(M 2 )

KAIST 1988
.
, .
, KAIST .

MathLetter
,
.
3 .

.
.
, ,
.
.

, 3
.
. ,
.

, 3
.
.
,
. 3
.

• ,
 3

,
.

•
.
.

•
,
.
.
.

.
,
.
.

2003 8 ,
4
1 7

1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 37

2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3 67

3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

4 123

4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6

4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5 153

5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
1
8

1.1

,
.

‘– ’
∈ ⊂ = . x ∈ A, A ⊂ B,
C=D A ∪ B, C ∩ D
,
.
. ‘– – ’ ‘– – ’
‘– – ’ ‘– ’
.

.
,
.

A B A B .

A⊂B ⇐⇒ x∈A x∈B

‘⇔’ .
, ,
.
1.1 9

. , ‘P
Q ’ P ⇒Q .

(1) A ⊂ A
(2) A ⊂ B B⊂C A⊂C
(3) ∅ ⊂ A

(1) A A ,
A⊂A . ,

x∈A x∈A ⇐⇒ A⊂A

(2) A ⊂ B B⊂C , A B
,B C . ,A C
, A⊂C .

A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ x ∈ A x∈B

B ⊂ C ⇐⇒ x ∈ B x∈C

x∈A x∈B , x∈B x∈C

x∈A x∈C . ,

x∈A x∈C ⇐⇒ A⊂C

(3) ∅ ⊂ A , ∅ A
. ,

∅⊂A ⇐⇒ x∈∅ x∈A

10

∅ x∈∅ x ,x∈A
.
,∅ A
. ,
.

A B , B A
, A B .

A=B ⇐⇒ A⊂B B⊂A

(1) A = A
(2) A = B B=A .
(3) A = B B=C A=C .

(1) A ⊂ A A⊃A , A=A

.
(2) A = B

A⊂B B⊂A

B⊂A A⊂B
1.1 11

. B=A .
(3) A = B B=C ,

A ⊂ B, B ⊂ A, B ⊂ C, C⊂B

. A⊂B B⊂C , (2)

A⊂C .C⊂B B⊂A C⊂A
.
A⊂C C⊂A

, A=C .

. .
?

(1) : A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A x ∈ B}
(2) : A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A x∈ B}
(3) : A − B = {x | x ∈ A x∈ B}
(4) : Ac = { x ∈ U | x ∈ A }

: x ∈ A ∪ B ⇐⇒ x ∈ A x∈B
: x ∈ A ∩ B ⇐⇒ x ∈ A x∈B
: x ∈ A − B ⇐⇒ x ∈ A x∈B
: x ∈ Ac ⇐⇒ x ∈ A
12

.
.
.

(1) : (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C), (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
(2) : A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A
(3) : A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

(1) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

(A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊂ A ∪ (B ∪ C) (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊃ A ∪ (B ∪ C)

.
. x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C x ∈ A∪B
x∈C .

(a) x ∈ A ∪ B ; x∈A x∈B .

(aa) x ∈ A ; x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) .
(ab) x ∈ B ; x∈B∪C . , x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) .
(b) x ∈ C ; x∈B∪C . , x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) .

(a) (b) x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) . ,
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) . ,

(A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊂ A ∪ (B ∪ C)

. .

, .
1.1 13

(1) A − B = A ∩ B c
(2) Ac = U − A
(3) (Ac )c = A

(1) .

x ∈ A − B ⇐⇒ x ∈ A x∈B

⇐⇒ x ∈ A x ∈ Bc

⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B c

(2) ,x∈U
.

x ∈ Ac ⇐⇒ x ∈ U x ∈ Ac

⇐⇒ x ∈ U ∩ Ac = U − A

(1) .
(3) .

x ∈ (Ac )c ⇐⇒ ¬(x ∈ Ac ) ⇐⇒ ¬¬(x ∈ A)

¬ ‘– ’ ,
x∈A .

(De Morgan)

(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c , (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

‘A B ’ ‘A B ’
. ‘– ’ ‘– ’
14

.
. ,
. .

A⊂B : B c ⊂ Ac , A ∩ B = A, A ∪ B = B, A − B = ∅ .

, A⊂B
.
.

U
B
A

, . A−B = ∅
.

A ⊂ B =⇒ A − B = ∅: A B ,A
B . A ∩ Bc = ∅ .
A−B =∅ .
A − B = ∅ =⇒ A ⊂ B: .
1.1 15

1.1.1
1.1.1

A A P (A)
2A .A⊂B 2A ⊂ 2B .

2A ,A

|2A | = 2|A|

X ∈ 2A X ∈ 2B .

X A =⇒ X B

.A⊂B ,

X⊂A A⊂B =⇒ X⊂B

A B A B
? ,
.
16

1.1.2
1.1.2

U 10 .U A, B
A ∩ B = {2, 4, 6}, A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} . B = {2, 3, 4, 6}
A .

.
.

. A ∩ B, A ∪ B, B
A .

A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A − B) = (A ∩ B) ∪ [(A ∪ B) − B]

. A A = {2, 4, 5, 6, 8} . ♦

|A ∪ B| = 7, |A ∪ C| = 10, |B ∪ C| = 12 |A ∪ B ∪ C| = 13 ,

|(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)|

.
1.1 17

1.1.3
1.1.3

.
(1) [Ac ∪ (A ∩ B c )]c
(2) [A ∩ (Ac ∪ B)] ∪ [B ∩ (B ∪ C)]

(1) .

[Ac ∪ (A ∩ B c )]c = A ∩ (A ∩ B c )c ( )
= A ∩ (Ac ∪ B) ( )
= (A ∩ Ac ) ∪ (A ∩ B) ( )
= ∅ ∪ (A ∩ B) = A ∩ B

(2) .

[A ∩ (Ac ∪ B)] ∪ [B ∩ (B ∪ C)]

= [(A ∩ Ac ) ∪ (A ∩ B)] ∪ [(B ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ C)] ( )
= [∅ ∪ (A ∩ B)] ∪ [B ∪ (B ∩ C)]
= (A ∩ B) ∪ B = B ( )

,
.

(A ∪ B) ∩ (Ac ∪ B)
18

. .
1.1.1
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A, A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

1.1.2 (1) .
(2) .

(Ac ∩ B)c ∩ (A ∪ B) .
1.1.3

.
1.1.4
(A ∩ B ∩ C)c = Ac ∪ B c ∪ C c

A = { x | x = 2m, m }, B = { y | y = 2n + 4, n }
1.1.5 ,A=B .

.
1.1.6
(A ∪ B) ∩ (Ac ∪ C) = (A ∩ C) ∪ (Ac ∩ B)
1.1 19

A = {m + 2n | 3m + 2n ≤ 10, m, n } ,
1.1.7 A .

