r o a c h t o syllabus d e s i g n ( O m a g g i o Fiadley 1 9 9 3 ) . For
s o m e t e a c h e r s , t h e s e skills are a g i v e n , as s t u d e n t s have t o use s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n of speaking.
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 185

listening, reading, and w r i t i n g in class. However, because b e c o m i n g p r o f i c i e n t in each of

t h e s e skills entails m a s t e r y of a set of subskills and p r o c e s s e s , m a n y t e a c h e r s c h o o s e t o
e m p h a s i z e c e r t a i n skills or find ways to i n t e g r a t e t h e m . For e x a m p l e , t o b e c o m e p r o f i c i e n t
in w r i t i n g , a s t u d e n t m u s t learn h o w t o s t r u c t u r e p a r a g r a p h s , h o w t o use cohesive devices,
the rhetorical styles of w r i t t e n English, editing t e c h n i q u e s and so o n . T h u s w e can add t h e
f o l l o w i n g categories t o o u r syllabus g r i d :

Listening skills Speaking skills R e a d i n g skills W r i t i n g skills

Functions N o t i o n s and topics C o m m u n i c a t i v e situations

Grammar Pronunciation Vocabulary

T h e e m p h a s i s on c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e as based o n and b r o u g h t a b o u t by
interaction has p r o m p t e d a view of language as n o t just s o m e t h i n g o n e learns b u t s o m e t h i n g
o n e Joc.'v. T h u s t e a c h e r s may conceive of t h e i r syllabus in t e r m s of w h a t t h e s t u d e n t s will d o
in the classroom as activities o r tasks.Tasks have b e e n variously d e f i n e d . P r a b h u ( 1 9 8 7 : 24)
d e f i n e s a task as an activity t h a t r e q u i r e s l e a r n e r s "to a r r i v e at an o u t c o m e f r o m g i v e n
i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h s o m e proccss of t h o u g h t , " such as deciding o n an i t i n e r a r y b a s e d o n
train t i m e t a b l e s o r c o m p o s i n g a t e l e g r a m to send t o s o m e o n e . T a s k s have also b e e n d e f i n e d
as p r o j e c t s in which learners w o r k t o g e t h e r to p r o d u c e something, such as a p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r
a n e w s p a p e r o r c o n d u c t i n g a s u r v e y ( H u t c h i n s o n 1 9 8 4 ) . N u n a n ( 1 9 8 9 ) p r o p o s e s a task
c o n t i n u u m , w i t h r e a l - w o r l d tasks at o n e e n d and p e d a g o g i c tasks at t h e other. R e a l - w o r l d
tasks ask s t u d e n t s t o use language in wavs t h a t they m i g h t outside t h e c l a s s r o o m , such as
listening t o the radio, r e a d i n g the n e w s p a p e r , or using a train s c h e d u l e . Pedagogic tasks are
ones that w ould not o c c u r outside of the classroom but help students develop skills necessary
to f u n c t i o n in t h a t w o r l d , such as i n f o r m a t i o n gap activities.
T h e c o m p e t e n c y - b a s e d approach t o svllabus design was developed in the U n i t e d States
in r e s p o n s e t o the influx of i m m i g r a n t s in the 1970s and 1980s. It is a c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e
c o m m u n i c a t i v e and task-based a p p r o a c h e s and has b e e n u s e d in c o u r s e s f o r t e a c h i n g
i m m i g r a n t s , w h o have i m m e d i a t e n e e d s w i t h r e s p e c t to f u n c t i o n i n g in English in t h e
c o m m u n i t y and in the w o r k p l a c e . C o m p e t e n c i e s are "task-oriented goals w r i t t e n in t e r m s
of behavioral objectives that include language behavior" ( C e n t e r for Applied Linguistics 1983:
9 ) . T h e y arc the language and behavior necessary t o f u n c t i o n in situations related t o living in
the c o m m u n i t y and finding and m a i n t a i n i n g a job. C o m p e t e n c i e s r e l a t e d t o living in t h e
c o m m u n i t y have also b e e n called Iife-skills. Those related t o jobs have b e e n called vocational
skills. (See, for e x a m p l e , t h e California ESL M o d e l Standards f o r adult education 1 9 9 3 . )
H o w e v e r o n e defines t h e m , tasks can be g e a r e d t o one's specific g r o u p of l e a r n e r s . For
business p e r s o n n e l , ta^ks m i g h t include giving a business p r e s e n t a t i o n o r w r i t i n g a r e p o r t ;
for university s t u d e n t s , tasks m i g h t include w r i t i n g a r e s e a r c h p a p e r o r p r e p a r i n g a r e p o r t
f r o m n o t e s t a k e n at a l e c t u r e . W e can add t w o o t h e r categories t o o u r syllabus g r i d :

Tasks and activities Competencies

Listening skills Speaking skills Reading skills W r i t i n g skills

Functions N o t i o n s and topics C o m m u n i c a t i v e situations

Grammar Pronunciation Vocabulary

186 KATHLEEN GRAVES

T h e r o l e of c u l t u r e in l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g is r e c e i v i n g i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n . C u l t u r e
p r o v i d e s a b r o a d e r and d e e p e r c o n t c x t f o r h o w o n e k n o w s o r d e t e r m i n e s w h a t is v a l u e d ,
a p p r o p r i a t e , o r even feasible and why. D a m e n ( 1 9 8 6 ) calls c u l t u r e t h e "fifth d i m e n s i o n of
l a n g u a g e teaching." K r a m s c h ( 1 9 9 3 ) a s s e r t s t h a t c u l t u r e is n o t just a fifth skill o r even an
a s p e c t of c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e b u t t h e u n d e r l y i n g d i m e n s i o n of all o n e k n o w s and
d o e s . T h u s a t e a c h e r w h o v i e w s c u l t u r e as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of a syllabus m i g h t i n c l u d e t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of a w a r e n e s s of t h e r o l e c u l t u r e plays in h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n , h o w t o u n d e r s t a n d
a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s of l a n g u a g e and behavior, and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of skills
in b e h a v i n g and r e s p o n d i n g in c u l t u r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e ways in a d d i t i o n t o k n o w l e d g e of the
target culture.
T h e l e a r n i n g of l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h o r in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h s u b j e c t m a t t e r can also b e t h e
f o c u s of a language c o u r s e . Such c o u r s e s ha\ e b e e n called conr201:6(1.^i^ecause thevLlntcgrate
" p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t w i t h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g aims" ( B r i n t o n , Snow, and W e s c h e 1 9 8 9 ) . Such
c o n t e n t may be school- or work-related lor e x a m p l e , historv, e c o n o m i c s , or c o m p u t e r
t e c h n o l o g y . A c o n t e n t - b a s e d c o u r s e m a v t e a c h t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r d i r e c t l y o r use s u b j e c t
m a t t e r as t h e basis f o r l a n g u a g e - l e a r n i n g lessons. T h u s t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e can b e b o t h a
m e a n s f o r a n d a b y - p r o d u c t of l e a r n i n g t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . C o n t e n t - b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s plav
a critical r o l e in bilingual p r o g r a m s f o r c h i l d r e n as well as in ESP c o u r s e s a n d , increasingly,
in E A P c o u r s e s . W e can add c u l t u r e and c o n t e n t t o o u r svllabus g r i d :

Content

Culture Tasks and activities Competencies

L i s t e n i n g skills S p e a k i n g skills R e a d i n g skills W r i t i n g skills

Functions N o t i o n s and t o p i c s C o m m u n i c a t i v e situations

Grammar Pronunciation Vocabulary

A n o t h e r m a j o r c h a n g e in h o w t e a c h e r s c o n c e p t u a l i z e c o n t e n t has c o m e a b o u t b e c a u s e ol
t h e v i e w t h a t o n e t e a c h e s l e a r n e r s , n o t j u s t l a n g u a g e . T h e e m p h a s i s o n t h e l e a r n e r has
i n t r o d u c e d o t h e r i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s i n t o a t e a c h e r ' s c o n c e p t i o n of w h a t she will t e a c h :
t h e l e a r n e r ' s a f f e c t , w^hich i n c l u d e s a t t i t u d e s , s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , a n d m o t i v a t i o n , and t h e
learner's approach to learning, which includes both understanding and developing one's
l e a r n i n g skills. H o w t o i m p r o v e l e a r n e r s ' s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e o r h e l p i n g l e a r n e r s b e c o m e a w a r e
of t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e t a r g e t c u l t u r e may b e explicitly i n c l u d e d in a syllabus, as may
activities t h a t h e l p l e a r n e r s b e c o m e a w a r e of t h e i r s t r e n g t h s and o v e r c o m e t h e i r w e a k n e s s e s
as l e a r n e r s . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of definitions, t a x o n o m i e s , and m e t h o d s of d e v e l o p i n g learning
s t r a t e g i e s is o n e w a y in w h i c h t h e e m p h a s i s o n h e l p i n g l e a r n e r s b e c o m e s e l f - a w a r e has
i n f l u e n c e d syllabus d e s i g n ( O ' M a l l e y a n d C h a m o t 1 9 9 0 ; O x f o r d 1 9 9 0 ) .
F o r s o m e t e a c h e r s , e n a b l i n g s t u d e n t s t o p a r t i c i p a t e in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o n t e n t of t h e i r
c o u r s e so t h a t w h a t t h e y d o in class gives t h e m t h e t o o l s t o c o p e w i t h a n d c h a n g e w h a t tliey
w i l l e n c o u n t e r o u t s i d e of t h e c l a s s r o o m is t h e f o c u s of t h e i r c o u r s e . T h u s t h e y ask t h e
l e a r n e r s t o e n g a g e in p a r t i c i p a t o r y p r o c e s s e s t h a t h e l p t h e m u n d e r s t a n d t h e s p j d a L c o n t e x t
of t h e i r p r o b l e m s and t a k e c o n t r o l of t h e i r p e r s o n a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l lives t h r o u g h w o r k in
t h e c l a s s r o o m ( A u e r b a c h 1 9 9 3 ; A u e r b a c h and W a l l e r s t e i n 1 9 8 7 ) . W e can n o w add t w o m o r e
c a t e g o r i e s t o the_s_yllabus g r i d , l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s a n d p a r t i c i p a t o r y p r o c e s s e s . T h e
c o m p l e t e d g r i d is s h o w n in F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 .
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 187

Participatory processes Learning strategies Content

Examples: problem Examples: self-monitoring, Examples: academic
posing, experiential problem identification, subjects, technical
learning techniques note taking subjects

Culture Tasks and activities Competencies

Examples: culture Examples: information Examples: applying for a
awareness, culture gap activities, projects, job, renting an apartment
behaviour, culture skills or topic-oriented
knowledge tasks such as giving a
speech or making a
presentation

Listening sl<ills Speaking sitilis Reading skills Writing skills

Examples: listening Examples: Examples: Examples: using
for gist, listening for turn-taking, scanning for appropriate
specific information, compensating for information, rhetorical style,
inferring topic, misunderstandings, skimming for gist, using cohesive
choosing using cohesive understanding devices, structuring
appropriate devices rhetorical devices paragraphs
reponse

Functions Notions and topics Communicative

Examples: apologizing, Examples: time, quantity, situations
disagreeing, persuading health, personal Examples: ordering in a
identification restaurant, buying stamps
at the post office

Grammar Pronunciation Vocabulary

Examples: structures Examples: segmentals Examples: word formation
(tense, pronouns), (phonemes, syllables), (suffixes, prefixes),
patterns (questions) suprasegmentals (stress, collocation, lexical sets
rhythm, intonation)