A
1.1.8 a
a∈A ∈A ( , a = 1)
a−1
1
. 2 ∈A , A
.

1.1.9 √ √ √ √
A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 }, B = { a1 , a2 , a 3 , a4 }

, a1 + a2 = 13, A ∩ B = {a1 , a2 }, a1 < a2 < a3 < a4 ,

a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 .

A, B, C, D, E U .
1.1.10
[{(B ∩ C) ∪ (A ∩ E)} ∩ {(B ∩ C) ∪ Ac }]

∪ [{(C ∩ Dc ) ∪ (A ∩ E c )} ∩ {(C ∩ Dc ) ∪ Ac }]

∪ [(B c ∪ C)c ∪ (C ∪ D)c ]

Y ∪ Zc . ,Y Z A,
B, C, D, E .Y Z .
20

.
1.1.1
“N , 10
.
.”

N 20 . N
? .
1.2 21

1.2

0 1 ,
0 1 0 1
.0 1 ,
.

0 1 (no) (yes), (false) (true)

,
.

(+) (·)
.
0 1 0 1 .
.

(com plem ent, N OT) (−, bar) .

:

0̄ = 1, 1̄ = 0

(OR ) + . :

1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0+0=0

0 1
0 0 .

(A N D ) · .
:
1 · 1 = 1, 1 · 0 = 0, 0 · 1 = 0, 0·0=0
22

1 0
1 1 .

, , ,

.
0 · 1 + (1 + 0)

0 · 1 + (1 + 0) = 0 · 1 + 1̄ = 0 + 0 = 0
♦

.
0 · (1 + 0) + 1 · (1 · 1)

.
, , .

♥ ♥
(Boolean
Algebra) . 19 (Boole)
. ♣
1.2 23

0 1 , 0 1
. , ,
, .

F (x) = (x̄ + x), G(x, y) = x · y + x, H(x, y, z) = x · z + ȳ

x, y, z

F (x, y, z) = x · y + z̄

x y z x·y z̄ F (x, y, z)

1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1
♦

x, y, z

F (x, y, z) = x + y · z + (y + z)

.
24

. .

1. (double complement)
¯=x
x̄

2. (idempotent)
x + x = x, x·x=x

3. (identity)
x + 0 = x, x·1=x

4. (dominance)
x + 1 = 1, x·0=0

5. (commutative law)

x + y = y + x, x·y =y·x

6. (distributive law)

x + y · z = (x + y) · (x + z), x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z

7. (De Morgan’s law)

x · y = x̄ + ȳ, x + y = x̄ · ȳ

x · (x + y) = x
1.2 25

x · (x + y) = x · x + x · y

= x+x·y

= x·1+x·y

= x · (1 + y)

= x·1=x

x · y + y · z + x̄ · z = x · y + x̄ · z

.
,
.
.

. .

1. ?

2. ?
26

2 .
,
. x+y y+x .

1 ?
. .
. ( )
, .
.

x · y + x̄ · ȳ

(x + y) · (x̄ + y)

F (x, y, z) .

x y z F (x, y, z)

1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

F 1 . x, y, z 1, 1, 0 0, 1, 0
F 1 .
.
F (x, y, z) = x · y · z̄ + x̄ · y · z̄

♦
1.2 27

1 .
, 0
.

(gate)

.
, .

• (inverter, NOT)

x x

• AND (AND gate)

x
x.y
y

• OR (OR gate)

x
x+y
y

x · y + x̄ · y
28

x
y

x
y

♥ ♥
. NAND
gate NOR gate .
AND gate OR gate . NAND
gate NOR gate . ?
, AND gate, OR gate NAND gate, NOR gate
. ? ♣

. .
. ,
.
.
?

ȳ y
x̄ F (0, 0) F (0, 1)
x F (1, 0) F (1, 1)
1.2 29

. F (x, y) =
x · y + x̄ · y .

ȳ y
x̄ 0 1
x 0 1

1
. . 1
.

ȳ y
x̄ 0 1
x 0 1

F (x, y) = x · y + x̄ · y = y .

ȳ y ȳ y
x̄ · ȳ + x̄ · y = x̄,
x̄ 1 1 x̄ 1 1
x̄ · ȳ + x · ȳ = ȳ
x 1 0 x 1 0

, x̄ · ȳ + x̄ · y + x · ȳ = (x̄ · ȳ + x̄ · y) + (x̄ · ȳ + x · ȳ) = x̄ + ȳ .

2 , 3 ,4
. ( ) ( )
, 2n . , 3
.

00 01 11 10
0
1
30

0 1 x , (y, z) = (0, 0),

(0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0) . 01 11 10 ,

00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 ȳ + x̄ · z̄
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 x + ȳ + z̄
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4 00 01 11 10 .

- (Carnaugh map) .
1.2 31

1.2.1
1.2.1

x̄ · (y + z̄)

, x̄ · (y + z̄) = x̄ȳz

. ♦

p(x) x A 1, 0
. , q(x), r(x) B, C x 1 0
.

x 1, 0 p, q, r
.
32

1.2.2
1.2.2

(1) A, B, C
.

(2) .

(1) .
.

(A ∩ B ∩ C c ) ∪ (A ∩ B c ∩ C) ∪ (Ac ∩ B ∩ C)

(2) .
.

(B ∪ C) ∩ (C ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ B) ∩ (Ac ∪ B c ∪ C c )

(1) . ♦

(1) (A ∪ B c ) ∩ (B ∪ C c ) ∩ (C ∪ Ac )
.
(2) (A ∩ B c ) ∪ (B ∩ C c ) ∪ (C ∩ Ac ) .
1.2 33

1.2.3
1.2.3

- .
(1) F (x, y, z) = x · y · z̄ + x · ȳ · z̄ + x̄ · y · z + x̄ · ȳ · z + x̄ · ȳ · z̄
(2) G(w, x, y, z) = w · x · y · z + w · x · ȳ · z + w̄ · x · y · z + w̄ · x · ȳ · z

(1)

00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 x̄ · z + ȳ · z̄ + x · z̄
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

- x̄ · z + ȳ · z̄ + x · z̄ .
(2)

00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
00 1 0 0 0 00 1 0 0 0
01 0 1 1 0 01 0 1 1 0
11 0 1 0 0 11 0 1 0 0
10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0

- ω̄ · x̄ · ȳ · z̄ + ω̄ · x · z + x · ȳ · z . ♦

- :

(A ∩ B ∩ C c ) ∪ (Ac ∩ C) ∪ (A ∩ B c ∩ C) ∪ (A ∩ B ∩ C)
34

.
1.2.1
(x + y + z)(x̄ + ȳ + z̄)

NOR gate NOT, OR, AND gate .