Figure 15.1 The completed syllabus grid

Issues
T e a c h i n g i n v o l v e s m a k i n g c h o i c e s . It is n o t p o s s i b l e t o t e a c h a s y l l a b u s t h a t e x p l i c i t l y
e n c o m p a s s e s all t h e a r e a s m e n t i o n e d h e r e so t e a c h e r s m u s t d e c i d e w h i c h c a t e g o r i e s m a k e
s e n s e t o t h e m f o r a g i v e n c o u r s e . T h e c a t e g o r i e s also o v e r l a p , b o t h c o n c e p t u a l l y a n d i n t h e
c l a s s r o o m . F o r e x a m p l e , p r o n u n c i a t i o n is an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of s p e a k i n g skills. V o c a b u l a r y
d e v e l o p m e n t is a p a r t of n o t i o n s a n d t o p i c s . L e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s c a n b e l i n k e d t o s p e c i f i c
skills. S o m e of tlie c a t e g o r i e s a r e vast a n d c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l s u b c a t e g o r i e s . M a n y
r e a d e r s w i l l find t h a t t h e y w o u l d l a b e l o r d e f i n e tlie c a t e g o r i e s d i f f e r e n t l y o r t h a t c e r t a i n
categories are missing. For e x a m p l e , s o m e t e a c h e r s conceptualize c o n t e n t thematically.
T e a c h e r s of c o u r s e s w h o s e c o n t e n t has a l r e a d y b e e n s p e c i f i e d w i l l f a c e d i f f e r e n t i s s u e s .
T h e y m a y find t h a t t h e b r e a d t h of c o n t e n t is u n r e a l i s t i c f o r t h e a m o u n t of t i m e t h e y h a v e t o
t e a c h it o r t h a t t h e w a y c o n t e n t h a s b e e n d e f i n e d is i n a p p r o p r i a t e , i n t h e i r v i e w , f o r t h e
p u r p o s e s o f t h e c o u r s e . T h e o v e r l a p p i n g n a t u r e of t h e c a t e g o r i e s m a y b e a n aid in finding
w a y s t o a d a p t t h e e x i s t i n g c o n t e n t t o t h e i r v i s i o n of t h e c o u r s e .

Selecting a n d d e v e l o p i n g m a t e r i a l s a n d activities
How and with what will I teach the course? What is my role? What are my students' roles?
For many teachers, course d e v e l o p m e n t starts n o t with d e t e r m i n i n g objectives or
188 KATHLEEN GRAVES

conccptualizinij c o n t e n t hut with ideas about the c o u r s e in action. They think about material
they will use, activities their s t u d e n t s will d o , technic|ues they will employ, i'hey think about
the way tliey w a n t tlieir s t u d e n t s t o learn and t h e i r o w n role in the c l a s s r o o m .
For m a n y t e a c h e r s , t h e m a t e r i a l they use f o r m s t h e b a c k b o n e of t h e c o u r s e . It is
s o m e t h i n a c o n c r e t e that s t u d e n t s use, and it proyides a focus for the class. Choosing material
may m e a n d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w m a t e r i a l w h e n t e a c h i n g a c o u r s e for yyhich t h e r e are n o
suitable m a t e r i a l s , collecting a x'ariety of materials, o r a d a p t i n g existing materials. Teachcrs
c o n s i d e r a variety of factors in d e v e l o p i n g , c h o o s i n g , o r adapting materials. T w o of the m o s t
i m p o r t a n t are t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s in a c h i e v i n g t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e c o u r s e and t h e i r
a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s f o r t h e s t u d e n t s — and t h e t e a c h e r . A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s includes s t u d e n t
c o m f o r t and familiarity w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l , language l e \ e l , i n t e r e s t , and r e l e v a n c e . S o m e
t e a c h e r s i n c o r p o r a t e i n s t r u c t i o n in h o w t o use unfamiliar materials as p a r t of their c o u r s e
design. Feasibility and availability are also i m p o r t a n t t o consider.
D e v e l o p i n g n e w m a t e r i a l s and activities for using t h e m r e q u i r e s t i m e and a clear sense
of w h y tliey will b e u s e d , how, and by w h o m . Because of the lack of t i m e , t e a c h e r s are o f t e n
c o n s t r a i n e d o r p r e f e r t o adapt existing materials. E x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r s o f t e n dev elop a set
of c o r e m a t e r i a l s and activities that thev adapt each t i m e they t e a c h a c o u r s e . T h e materials
tltemselves are flexible and can be used in a n u m b e r of ways, d e p e n d i n g on the target skills
o r c o m p e t e n c i e s . For e x a m p l e , n e w s p a p e r articles can be used as a basis for d e v e l o p i n g
r e a d i n g skills, e x p a n d i n g vocabulary, o r discussing c u l t u r e . Pictures can be used as a focus
for l e a r n i n g g r a m m a r o r as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t for a w r i t i n g a s s i g n m e n t . C o r e activ ities are
r e l a t e d t o t h e way t h e t e a c h e r c o n c e p t u a l i z e s the c o n t e n t . A t e a c h e r may have a r e p e r t o i r e
of activities f o r t e a c h i n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n o r f o r having s t u d e n t s learn t o u n d e r s t a n d cultural
d i f f e r e n c e s . For s o m e t e a c h e r s , m a t e r i a l s and activities are i n t e g r a t e d into a m e t h o d , such
as t h e "language e x p e r i e n c e " a p p r o a c h (Rigg 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e emphasis on p r o h c i e n c y and learn-
ing language in c o n t e x t has led m a n y t e a c h e r s t o use as m u c h a u t h e n t i c material as possible
in t h e i r classes ( O m a g g i o Hadley 1 9 9 3 ) . For c o n t e n t - b a s e d c o u r s e s , a u t h e n t i c m a t e r i a l is
the foundation.
For t e a c h e r s w h o are r e q u i r e d t o use a c e r t a i n t e x t , c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t is the
a d a p t a t i o n of t h e t e x t , f o r d i e c o n t e n t of the t e x t d e t e r m i n e s t h e c o n t e n t oi the c o u r s e .
H o w e v e r , the t e x t is n o t t h e c o u r s e ; rather, w h a t the t e a c h e r and s t u d e n t s d o w i t h the t e x t
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c o u r s e . T e x t b o o k s are tools that can be figurativ ely cut u p i n t o c o m p o n e n t
pieces and t h e n r e a r r a n g e d t o suit t h e n e e d s , abilities, and i n t e r e s t s of t h e s t u d e n t s in the
c o u r s e . T h e m a t e r i a l in a t e x t b o o k can be m o d i f i e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e activities t h a t will
m o t i v a t e s t u d e n t s and m o v e t h e m b e y o n d the constraints of the t e x t . Das ( 1 9 8 8 : viii) points
out that materials should not "pre-specify learning o u t c o m e s or a t t e m p t to control or
substantially g u i d e learning: their f u n c t i o n is primarily t o provide o p p o r t u n i t i e s for learning
through interaction."
T h e q u e s t i o n "Flow will I teach?" also e n c o m p a s s e s a t e a c h e r ' s a p p r o a c h and h o w she
v i e w s h e r r o l e and t h a t of t h e l e a r n e r s . H o w m u c h initiative will t h e s t u d e n t s b e e x p e c t e d
t o take, and t o w a r d w h a t e n d ? H o w will t h e s t u d e n t s be asked t o i n t e r a c t P T h e emphasis on
l e a r n e r a w a r e n e s s and c o n c e r n for e x t e n d i n g l e a r n i n g b e y o n d t h e c l a s s r o o m have m a d e the
r o l e of t h e l e a r n e r a c e n t r a l focus of h o w a c o u r s e is t a u g h t . Teachers design c o u r s e s w i t h
activities and m a t e r i a l s t h a t have the s t u d e n t s take a m o r e active role in reflecting on their
l e a r n i n g , d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o n t e n t of t h e c o u r s e , and p u r s u i n g p r o j e c t s of i n t e r e s t t o t h e m .
Such an a p p r o a c h m a y facilitate t h e search for m a t e r i a l s in t h a t the emphasis is n o t o n t h e
materials themselves but on what the students do with t h e m .
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 189