1.2.2

.
1.2.3 (1) xȳz̄ + x̄yz + xyz̄
(2) x̄ȳz̄ + x̄ȳz + x̄yz̄ + xyz̄

.
1.2.4

-
1.2.5 :

(A ∩ B ∩ C c ) ∪ (Ac ∩ C) ∪ (A ∩ B c ∩ C) ∪ (A ∩ B ∩ C)
1.2 35

.
1.2.6
.

. 1, 0
, 1, 0 ,
.

NOT, OR, AND

1.2.7 .

(2002 ) i, j ,i j
1.2.8
0, 1
.
i⊕j .
 

 0 1 1 

  
 


 

 3 → 011   1 0 1 
(2)
: ⇒ ⇒ 110(2) → 6 ⇒ 3 ⊕ 5 = 6
 5 → 101  
 ↓ ↓ ↓ 

(2) 
 


 

 1 1 0 

, n 2k − 1
⊕ .
36

- 4
1.2.1 . 5 ,6
?

NAND gate 9 XOR gate . , XOR gate

1.2.2 0 , 1 gate .

2 2 A, B A B
1.2.3 ,A B ,
A B .
. .

2 4
, 3 .
2
38

2.1

.
. ‘
’ ‘ ’,‘ ’ .

a, b (a = 0) b = a·c c b
a . b a
a b b a . ‘a | b’ b a
‘a b’ b a
.

‘ ’ .
a | b, a b
.

3 | 6, 3 5, 3 | −6, 3 | 0, −2 | −8, 5 7.

(1) 3 5 .
(2) | 15 .
(3) ‘|’ ‘’ .

5( )3, 9( )3, 3( )15

.
2.1 39

a, b, c .
(1) a | b a|c a | (b + c) .
(2) a | b c a|b·c .
(3) a | b b|c a|c .

(1) a | b, a | c s, t b = a · s, c = a · t
.
b + c = as + at = a(s + t)

a | (b + c) . (2), (3) .
.

a d q r .

0≤r<d a = dq + r

, 23 = 7 × 3 + 2 (23 7
3, 2)
. . a, b, c 0
,a .
. .

−23 5 .

−23 = 5 · (−5) + 2 −5 2 . ♦
40

−23 = 5 · (−4) + (−3) −4, −3

r = −3 0≤r<5 .

.
(1) 37 = 6 · ( ) + ( )
(2) −37 = 6 · ( )+( )
(3) −26 = 7 · ( )+( )

0 a, b .d|a d|b d a
b gcd(a, b) . a|c b|c
c a b lcm(a, b) .

a, b 1 , gcd(a, b) = 1 ,a b
.

.
.
(1) (3,5)
(2) (15,22)
(3) (32,18)
(4) (35,14)
2.1 41

(1) a | bc a b a|c .
(2) a | c, b | c a b ab | c .

(1) ab = gcd(a, b) · lcm(a, b) .( , a, b )

(2) gcd(ka, kb) = k · gcd(a, b) .( ,k )
(3) .

A, B A × B = 12600 gcd(A, B) = 15 lcm(A, B)

.
42

2.1.1
2.1.1

(2) gcd(ka, kb) = k · gcd(a, b) .( ,k )

. .

d = gcd(m, n), e = gcd(km, kn) . e = kd

.
d | m, d | n kd | km, kd | kn

, kd km kn .e kd ≤ e ( ).
r = gcd(k, e), k = rk , e = re .

e | km, e | kn ⇐⇒ re | rk m, re | rk n ⇐⇒ e | k m, e | k n

.e k ‘ (1)’ e | m, e | n,
e m n .d e ≤ d, e = re ≤ rd ≤
kd ( ). ( ) ( ) e = kd .

G = gcd(A, B), L = lcm(A, B) AB = GL

. (1) gcd(ka, kb) = k · gcd(a, b) lcm(ka, kb) = k ·
lcm(a, b) . (2) lcm(ka, kb) = k · lcm(a, b)
gcd(ka, kb) = k · gcd(a, b) .
2.1 43

2.1.2
2.1.2

(1) a + b = c , a, b, c 1
.
(2) gcd(a, b) = gcd(a, a + b) .

(1) a b d c = a+b d .a c
d b = c−a d ,b c d
. ,
. , gcd(a, b, c) = 1
.

(2) d = gcd(a, b), e = gcd(a, a + b) . d | a, d | b d | (a + b).

d a a+b , d|e . e | a, e | (a + b)
e | b = (a + b) − a. e a b ,e|d . , d | e, e | d
d = e.

(1) a, b, c .
1 , .
(2) gcd(a, b) = 1, gcd(a, c) = 1 gcd(a, bc) = 1 .
44

a|b b|c a|c .

2.1.1

a b d ,a b
2.1.2 d aa , ab , ba , bb dd .

gcd(a, b) = 1 gcd(a + b, ab) = 1 .

2.1.3

a=b lcm(a + b, ab) = (a + b) · lcm(a, b) ?

2.1.4 , .

a b gcd(a, c) = gcd(a, bc) .

2.1.5

2.1.6 . .

(1) ab = gcd(a, b) · lcm(a, b) . ( , a, b )

2.1 45

13 31
2.1.7 . .

n ,
2.1.8 n/2 .
n .

abba 7 . a+b .
2.1.9

16! 14!
2.1.10 ? , n! 1 n .

a, b, c, d ab−cd . ab−cd
2.1.11 , ab − cd = 1 .

1
2.1.12 : 600
.
46

n n3 (n2 − 1)(n2 − 4)
2.1.1 .

(1972 ) x, y, z
2.1.2 .

(x, y)(x, z)(y, z)[x, y, z]2 = [x, y][x, z][y, z](x, y, z)2

, (a, . . . , g) [a, . . . , g] gcd(a, . . . , g) lcm(a, . . . , g)

.

(1980 Putnam )r s .
2.1.3

3r 7s = lcm(a, b, c) = lcm(a, b, d) = lcm(a, c, d) = lcm(b, c, d)

(a, b, c, d) r s
.
2.2 47

2.2

1 .1
. , 1 1 ,
2 ,3 .

9 = 3 · 3, 18 = 3 · 3 · 2 = 32 · 2 , 2, 5, 13 .

‘ ’ ‘ ( )’ ‘ ’
. ,
. , ( )
.

.
.

√
m m m .

: ‘m ’, m
. m 1 a . , m = ab ,
√ √
1 < a, b < m . m m a, b > m
.
√ √
m = ab > m m=m

. ,m . m .
48

127 .

√
11 < 127 < 12 . 127 11
. 127 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 .

.
(1) 217
(2) 297
(3) 299
(4) 319

. , 540 = 22 × 33 × 5
. ,
.

.
(1) 400
(2) 378
(3) 736
(4) 1260

1
. , .
2.2 49

. 1
.1
. 1 , 10

10 = 2 × 5 = 1 × 2 × 5 = 1 × 1 × 2 × 5 = · · · · · ·

‘ ’ ,
. ,
.