Issues

For s o m e t e a c h e r s , t h e lack ol m a t e r i a l s is a c h a l l e n g e ; f o r o t h e r s , it is an o p p o r t u n i t y .
D e v e l o p i n g m a t e r i a l s requires t i m e b e f o r e , d u r i n g , and a f t e r the c o u r s e — f o r p r e p a r i n g ,
using, and m o d i f y i n g t h e m , respectively. Yet having t o use c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l s m a y p r o d u c e
the d i l e m m a of c o p i n g with a t e x t that does n o t m e e t s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s o r does n o t p r o m o t e
the t e a c h e r ' s view of t h e r o l e s ol l e a r n e r s and t e a c h e r s . O t h e r aspects of c o u r s e
d e v e l o p m e n t , such as n e e d s assessment and objective setting, may h e l p t h e t e a c h e r see h o w
to a d a p t unsuitable materials and t o w h a t e x t e n t . Eventually, all m a t e r i a l s are a d a p t e d o r
m o d i f i e d in s o m e way. Even m a t e r i a l s that have b e e n d e v e l o p e d by t e a c h e r s f o r specific
c o u r s e s will be modified over t i m e .

Organization of content and activities

How will I organize the content and activities? What sjstems will 1 develop?
Regardless of w h e t h e r o n e follows a fixed s e q u e n c e o r a d o p t s a m o r e fluid a p p r o a c h t o
t h e o r d e r in w h i c h o n e t e a c h e s t h e c o n t e n t , p a r t of c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t is f i g u r i n g o u t
systems for organizing the c o u r s e . Systems can focus on t h e lesson level (the organization
of each lesson) and on t h e c o u r s e level (the overall organization of t h e c o u r s e ) . W e will l o o k
first at specific considerations in sequencing material and then at considerations of t h e overall
organization of t h e c o u r s e .
T w o g e n e r a l , c o m p l e m e n t a r y principles of s e q u e n c i n g are building a n d recycling. In
deciding h o w t o s e q u e n c e m a t e r i a l , o n e c o n s i d e r s building f r o m t h e simple t o t h e c o m p l e x ,
f r o m m o r e c o n c r e t e t o m o r e o p e n - e n d e d o r so t h a t u n i t o r activity A p r e p a r e s s t u d e n t s f o r
unit o r activity B. Building f r o m the simple t o t h e c o m p l e x in a w r i t i n g c o u r s e m a y m e a n
l e a r n i n g h o w t o w r i t e n a r r a t i v e p r o s e b e f o r e d e v e l o p i n g an a r g u m e n t a t i v e p a p e r . In an
i n t r o d u c t o r y language c o u r s e , it may m e a n l e a r n i n g t h e n u m b e r s 1 t o 9 t o u s e t e l e p h o n e
n u m b e r s and t h e n l e a r n i n g the n u m b e r s 10 to 6 0 t o tell t i m e . Building f r o m m o r e c o n c r e t e
to m o r e o p e n - e n d e d in a w r i t i n g c o u r s e may m e a n that students first u n s c r a m b l e and discuss
a sample p a r a g r a p h b e f o r e w r i t i n g their o w n p a r a g r a p h . In an i n t r o d u c t o r y language c o u r s e ,
it may m e a n talking a b o u t a family in a t e x t b o o k p i c t u r e using p r e s c r i b e d vocabulary b e f o r e
talking a b o u t o n e ' s o w n family.
C o n c e i v i n g of activities as building blocks p u t s t h e m in a "feeding" r e l a t i o n w h e r e o n e
activity f e e d s i n t o a n o d i e r "if it p r o v i d e s sometliing that is n e e d e d for t h e s e c o n d o n e . . .
o r the s e c o n d exercise could n o t b e d o n e unless tlie first had already b e e n c o m p l e t e d " ( L o w
1989: 145). For e x a m p l e , in a r e a d i n g u n i t , s t u d e n t s p r e d i c t the c o n t e n t f r o m p i c t u r e s o r
headings t h a t a c c o m p a n y the t e x t b e f o r e actually r e a d i n g the t e x t . O r p r i o r t o a r e s t a u r a n t
role-playing activity, s t u d e n t s l e a r n m e n u i t e m s and d i e language f o r o r d e r i n g f o o d .
T h e p r i n c i p l e of recycling m a t e r i a l m e a n s that s t u d e n t s e n c o u n t e r p r e v i o u s m a t e r i a l in
n e w ways; in a n e w skill area, in a different type of activity, or w i t h a n e w focus. For e x a m p l e ,
m a t e r i a l e n c o u n t e r e d in a listening activity may be r e c y c l e d in a w r i t i n g exercise. Material
e n c o u n t e r e d in an individual r e a d i n g activity may b e r e c y c l e d in a r o l e play w i t h o t h e r
s t u d e n t s . Material a b o u t t h e t a r g e t c u l t u r e may be recycled in an activity a b o u t o n e ' s o w n
c u l t u r e . T h i s a p p r o a c h t o r e c y c l i n g m a t e r i a l a s s u m e s t h a t each n e w e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e
m a t e r i a l provides a challenge t o s t u d e n t s , d i e r e b y maintaining their interest and m o t i v a t i o n .
Recycling has t h e e f f e c t of i n t e g r a t i n g m a t e r i a l and thus a u g m e n t s s t u d e n t s ' ability t o use
or u n d e r s t a n d it.
[. . .]
T w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y ways t o a p p r o a c h t h e o\'erall organization of a c o u r s e are as a cycle
o r as a m a t r i x . Both a p p r o a c h e s suggest a c o r e of m a t e r i a l t o b e l e a r n e d and activities t o be
190 KATHLEEN GRAVES