, ,
,
.

. ,
.

xn = a x a n n
. 2 8 3 ,3 81 .
50

: .
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn (p1 < p2 < · · · < pn )
. A 1 . ,

A = p1 p2 · · · pn + 1

. A p1 , p2 , . . . , pn 1 A
. A . A = p1 p2 · · · pn +1 >
pn A p1 , p2 , . . . , pn .
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn . ,
. .
2.2 51

2.2.1
2.2.1
√
2 .

√ √ r
, 2 . 2=
s
r, s .

2s2 = r2

. , r . r = 2t

s2 = 2t2

,s . r s
,r s ( 2 )
√ √
. 2 , 2 .

√
3
3 .
52

2.2.2
2.2.2

5 .

5 n − 2, n − 1, n, n + 1, n + 2 . (n 3
)

(n − 2)2 + (n − 1)2 + n2 + (n + 1)2 + (n + 2)2 = 5(n2 + 2)

. n2 5 0, 1, 4 , n2 + 2
2, 3, 1 . , n2 + 2 5 . 5(n2 + 2)
5 , .

n n4 − 20n2 + 4 .
2.2 53

2.2.3
2.2.3
√
(1) n 10 < n < 30 , 3n n
.
(2) .

(1) 3n n = 3×( ) . 1, 4, 9, 16,

... 3 10 < n < 30 n = 12 27.
n 12 + 27 = 39 .

(2) 1 .1 n2 n = pa11 pa22 · · · pann

. (p1 , p2 , · · · , pn , a1 , a2 , · · · , an )

n2 = p2a 1 2a2 2an

1 p2 · · · pn

, n2

(2a1 + 1)(2a2 + 1) · · · (2an + 1)

. . ♦

(2) n .a|n
n n
a =b|n b|n b =a|n , ab = n (a, b)
. a b n ,
a=b n = a2 n
.

√ √
10 < 6a < 30 , 6a a
.
54

2.2.4
2.2.4

(1981 ) 28 + 211 + 2n
n .

28 + 211 = 482 . 28 + 211 + 2n = k 2

k 2 − 482 = (k + 48)(k − 48) = 2n

, (k + 48) (k − 48) 2 . ,2
96 .

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, · · ·

96 (128, 32) . 2n = 128 · 32 = 212 ,

(24 + 26 )2 = 802 . n
.

314 + 313 − 12 .
2.2 55

2.2.1 3 .

?
2.2.2

n n n
, ,
2 3 5
2.2.3 n .

√
3
10 .
2.2.4

2n + 1, 3n + 1 5n + 3 .
2.2.5 ,n .
56

n 11 · · · 1211 · · · 1( 1
2.2.6 n ) .

2n − 1 n .
2.2.7

19 1 1111111111111111111 .
2.2.8 b ,b 11 · · · 1(b) 1
.

p q 1
2.2.9 . p > 100 , p+q
.

p p 30 . ,
2.2.10 1 .
2.2 57

712 + 412 .
2.2.11 2626 ,
.

y = ax2 + 19x y-
2.2.12 . . ,a ,
x- y- .

(1960 Putnam )n .
2.2.13
xy
=n
x+y
(x, y) ?

(1967 Putnam ) 1 50 50
2.2.14 ,1 50
. ,1
. ,2
. ,3
3 ,
.
,
.
, ?
58

(1947 Putnam ) a, b, c, d ,
2.2.1
(x − a)(x − b)(x − c)(x − d) − 4 = 0

r . 4r = a + b + c + d .

2000 3 .
2.2.2 .
.
2.3 59

2.3

,
,
.
. ,
.

, , 2 3 ,5
,
.
100 p 200 q r pq, pr
,
?

,
. .
. a b
, a = bq + r r ,b r
. ,
, r 0 ,
.

19278 7497 . 19278

7497 .

19278 = 7497 · 2 + 4284

gcd(19278, 7497) = gcd(7497, 4284)

60

. 7497 4284 .

7497 = 4284 · 1 + 3213

, gcd(4284, 3123) .

4284 = 3213 · 1 + 1071

, gcd(3213, 1071) ,

3213 = 1071 · 3

, 1071 .

.
7497 19278
7497 × 2 = 14994
7497 4284
4284
3213 4284
3213
3213 1071
1071 × 3 = 3213
0

.
(1) (105,490)
(2) (1254,540)
(3) (2146,2491)
(4) (12574,33120)
2.3 61

gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r) ?
.

a = bq + r gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r) .

q , a = bq + r a ≡ r (mod b)
. , gcd(a, b) = m, gcd(b, r) = n .
m | a, m | b (∵ ), m | (a − bq), m|r
. ,m b r , n .
∴ m ≤ n.
a r a ≡ r (mod b) , n a b
,n≤m .
,m=n .

a = bq + r ,
( ,0≤r<b ) . ,
, a = bq + r
. r
.

.
,
.
62

2.3.1
2.3.1

x .

x2 + x + 1
x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 3

. ,
1 . ,
.

.
, .

x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 3 x2 + x + 1 x+2
x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 2
x x+1 x2 + x + 1
x2 + x
1

x2 + x + 1 x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 3 1
. , x . ♦

x3 x3 + x2 − x + 1
(1) (2)
x3 + x − 1 2x3 + 2x2 − 2x + 1
2.3 63

2.3.2
2.3.2

880, 1238, 2133 d (d > 0) r

, d−r .

d r , d
. ,

d | (1238 − 880) = 358, d | (2133 − 1238) = 895

,d 358 895 . 358 895 ,

2 358 895
716
358 179 2
358
0 179

179 , d 179 . 179 , d 1

179 .
(i) d = 179 ; 880, 1238, 2133 179 164
. , d − r = 179 − 164 = 15.
(ii) d = 1 ; 880, 1238, 2133 1
0 . , d − r = 1 − 0 = 1.
(i), (ii) , d−r 1 15 . ♦

(1988 KMO) a = 11, 111, 111 b = 11, 111, . . . , 111 (1

1988 ) .
64

.
2.3.1 (1) (1276,3212)
(2) (1362,780)

.
2.3.2 (1) (2725,375)
(2) (833,9905)

21n + 4
(1959 IMO) n
14n + 3
2.3.3 .

4n + 3 7n + 4 1 n
2.3.4 .

1 .
2.3.5
2.3 65

(n + 1)(3n + 1) (2n + 1)2 .

2.3.6

k , gcd(n, n + k) = 1 n>1 n
2.3.7 ,k=1 .

n
2.3.8 .

a+b
ad − bc = 1 .
c+d
2.3.9

.
2.3.10 n
2 + 1, 22 + 1, 24 + 1, 28 + 1, . . . , 22 + 1, . . .
66

n an ,
2.3.1 an
an+1

, a0 = a1 = 1, an+1 = an + an−1 (n ≥ 1)
.

(1956 Putnam ) T1 = 2, Tn+1 = Tn2 − Tn + 1

2.3.2 (n > 0) .n=m Tn Tm
.
3
68

3.1

.
, , ,
.

x − 2y + z = 0

2y − 8z = 8

−4x + 5y + 9z = −9

,
. .
 
1 −2 1 0
 
 
 0 2 −8 8 
 
−4 5 9 −9

.
   
1 −2 1 0 1 −2 1 0
(A)   (B)  
   
−→  0 2 −8 8  −→  0 1 −4 4 
   
0 −3 13 −9 0 −3 13 −9

(A): ( ) 4 ( ) .
3.1 69

1
(B): 2 .
   
1 0 −7 8 1 0 0 29
(C)   (D)  
   
−→  0 1 −4 4  −→  0 1 0 16 
   
0 0 1 3 0 0 1 3

(C): 2 ,3 , .
(D): 7 ,4 , .
.

1·x+0·y+0·z = x = 29

0·x+1·y+0·z = y = 16

0·x+0·y+1·z = z=3

, (x, y, z) = (29, 16, 3) .

,
1, 0
. .

y + 5z = −4

x + 4y + 3z = −2

2x + 7y + z = −1

··· .( 2
0 = −1 .
.)

.
.
70

3b − 6c + 6d + 4e = −5

3a − 7b + 8c − 5d + 8e = 9

3a − 9b + 12c − 9d + 6e = 15

.
   
0 3 −6 6 4 −5 3 −9 12 −9 6 15
  (A)  
   
 3 −7 8 −5 8 9  −→  3 −7 8 −5 8 9 
   
3 −9 12 −9 6 15 0 3 −6 6 4 −5

(A): 1 3 .
   
1 −3 4 −3 2 5 1 −3 4 −3 2 5
(B)   (C)  
   
−→  3 −7 8 −5 8 9  −→  0 2 −4 4 2 −6 
   
0 3 −6 6 4 −5 0 3 −6 6 4 −5

1
(B): 1 3 .
(C): 1 3 2 .
   
1 −3 4 −3 2 5 1 −3 4 −3 2 5
(D)   (E)  
   
−→  0 1 −2 2 1 −3  −→  0 1 −2 2 1 −3 
   
0 3 −6 6 4 −5 0 0 0 0 1 4

1
(D): 2 2 .
(E): 2 3 3 .
.

a − 3b + 4c − 3d + 2e = 5

b − 2c + 2d + e = −3

e = 4
3.1 71

c d c = t, d = u ( ) ,

e = 4

d = u

c = t

b = 2c − 2d − e − 3 = 2t − 2u − 7

a = 3b − 4c + 3d − 2e + 5 = 2t − 3u − 24

,
   
• ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
   
   
 0 • ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗   0 1 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ 
   
0 0 0 0 • ∗ 0 0 0 0 1 ∗

.• 0
,∗ . • 1 .
,
.

x + 4y + 2z = 3

−2x − 8y − z = 9

··· (x, y, z) = (−4t − 7, t, 5) (t ∈ Z)

.
72

. 50 30
. 50 90
1000 m . .

x m, ym .

50(x − y) = 30(x + y)

1000 + 50(x + y) = 90(x − y)

. 20x = 80y, 40x = 140y + 1000

, x = 4y, 2x = 7y + 50 .
y = 50. , 50 m . ♦

1 ha 20 ,
15 .
, ?

.3 20
, 5 12 ( ). , 2
15 ,5 6 . , 18
. ♦

y = |x + 1| + |x − 3|, y − x = 2 .
3.1 73

, .

(1) x < −1 ; y = −(x + 1) − (x − 3) = −2x + 2 . ,

(x, y) = (0, 2) , x
.

(2) −1 ≤ x < 3 ; y = (x + 1) − (x − 3) = 4 . ,
(x, y) = (2, 4) .

(3) 3 ≥ x ; y = (x + 1) + (x − 3) = 2x − 2 . ,
(x, y) = (4, 6) .

(1)–(3) (2, 4) (4, 6) . ♦

a, b, c .

ab = 2(a + b), bc = 3(b + c) ca = 4(c + a)

5a + 7b + c ?

1 a+b 1 1
2ab = = + .
2 ab a b

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + , = + , = +
2 a b 3 b c 4 c a

1 1 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1
+ + =2 + + , = + +
2 3 4 a b c 24 a b c

1 1 1 5 1 7
= , = , = , 5a = 7b = c = 24
c 24 a 24 b 24

. , 5a + 7b + c = 72 . ♦
74

3.1.1
3.1.1

100 .

x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
.. ..
. .
x98 + x99 + x100 = 0
x99 + x100 + x1 = 0
x100 + x1 + x2 = 0

100 . xi

3(x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + x99 + x100 ) = 0

, x1 + x2 + · · · + x100 = 0 . 100 33
0 .

0 = x1 + (x2 + x3 + x4 ) + (x5 + x6 + x7 ) + · · · + (x98 + x99 + x100 ) = x1

. xi (xi+1 + xi+2 + xi+3 ), . . .

(xi−3 + xi−2 + xi−1 ) 33
, xi = 0 . , x1 = x2 = · · · = x100 = 0. ♦

100
?

a, b, c, d, e .

ab = 1, bc = 2, cd = 3, de = 4, ea = 6
3.1 75

3.1.2
3.1.2

(1987 ) a, b, c 0

a+b−c a−b+c −a + b + c
= =
c b a

a+b+c=0 a=b=c .

p r p+r
= , q+s 0 .
q s q+s
.

a+b+c = 0 .( ,
−2 .) , a+b+c=0 .

a+b−c a−b+c −a + b + c
= = =k (∗)
c b a

(a + b − c) + (a − b + c) + (−a + b + c) a+b+c
k= = =1
a+b+c a+b+c

. , (∗)

a + b − c = c, a − b + c = b, −a + b + c = a

. 2c, 2b, 2a

a + b + c = 3a = 3b = 3c

. ,a=b=c .( , k=1 .)

a b c d
= = = ,
b+c+d c+d+a d+a+b a+b+c
.
76

.

3.1.1 
 x − 6y = 5




 y − 4z + w = 0
(1)

 −x + 6y + z + 5w = 3




 − y + 5z + 4w = 0


 x − 2y − z + 3w = 0


(2) −2x + 4y + 5z − 5w = 3



 3x − 6y − 6z + 8w = 2

x, y .
3.1.2
x + hy = 1

2x + 3y = k

(1) h, k .
(2) h, k .
(3) h, k .

, , .
3.1.3

3 ?
3.1 77

f (t) = a + bt + ct2 (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 6)

3.1.4 . a, b, c .