c o n d u c t e d witliin a given t i m e Frame. In t h e cyclical a p p r o a c h , a r e g u l a r cycle ol activities

follows a consistent s e q u e n c e , hi a m a t r i x a p p r o a c h , the t e a c h e r w o r k s with a set ol possible
activities for a given t i m e f r a m e a n d , as t h e c o u r s e p r o g r e s s e s , decides w h i c h activities to
w o r k witli. For an E A P c o u r s e , Biyth ( 1 9 9 6 ) d e s c r i b e s such a s i t u a t i o n , in w h i c h she
c o m p i l e s a list of possible activities and m a t e r i a l s and t h e n decides w h i c h t o use, d e p e n d i n g
o n h e r s t u d e n t s ' i n t e r e s t s as well as t h e availability of t h e materials.
T h e cycle and t h e m a t r i x are n o t mutually exclusive; m a n y t e a c h e r s use e l e m e n t s of
b o t h . C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s in a c o u r s e may be p r e d i c t a b l e , a u g m e n t e d by o t h e r e l e m e n t s d r a w n
f r o m a m a t r i x , d e p e n d i n g on the situation. Teachers w h o w o r k w i t h a fixed syllabus, such
as that in a t e x t b o o k , may nevertheless lollow a cycle in the way they w o r k with the material.
A d a p t i n g m a t e r i a l o f t e n m e a n s a p p r o a c h i n g it as a m a t r i x f r o m w h i c h t o select, d e p e n d i n g
on o n e ' s s t u d e n t s . Many t e a c h e r s also set u p c e r t a i n daily o r weekly rituals. For e x a m p l e ,
s o m e t e a c h e r s b e g i n each session w i t h a w a r m - u p o r review. S o m e t e a c h e r s b e g i n each
w e e k witli a s t u d e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o r e n d each w e e k w i t h an oral f e e d b a c k session. All of
t h e s e m e t h o d s of organization p e r m i t a t e a c h e r t o give a shape t o h e r c o u r s e .

Issues

A l t h o u g h t h e o r d e r in w h i c h the c o n t e n t and m a t e r i a l s are t a u g h t may b e d e t e r m i n e d p r i o r

t o t e a c h i n g t h e c o u r s e , it may also be d e t e r m i n e d and m o d i f i e d as t h e c o u r s e p r o g r e s s e s .
For s o m e t e a c h e r s , a n e g o t i a t e d syllabus, in w h i c h t e a c h e r and s t u d e n t s d e c i d e t o g e t h e r
w h a t they will l e a r n , is p r e f e r a b l e . In such cases, a p r e d e t e r m i n e d s e q u e n c e is seen as a
h a n d i c a p as i t d o e s n o t allow t e a c h e r s t o take i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p of s t u d e n t s
in t h e i r c o u r s e . In such a c o u r s e , t h e s e q u e n c e is n o t d e t e r m i n e d b e f o r e h a n d . Rather, the
t e a c h e r has a m a p of t h e possible t e r r i t o r y and w o r k s w i t h the s t u d e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e r e
it is m o s t u s e f u l f o r t h e m t o g o and in w h a t o r d e r . W h e r e a syllabus is p r o v i d e d , achieving
flexibility is an issue.

Evaluation
How will I assess what students have learned? How will I assess the effectiveness of the course?
For m o s t t e a c h e r s , evaluation m e a n s evaluation within t h e c o u r s e ; assessing s t u d e n t s '
proficiency, p r o g r e s s , o r a c h i e v e m e n t . H o w p r o f i c i e n t are s t u d e n t s in listening? Are s t u d e n t s
i m p r o v i n g t h e i r w r i t i n g skills? Have they l e a r n e d t o f u n c t i o n in English in t h e w o r k p l a c e ?
Teachers build in s o m e f o r m of s t u d e n t evaluation w h e n d e v e l o p i n g a c o u r s e , r a n g i n g f r o m
f o r m a l tests t o i n f o r m a l assessments. H u g h e s ( 1 9 8 9 ) discusses f o u r p u r p o s e s f o r testing: t o
m e a s u r e proficiency, t o diagnose specific s t r e n g t h s and w e a k n e s s e s , t o place s t u d e n t s in a
c o u r s e o r p r o g r a m , and t o assess t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t in a c o u r s e or p r o g r a m . T h e same testing
i n s t i ' u m e h t m a y b e u$ed f o r m o r e than o n e p u r p o s e . For e x a m p l e , t h e T O E F L test is used
by g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s in t h e U n i t e d States as a p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t , b u t it is s o m e t i m e s u s e d as
an a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t if s t u d e n t s s h o w a gain o n a T O E F L p o s t t e s t . H o w e v e r , tests are n o t the
only m e a n s t e a c h e r s have t o assess t h e i r s t u d e n t s . Teachers m a y s t r u c t u r e t h e i r classroom
activities so t h a t they can assess t h e i r s t u d e n t s while the s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e . T h e y may use
a p o r t f o l i o a p p r o a c h , in w h i c h s t u d e n t s p u t t o g e t h e r a p o r t f o l i o of t h e i r w o r k ( F i n g e r e t
1 9 9 3 ) . T h e y m a y involve t h e i r s t u d e n t s in d e c i d i n g w h a t should be assessed and h o w (Hull
1991).
Evaluation in c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t also includes evaluation of t h e c o u r s e itself. Was the
c o u r s e effective? In w h a t ways? W h e r e did it fall s h o r t ? Such an e v a l u a t i o n m a y n o t b e
directly linked t o assessment of s t u d e n t progress, although s t u d e n t evaluation and test results
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 191