2x − y = 6z, −5x + 4y = 3z ,
3.1.5 .
(1) x, y z .
(2) x, y, z 504 , x, y, z .

1
55
5
3.1.6 . 55 3 ,
2 .
5 . .
(1) .
(2) .

A, B, C 4
3.1.7 , A, C 6 , B, C 6 40
. A, B, C ?
78

(2002 ) x, y, z
3.1.8 , x2 + y 2 + z 2 . , xyz = 0.
(1) x + y + z = 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
(2) x2 + + y2 + + z2 + = −3
y z z x x y

x, y, z ,
3.1.9
x2 − kyz = y 2 − kzx = z 2 − kxy

,k x+y+z .

a, b, c ,
3.1.10
a(1 − b) = b(1 − c) = c(1 − a) = k

,k .

(1896 Eötvös ) x2 − 3xy + 2y 2 + x −

3.1.11 y=0 x2 − 2xy + y 2 − 5x + 7y = 0 xy − 12x + 15y = 0
. ,
.

(2003 )
3.1.12 .

x3 + y 3 + z 3 = x + y + z

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = xyz
3.1 79

(1977 Putnam )
3.1.1 x, y, z, w .

1 1 1 1
x + y + z = w, + + =
x y z w

a, b, c , x, y, z .
3.1.2
x2 − yz = a2

y 2 − zx = b2

z 2 − xy = c2

a, b, c, d, e, f
3.1.3
a+b+c+d+e+f = 0

a3 + b3 + c3 + d3 + e3 + f 3 = 0

(a + c)(a + d)(a + e)(a + f ) = (b + c)(b + d)(b + e)(b + f )

.
80

3.2

,
. ,
,
.

,
.
, .
.
, .

. (x, y) =
(1, 2) x=1 y=2 .

2a + 3b = 10 (a, b) .

,a b ,
b , a ,

10 − 2t
a = t, b=
3

. ,
. a 0
1 b .

1 .
3.2 81

, a t . ,t
,b 10 − 2t 3 .
10 − 2t =3 t + 1 =3 0 ,t 3k + 2 . ,

a = 3k + 2, b = −2k + 2 (k )

(a, b) = (3k − 1, 4 − 2k) (a, b) = (2 − 3k, 2 + 2k)

, . ♦

2 .
0 2x + 3y = 0 1
. . (X, Y )
, (x1 , y1 ) ,
(x, y) (x1 , y1 ) + (X, Y ) .

2x + 3y = 10

2x1 + 3y1 = 10

,
2(x − x1 ) + 3(y − y1 ) = 0

, (x − x1 , y − y1 ) = (X, Y ) .
. (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 2)
. , . 2x + 3y = 0
3 2x 3 , x 3
, x = 3k y = −2k .
(x, y) = (3k, −2k) + (2, 2) . ♦

2a + 3b + c = 10 (a, b, c) .
82

a, b c = 10−2a−3b . , 2a+3b < 10

(a, b) . 3b ≥ 3 a 1, 2, 3 .

(a, b, c) = (1, 1, 5), (1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 3), (3, 1, 1)

. ♦

. .

3xy − 7y 2 + 2x − 5y + 15 = 0 .

x .
137
7y 2 + 5y − 15 7 1 9
x= = y+ −
3y + 2 3 9 3y + 2
,
137
9x = 21y + 1 −
3y + 2
9x 21y + 1 , 3y + 2
137 . 137 ,

3y + 2 = 1, − 1, 137, − 137

. y , y = −1, 45 .
x (x, y) = (13, −1), (105, 45)
. ♦

.
3.2 83

x2 + xy − 2y 2 − 7 = 0 .

(x + 2y)(x − y) = 7
. x + 2y x−y 7
. .

(x + 2y, x − y) = (1, 7), (7, 1), (−1, −7), (−7, −1)

3y ±6 y = ±2 ,
.
(x, y) = (3, 2), (−5, 2), (5, −2), (−3, −2)

. ♦

x2 + y 2 − 12x + 2 = 0 .

1 x x2 − 12x + (y 2 + 2) = 0 . (x, y)
x ,

D = (−12)2 − 4(y 2 + 2) ≥ 0
√
. , |y| ≤ 34,
y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .

x2 − 12x + 3 = 0

x2 − 12x + 6 = 0

x2 − 12x + 11 = 0

x2 − 12x + 18 = 0

x2 − 12x + 27 = 0
84

5 . ,
(x, y) = (1, 3) (11, 3), (x, y) = (3, 5)
(9, 5) . ♦

(x − 6)2 + y 2 = 34

. 34 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 ,
34 25 + 9 . ,

(|x − 6|, y) = (5, 3) (|x − 6|, y) = (3, 5)

, . ♦

, .

y 2 + 2002 = x2 .

(x + y)(x − y) = 2002 . x+y x−y

. 2002
. , 4 .
2002 4 . ,
. ♦

4 0 1
.

1
,
.
3.2 85

A 5 970 ,3 670 ,
250 . A 100
. A 20,000 A
?

5 x , 3 y , z .
100 , 20,000

5x + 3y + z = 100, 970x + 670y + 250z = 20000

. z = 100 − 5x − 3y

7x + 2y = 125

. x . x = 2k+1
. y = 59 − 7k, z = 100 − 5x − 3y
z = 11k − 82 . x, y, z

2k + 1 ≥ 0, 59 − 7k ≥ 0, 11k − 82 ≥ 0

,k

k ≥ 0, k ≤ 8, k≥8

,k 8 . , z 6
. ♦

x, y, z z
.x y ,
?

8
86

1993 10 21 ,
( ) . ? , 10 21
.

abcd , 1000a + 100b + 10c + d

.

1993 − (1000a + 100b + 10c + d) = a + b + c + d

,
1001a + 101b + 11c + 2d = 1993

. a, b, c, d 0 9
. a
. 0 ≤ 101b + 11c + 2d ≤ 909 + 99 + 18 = 1026

1001a ≤ 1001a + 101b + 11c + 2d = 1993 ≤ 1001a + 1026

, 967 ≤ 1001a ≤ 1993 , a=1 .

101b + 11c + 2d = 992

. , 11c + 2d 0 117 101b

875 992 ,b=9 .

11c + 2d = 83

. 2d 0 18 11c 65 83
, c 6 7 . c 6 d .
c = 7, d = 3 . , 1973 . ♦

(m, n) .

n2 + (n + 1)2 = m4 + (m + 1)4
3.2 87

, 0+1
.
.

n m , n2 + (n + 1)2
m4 + (m + 1)4
.n −(n + 1) , m −(m + 1)
, m, n
.
.
n(n + 1) = (m2 + m)(m2 + m + 2)

, l = m2 + m ,

n(n + 1) = l(l + 2)

,
. , 3·4
l(l + 2) , 2·4 3·5
.
n l n, l ,
n l .n≤l

n(n + 1) ≤ l(l + 1) ≤ l(l + 2)

l=0 . l=0 n>l

. n≥l+1

n(n + 1) ≥ (l + 1)(l + 2) > l(l + 2)

. n<l+1 .
n=l=0 , . , n, l
, m, n 0 −1
. ♦
88

m n
. .