can p r o v i d e f e e d b a c k on the eHectivencss of the c o u r s e . If t h e s t u d e n t s d o well on tests o r

are j u d g e d t o have m a d e p r o g r e s s , p r e s u m a b l y t h e c o u r s e has been effective. But if s t u d e n t s
d o n o t m a k e progress o r d o not d e m o n s t r a t e a certain level of a c h i e v e m e n t , t h e effectiveness
ol the c o u r s e may be cjuestioncd. Finding w h e r e t h e fault lies w o u l d be o n e of the p u r p o s e s
ol c o u r s e evaluation and could involve having s t u d e n t s suggest w h y they did n o t m a k e t h e
progress expected.
W h y d o e s o n e evaluate? G e n e r a l l y speaking, a c o u r s e is e v a l u a t e d t o p r o m o t e and
i m p r o v e its e t f e c t i v e n e s s . T h i s may b e an internal m a t t e r , as w h e n t h e t e a c h e r is c o n c e r n e d
with d e v e l o p i n g the best c o u r s e possible, in w h i c h case the evaluation is d o n e largely f o r
the bencHt of the s t u d e n t s and the teacher. H o w e v e r , c o u r s e s are also evaluated t o p r o v i d e
d o c u m e n t a t i o n for policy reasons, such as c o n t i n u e d f u n d i n g o r r e t e n t i o n in the c u r r i c u l u m .
In such cases, evaluation is an e x t e r n a l matter, and the t e a c h e r may be r e q u i r e d t o use certain
m e t h o d s of evaluation or t o d o c u m e n t t h e effectiveness of the c o u r s e in a m a n n e r p r e s c r i b e d
by an o u t s i d e party. This in t u r n may influence t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o u r s e .
W h a t can be evaluated? Any p a r t of the process of c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t can be evaluated,
including the a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t and analysis of s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s o r b a c k g r o u n d s , goals and
o b j e c t i v e s , m a t e r i a l s and activities, m e a n s of assessing s t u d e n t s ' p r o g r e s s , s t u d e n t
p a r t i c i p a t i o n , s t u d e n t roles, and the t e a c h e r ' s role. T h u s each e l e m e n t of t h e f r a m e w o r k is
itself s u b j e c t t o evaluation. Was the n e e d s assessment effective? D i d I seek t h e r i g h t i n p u t ,
and did it enable m e t o m a k e a p p r o p r i a t e decisions a b o u t the c o u r s e ? If n o t , w h y not? W e r e
the goals and objectives a p p r o p r i a t e and achievable? Should they b e changed? D i d s t u d e n t s
find t h e m a t e r i a l a p p r o p r i a t e l y challenging, o r was it t o o easy or t o o difficult? W e r e t h e
activities a p p r o p r i a t e ? Did all s t u d e n t s participate easily? Did I find suitable ways t o evaluate
s t u d e n t s ' progress? Did t h e tests test w h a t had b e e n l e a r n e d ?
W h e n d o e s o n e evaluate? In c u r r i c u l u m design, a distinction is usually m a d e b e t w e e n
Jormativc evaluation, w h i c h takes place d u r i n g tlie d e v e l o p m e n t and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e
c u r r i c u l u m for p u r p o s e s of m o d i f y i n g it as it is being d e v e l o p e d , and sumniative evaluation,
w h i c h takes place a f t e r t h e c u r r i c u l u m has b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d , f o r p u r p o s e s of evaluating
its success and i m p r o v i n g it for f u t u r e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ( B r o w n 1 9 8 9 ) . A t e a c h e r w h o is
involved in e a c h stage of c o u r s e design can t h i n k of evaluation as an o n g o i n g p a r t of t h e
e n t i r e p r o c e s s . T h u s evaluation can o c c u r in t h e p l a n n i n g and t e a c h i n g stages of tlie c o u r s e ,
a f t e r it is over, and w h e n it is r e p l a n n e d and r e t a u g h t .
W h o evaluates? At t h e c o u r s e level, t h e t e a c h e r and t h e s t u d e n t s are t h e p r i n c i p a l
e v a l u a t o r s . H o w e v e r , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , f u n d e r s , p a r e n t s , a n d clients m a y have a r o l e in
evaluation, and t h e i r r o l e may influence the shape or e x i s t e n c e of tlie c o u r s e .
H o w d o e s o n e evaluate? A variety of ways are available. A t e a c h e r ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t
m e a n s is close o b s e r v a t i o n of w h a t s t u d e n t s d o in class and h o w they d o it. If s t u d e n t s have
g r e a t difficulty p e r f o r m i n g c e r t a i n tasks, o n e m i g h t be wise t o q u e s t i o n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s
of t h e objectives o r tlie activities. I n f o r m a l chats w i t h s t u d e n t s can o f t e n p r o v i d e as m u c h
i n f o r m a t i o n as r e s p o n s e s t o f o r m a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . T e a c h e r s can also p r o v i d e t i m e f o r
s t u d e n t s t o give w r i t t e n o r oral i n p u t r e g a r d i n g specific aspects of tlie c o u r s e . For e x a m p l e ,
s o m e t e a c h e r s h o l d r e g u l a r oral f e e d b a c k sessions w i t h t h e i r s t u d e n t s ; a n d o t h e r s have
s t u d e n t s w r i t e in j o u r n a l s . T h e t e a c h e r ' s o w n r e f l e c t i o n a n d s e l f - q u e s t i o n i n g play an
i m p o r t a n t r o l e in evaluation.

Issues

Teachers t e n d t o avoid e x t e n s i v e evaluation because tliey feel i n a d e q u a t e t o a task in w h a t

they c o n s i d e r is tlie d o m a i n of " e x p e r t s , " f o r w h i c h special t r a i n i n g in systematic analysis is
192 KATHLEEN GRAVES

necessary. T e a c h e r s m u s t b e c o m e Familiar w i t h t h e v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s and t y p e s oF t e s t i n g ,

b u t tliey m u s t also devise t h e i r o w n s y s t e m s and areas o F i n q u i r y . As witli n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t ,
t e a c h e r s m u s t e x p e r i m e n t w i t h diFFerent m e t h o d s oF evaluation and m o n i t o r t h e success oF
e a c h so as t o m a x i m i z e d i e eFFectivcness oF t h e i r c o u r s e s .

C o n s i d e r a t i o n of r e s o u r c e s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s
What are the givens ^mj situation?
R e s o u r c e s and c o n s t r a i n t s a r e t w o ways oF l o o k i n g at t h e s a m e thing. A r e q u i r e d c o u r s e
b o o k m a y b e a c o n s t r a i n t For o n e t e a c h e r and a r e s o u r c e For a n o t h e r . A class oF Fewer t h a n
t e n s t u d e n t s m a y b e a r e s o u r c e For o n e t e a c h e r a n d a c o n s t r a i n t For a n o t h e r . T h o u g h t h e s e
g i v e n s m a y s e e m s e c o n d a r y t o t h e p r o c e s s e s j u s t d e s c r i b e d , in Fact they play a p r i m a r y r o l e
in tlie d e v e l o p m e n t of a c o u r s e b e c a u s e it is in c o n s i d e r i n g d i e g i v e n s t h a t a t e a c h e r b e g i n s
t o m a k e s e n s e o F p r o c e s s e s s u c h as n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t and m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n . I have r e t e r r e d
t o this e l s e w h e r e ( 1 9 9 6 ) as p r o b l e n i a t i z i n g : d e f i n i n g t h e c h a l l e n g e s o F o n e ' s situation so that
o n e can m a k e d e c i s i o n s a b o u t w h a t t o d o . In t h e a b s e n c e oF p r o b l e m a t i z i n g , a t e a c h e r niav
seek to graft solutions a p p r o p r i a t e to a n o t h e r unique situation o n t o her situation. This
b e c a m e clear t o m e in t h e case of an EFL t e a c h e r w h o faced an e x t r a o r d i n a r v c h a l l e n g e :
d e s i g n i n g a c o n v e r s a t i o n class f o r 1 4 0 s t u d e n t s in a s p a c e m e a n t f o r half as nianv. She felt
t h a t h a v i n g e x a m p l e s of n e e d s analysis q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w o u l d b e a key t o d e v e l o p i n g h e r
c o u r s e . To m e , this w a s an e x a m p l e of a t e a c h e r seeking a n s w e r s f r o m o u t s i d e w i t h o u t having
f i r s t specifically d e f i n e d t h e c h a l l e n g e s of h e r o w n s i t u a t i o n . S u c h p r o b l e m a t i z i n g c o u l d
e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t in an e x a m i n a t i o n of h o w o t h e r s a p p r o a c h e d n e e d s analysis as an aid in
d e v e l o p i n g h e r o w n . H e r e is a s k e t c h of o n e way of p r o b l e m a t i z i n g tliis t e a c h e r ' s s i t u a t i o n ;

• This is a conversation class, but there are 140 students in a space that Jits 70. I n e e d t o look
at ways of w o r k i n g w i t h i n d i e c o n s t r a i n t s of t h e c l a s s r o o m s u c h as ways t o g r o u p o r
rotate students.
• What kinds of conversations can 140 students possibly have? I n e e d t o assess t h e i r language
abihty (At what level can they carry on a conversation?) and find o u t a b o u t t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d
a n d i n t e r e s t s (Wiat can they have conversations about?). H o w will I g o a b o u t d o i n g that?
W h a t k i n d s of q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d I ask t h e m ? If t h e a s s e s s m e n t s h o w s t h a t t h e i r ability
is low, I n e e d t o f o c u s o n t h e k i n d of p r e p a r a t i o n a n d f o u n d a t i o n w o r k n e c e s s a r y f o r
conversations t o take place.
• How can I get them to work together to have these conversations? C l a s s r o o m m a n a g e m e n t is
an issue. I n e e d t o l o o k at available m a t e r i a l s w i d i c a r e f u l l y s t r u c t u r e d activities as a
m e a n s of c l a s s r o o m m a n a g e m e n t . O r p e r h a p s I c o u l d ask o t h e r t e a c h e r s w h a t has
w o r k e d f o r t h e m in this s i t u a t i o n .
• How can I monitor their activity? I n e e d t o e x a m i n e m y r o l e in t h e c l a s s r o o m . I also n e e d
t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e t y p e s of m o n i t o r i n g a n d e v a l u a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s I will u s e in t h e
class.
• What has worked in the past? I n e e d t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e activities o r classes in w h i c h I f e l t
t h a t t h i n g s w e n t w e l l . W h y d i d t h e y g o well? W h a t can I t a k e f r o m t h o s e successes and
b u i l d i n t o this c o u r s e ?

T h e s e a r e q u e s t i o n s t h a t I p r o p o s e . W e r e t h e t e a c h e r t o g o t h r o u g h a similar p r o c e s s ,
she m i g h t ask d i f f e r e n t o n e s o r r e s p o n d t o t h e s a m e o n e s in d i f f e r e n t ways b e c a u s e of h e r
i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e of h e r c o n t e x t a n d h e r r o l e in it. For e x a m p l e , h o w s t u d e n t s are g r a d e d ,
w h e t h e r t h e r e is a r e q u i r e d t e x t , , a n d a t t e n d a n c e p a t t e r n s w o u l d all i n f l u e n c e t h e k i n d s of
 COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 193

q u e s t i o n s she w o u l d ask. I i n c l u d e d t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t p a s t successes b e c a u s e t e a c h e r s