.
3.2 89

3.2.1
3.2.1

5x − 6y = 11 .

[ 1]
.
6y + 11 y+1
x= =y+2+
5 5
y+1
y+1 5 y
5

y = . . . , − 6, − 1, 4, 9, 14, . . .

.
[ 2] x, y .y>0 .

y+1 1
x=y+2+ >2+ >0
5 5

x>0 . , y
y>0 ,

y = 4, 9, 14, . . .

.
[ 3] , y x . ,
(x, y)
(7, 4), (13, 9), (19, 14), . . .

. ♦

7x − 4y = 13 .
90

3.2.2
3.2.2

2a + 3b + 5c = 10 .

5c 2a + 3b = 5(2 − c), 5
5 , 5 c
. , 2a + 3b = 5k , c=2−k
.
. 2a + 3b = 5k (a, b) = (k, k)
. 2A + 3B = 0
(A, B) = (3t, −2t) . 2a + 3b = 5k

(a, b) = (3t, −2t) + (k, k) = (3t + k, −2t + k)

(a, b, c) = (3t + k, −2t + k, 2 − k) (t, k )

. ♦

a + 2b + 3c = 5, 2a − b + 4c = 1
(a, b, c) .
3.2 91

3.2.3
3.2.3

. .

c, a, b (a ≥ b) .

ab ab
a+b+c= , , c= − (a + b)
2 2

. a2 + b2 = c 2 , c
,

a2 b2
a2 + b2 = − ab(a + b) + a2 + b2 + 2ab
4
a2 b2
ab(a + b) = + 2ab
4
ab
a+b = +2
4
ab − 4a − 4b + 8 = 0

(a − 4)(b − 4) = 8

. 8 a≥b

(a − 4, b − 4) = (8, 1), (4, 2), (−2, −4), (−1, −8)

, a, b (a, b) = (12, 5) (8, 6)

. ,

{a, b, c} = {5, 12, 13} {6, 8, 10}

. ♦

. ( , .)
92

3.2.4
3.2.4

a, b, c .

1 1 1 4
+ + =
a b c 5

1
≤1
n
, .
, a≤b≤c .

4 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
= + + ≤ + + =
5 a b c a a a a
15 1 4 5
a≤ , ≤ a≥ , a 2
4 a 5 4
3 .
1 1 3 10
(1) a = 2 + = , , ≤
b c 10 3
20
b≤ . b 4, 5, 6 , , (a, b, c) =
3
15
(2, 4, 20) (2, 5, 10) ,b=6 c= .
2
1 1 7
(2) a = 3 + = ,
b c 15
15 30 15 60
≤b≤ .b 3 4 , c ,
7 7 2 13
.

, (1) (2) (2, 4, 20) (2, 5, 10),

. ♦

1 .
3.2 93

(1990 · )
3.2.1 33x + 23y = 1 (x, y) .

.
3.2.2 (1) 3x + 5y = 28
(2) 5x + 7y = 94
(3) 14x + 21y = 149

2x + 3y + 7z = 23 .
3.2.3

(x, y, z)
3.2.4 .
x + y + z = 10, 2(x + y) = z

.
3.2.5 (1) xy − 2x − 2y + 7 = 0
(2) 3x2 − xy = 10
(3) x2 − y 2 = 117

2xy + 3x − 5y = 12 (x, y) .
3.2.6
94

‘ ’ 2 5
3.2.7 5 . ‘ ’ 68 .
?

350 .
3.2.8 10 . ? , 10 ,
50 , 100 .

1 1 1 1
x, y, z ≥ 3 , + − = .
x y z 2
3.2.9

2x2 y 2 + y 2 = 26x2 + 1201 (x, y)

3.2.10 .

1 1 1
+ + =1 .
xy yz zx
3.2.11

21 241 .
3.2.12
3.2 95

3.2.13 . .

x>y>0 , x3 + 7y = y 3 + 7x .
3.2.14

4x + y = 3xy .
3.2.15

x, y, z , z , x(x + y) = z + 120
3.2.16 .

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1999 .
3.2.17

1987 b xyz . x + y + z = 25
3.2.18 , x, y, z b .
96

x−y+z = 1
3.2.1 :

x, y, z ,
.

(x, y) .
3.2.2
x3 + x2 y + xy 2 + y 3 = 8(x2 + xy + y 2 + 1)
3.3 97

3.3

AB + BC > AC .A C AC
.

. , ,

( )≥( )

a, b, c
.

a < b + c, b < c + a, c<a+b

c AB , A, B b, a
. ?

.
, .
98

( )
A B .
C A C ,C B
. AC + CB
C ?

B B ,
CB = CB .

AC + CB = AC + CB

. , A, C, B , A B
A, C, B
. C AB . ♦

( )
A B . A B
.
.A B
?
3.3 99

A
A
C

C B
B

C, C AC + CC +
CB . CC .
AC + C B . , AC
C C A B AC + C B
.
, AB
. ♦

( )
1
. .

.
100

,
√
1 1 34
(1 + )2 + (1 + 1 + )2 =
2 2 2
. ♦

( )
ABC PA + PB + PC P .

P B 60◦ P A
B 60◦ A .
P BP (∵ P B = P B, ∠P BP = 60◦ ), AP B ≡
AP B (∵ P B = P B, AB = A B, ∠P BA = ∠P BA ).

PA + PB + PC = A P + P P + PC ≥ A C

, PA+PB +PC AC . ,

∠BP C = 180◦ − ∠BP P = 180◦ − 60◦ = 120◦

∠AP B = ∠A P B = 180◦ − ∠BP P = 180◦ − 60◦ = 120◦

∠CP A = 360◦ − (∠BP C + ∠AP B) = 120◦

, P ∠AP B = ∠BP C = ∠CP A = 120◦

. ♦

Fermat .
.
3.3 101

ABC

.
( , ,
.)

A
X Y
Z X

B X C

BC X , AC Y , AB Z
ABC XY Z .
AB X X , AC X X .

XY + Y Z + ZX = X Y + Y Z + ZX ≥ X X

, X , X ZY X XY +
Y Z + ZX .
, AX = AX = AX . X AX , ∠X AX
(2 ∠A) XX AX .
AX ⊥ BC.
BY ⊥ AC, CZ ⊥ AB. , XY Z
. ♦

.
102

x, y

|x| + |y| ≥ |x + y|

. x y .