c a r r y t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e over From o n e c o n t e x t t o t h e n e x t , and being able t o u n d e r s t a n d
w h a t has b e e n successful and w h y can provide a f o u n d a t i o n for p l a n n i n g a c o u r s e . In t h e
c o n t e x t u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , t h e t e a c h e r had already t a u g h t t h e c o u r s e and t h u s c o u l d b e
realistic in h e r e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t w h a t she could h o p e t o accomplish w i t h this g r o u p of
students.
T h e constraints and r e s o u r c e s of o n e ' s situation take m a n y f o r m s , s o m e tangible, o t h e r s
n o t . T e a c h e r s w o r k w i t h o r w i t h o u t physical and m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s s u c h as b o o k s ,
t e c h n o l o g y , a c l a s s r o o m , and f u r n i t u r e . T h e lack of physical r e s o u r c e s m a y e n c o u r a g e a
t e a c h e r t o use available r e s o u r c e s in creative w a y s . T h e availability of t e c h n o l o g y may allow
a t e a c h e r t o have g r o u p s of s t u d e n t s w o r k i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T i m e is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n in designing a c o u r s e . H o w o f t e n , h o w long, and over w h a t p e r i o d of t i m e
will t h e class m e e t ? H o w m u c h t i m e is available t o the t e a c h e r t o p r e p a r e f o r t h e c o u r s e
and t h e classes? A t e a c h e r may adjust h e r t e a c h i n g p r i o r i t i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e n g t h of the
c o u r s e . T h e kinds of activities she designs may be affected by t h e a m o u n t of t i m e she has,
b o t h in class and b e f o r e class.
T h e institutional philosophy, policy, and c u r r i c u l u m are i m p o r t a n t givens. Having t o
w o r k w i t h i n existing c u r r i c u l a r guidelines is b o t h a c o n s t r a i n t and a r e s o u r c e ; so is having
t o devise o n e ' s o w n syllabus. T h e t y p e of administrative and clerical s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by
the institution affects a t e a c h e r ' s choices. For e x a m p l e , lack of clerical s u p p o r t wall suggest
s t r e a m l i n i n g p a p e r w o r k and materials. S u p p o r t f r o m t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r innovation will
encourage experimentation.
T h e n u m b e r s , levels, and cultural b a c k g r o u n d s of t h e s t u d e n t s are b o t h a c o n s t r a i n t
and a r e s o u r c e . For e x a m p l e , a large class may cause a t e a c h e r t o f o c u s o n c l a s s r o o m
m a n a g e m e n t . A multilevel class may influence tire teacher's selection of material o r activities.
T h e t e a c h e r h e r s e l f is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t g i v e n . H e r b a c k g r o u n d , e x p e r i e n c e , and
beliefs play a significant r o l e in the choices she m a k e s . For e x a m p l e , o n e t e a c h e r will f o c u s
o n c e r t a i n c o n t e n t b e c a u s e she d e e m s it essential t o successful language l e a r n i n g , w h i l e
a n o t h e r will i g n o r e t h e s a m e c o n t e n t . A t e a c h e r w h o usually develops h e r o w n m a t e r i a l s
may c h o o s e t o use published m a t e r i a l s w h e n t e a c h i n g a c o u r s e w h o s e c o n t e n t is n e w t o her.
T h e givens of a s i t u a t i o n cover a b r o a d r a n g e of f a c t o r s and a f f e c t e v e r y decision a
t e a c h e r m a k e s . Teachers plan and t e a c h c o u r s e s n o t in the abstract b u t in t h e c o n c r e t e of
t h e i r c o n s t r a i n t s and r e s o u r c e s . For e x a m p l e , an ESL t e a c h e r w h o t e a c h e s in an intensive
English p r o g r a m , w h o s e s t u d e n t s c h a n g e f r o m o n e p r o g r a m t o t h e n e x t , m a y n e e d t o
investigate the b a c k g r o u n d and proficiency of h e r s t u d e n t s , w h e r e a s f o r a high school EFL
t e a c h e r , tlris may be a given because she k n o w s tlie s t u d e n t s . T h e t e a c h e r in the intensive
English p r o g r a m m i g h t b e g i n w i t h a q u e s t i o n s u c h as " H o w can I find o u t t h e c u l t u r a l
b a c k g r o u n d and n e e d s of my s t u d e n t s so t h a t I can address t h o s e n e e d s effectively in tire six
w e e k s of t h e c o u r s e ? " T h e high school t e a c h e r ' s initial q u e s t i o n m i g h t be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ,
say, " H o w can I k e e p my s t u d e n t s m o t i v a t e d in a r e q u i r e d course?" C o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t ,
like t e a c h i n g , is n o t a neatly o r g a n i z e d p r o c e s s b u t a c o m p l e x o n e in w h i c h t e a c h e r s are
constantly c o n s i d e r i n g m u l t i p l e f a c t o r s and p r o c e e d i n g o n m a n y f r o n t s .

Issues

T h e givens of o n e ' s t e a c h i n g s i t u a t i o n , b o t h t a n g i b l e a n d i n t a n g i b l e , c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d .
Effecting change r e q u i r e s botlr recognizing w h a t can be changed and accepting w h a t c a n n o t .
T h e "If only . . ." s y n d r o m e (if only w e had tlie technology, if only w e had quieter classrooms,
if only o u r s t u d e n t s w e r e m o r e m o t i v a t e d ) can o b s t r u c t c h a n g e as f i r m l y as t h e "Yes,
194 KATHLEEN GRAVES

but . . s y n d r o m e (Yes, b u t t h a t will n e v e r w o r k in my s e t t i n g . ) P r o b l e m a t i / . i n g e n a b l e s

a t e a c h e r t o d e c i d e w h a t she can c h a n g e , w h a t she c a n ' t , and w h e r e t o s t a r t .

Conclusion
T h e c o m p o n e n t s discussed in tliis c h a p t e r a n d s u m m a r i z e d in Table 15.1 s h o u l d s e r v e n o t
as a c h e c k l i s t f o r tlie t e a c h e r b u t r a t h e r as a set of t o o l s f o r t a l k i n g a b o u t , u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
and d i r e c t i n g t h e p r o c e s s of c o u r s e d e v e l o p m e n t . Each c o m p o n e n t is c o n t i n g e n t o n e v e r y
other c o m p o n e n t . For example, assessment depends on h o w o n e conceptualizes c o n t e n t or
o n h o w she i n t e r p r e t s s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s . C o n c e p t u a l i z i n g c o n t e n t in t u r n influences d i e c o u r s e
g o a l s a n d o b j e c t i v e s . T h u s w h e r e v e r o n e s t a r t s in t h e p r o c e s s , e a c h c o m p o n e n t will
e v e n t u a l l y c o m e i n t o play. Each c o m p o n e n t is, in m a n y r e s p e c t s , o n e way of w o r k i n g w i t h
tine w h o l e .

Note
1 T h e t e r m s needs analysis and needs assessment arc o f t e n used interchangeably. But as Susan
P o m e r o y once suggested t o m e , they r e f e r t o separate processes: Assessment involves
obtaining data, w h e r e a s analysis involves assigning value t o those data.

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