(|x| + |y|)2 ≥ |x + y|2

|x|2 + 2|x||y| + |y|2 ≥ (x + y)2

x2 + 2|xy| + y 2 ≥ x2 + 2xy + y 2

|xy| ≥ xy

. xy 0 , x,
y .

. |x| x
, (0) x . x
2 3
.

a, b, c, d ,

|a + b + c| ≤ |a − 2d| + |b + d| + |c + d|

.
3.3 103

|a + b + c| = |(a − 2d) + (b + c + 2d)|

≤ |a − 2d| + |b + c + 2d|

≤ |a − 2d| + |b + d| + |c + d|

.
104

3.3.1
3.3.1

∠XOY A . , OX, OY
B, C ABC , B,
C .

A OX, OY A1 ,
A2 .
A1
X

B
A

O C Y

A2

AB = A1 B AC = A2 C .

AB + BC + CA = A1 B + BC + CA2

. A1 , A2 A1 A2

A1 B + BC + CA2 ≥ A1 A2

.( , B, C A1 A2 )
, ABC AB + BC + CA B, C OX,
OY A1 A2 . ♦

∠ABC P . ∠ABC = 90◦ , BP = 5 P AB

BC P .
3.3 105

3.3.2
3.3.2

3, 12 . OA
OA M .A M
?

AM
.

O
O
M

M A

A
A

,
∠AOA
12 × ∠AOA = 3 × 360◦

90◦ . ,
√
AM = AO2 + OM 2 = 122 + 62 = 6 5

. ♦

3, 9 .
?
106

3.3.3
3.3.3

0 a, b , x+y =a+b . x > 0, y > 0 ,

x 2 + a2 + y 2 + b2

AC = a, EC = x ∠ACE ACE BD = b,
ED = y ∠BDE BDE .

x + y = EC + ED = CD CD E
CD x+y =a+b . ,

x 2 + a2 + y 2 + b2 = EA + EB

. EA + EB ≥ AB ,

2
x 2 + a2 + y 2 + b2 ≥ AB = CD + (AC + BD)2 = (a + b)2 + (a + b)2

.( , E AB )
√ √
, x 2 + a2 + y 2 + b2 2(a + b) . ♦

x+y+z =a+b+c=8 .

x 2 + a2 + y 2 + b2 + z 2 + c2

.
3.3 107

A B ,
3.3.1 .
.A B
?

ABCD , A, B, C,
3.3.2 D P .

1 .
3.3.3 .

?
108

3.3.4 A B . ,A
B ,
12 .

2
B

x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = a, y1 + y2 + · · · + yn = b
3.3.5 .

x21 + y12 + x22 + y22 + · · · + x2n + yn2

x, y ,
3.3.6 .
|x − y| ≥ |x| − |y|
3.3 109

5
3.3.1 .

.
3.3.2 .
110

3.4

x ,x x ,
[x] x . f (x) = [x]
, (Gauss function) (floor function)
. x x − [x] x , {x}
.

[x] .

.
(1) [7] = ?, {7} = ?
(2) [2.6] = ?, {2.6} = ?
(3) [−4.8] = ?, {−4.8} = ?

.
(1) [7] = 7, {7} = 0
(2) [2.6] = 2, {2.6} = 0.6
(3) [−4.8] = −5, {−4.8} = 0.2
♦

3 [x] x
. x
x (ceiling function)
3.4 111

7 = 7, 2.6 = 3, −4.8 = −4

(1) [x] .
(2) x = [x] + {x}
(3) [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1, x − 1 < [x] ≤ x
(4) 0 ≤ {x} < 1

.
[. . . ] ‘. . . ’
, .

x .

2[x] − 3 > 0

3
2[x] − 3 > 0 [x] > . , [x] [x] =
2
2, 3, 4, 5, . . . . · · · x ≥ 2. ♦

3
2x
x− =3 .
3
112

2x 2x 2x
1 (2) ≤ < +1
3 3 3

2x 2x 2x
2=x− −1<x− ≤x− =3
3 3 3

x 2x
2< ≤ 3, 6<x≤9 . =4 5 6
3 3
.
2x
(1) =4 : 4 < x < 7.5 . x − 4 = 3, x = 7.
3
2x
(2) =5 : 7.5 ≤ x < 9 . x − 5 = 3, x = 8.
3
2x
(3) =6 : x=9 .
3
··· x = 7, 8, 9. ♦

2x 2x
2 3 , x = +3 x .
3 3
1 6<x≤9 x = 7, 8, 9 .
. ♦

(1) y = [x] 1
.

(2) y = [x] . x≤y [x] ≤ [y] .

(3) x, y , [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y] .

.
.
3.4 113

(1) x ∈ R, a ∈ Z [x + a] = [x] + a

b
(2) a, b ∈ Z, a > 0 , b = qa + r, 0 ≤ r < a a =q .

(3) a, b ∈ Z, a > 0, b > 0 , 1, 2, . . . , b a

b
a .

[x] x
(4) x ∈ R, a ∈ Z, a > 0 , a = a . , a, b, c ∈ Z, a, b > 0 ,
c
b c
= .
a ab

(1) .
b
(2) a = q + ar , 0 ≤ r
a <1 b
a =q .

(3) 1, 2, . . . , b a q ,
b
qa ≤ b < (q + 1)a, q≤ <q+1
a
b
, a =q .

(4) x = [x] + {x}, [x] = qa + r, 0 ≤ r ≤ a − 1 ,

x = qa + ({x} + r), 0 ≤ {x} + r < a

x [x]
, (2) , a =q= a .

.
, .
?

(1) 1 500 7 ?
(2) 1 199 7 ?
114

500 3 199 3
(1) = 71 + = 71 (2) = 28 + = 28 ♦
7 7 7 7

?
(1) 176 545 13 ?
(2) 248 794 7 ?
(3) 432 632 11 ?
3.4 115

3.4.1
3.4.1

x .

4[x]2 − 36[x] + 45 < 0

4[x]2 − 36[x] + 45 < 0

(2[x] − 3)(2[x] − 15) < 0

. ,
3 15
< [x] <
2 2
, [x] [x] = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. · · · 2≤x<8 ♦

[a] a .

[x]2 − 3[x] + 2 = 0, [y]2 − 7[y] + 12 = 0

x, y x+y .
116

3.4.2
3.4.2

x 2 .

x2 − [x2 ] = x − [x] (0 < x < 2)

0<x<2 []
. [x] 0<x<1 [x] = 0 1≤x<2
[x] = 1 . [x2 ] ? 0<x<2
0 < x2 < 4

0 < x2 < 1, 1 ≤ x2 < 2, 2 ≤ x2 < 3, 3 ≤ x2 < 4

(1) 0 < x < 1 : [x] = 0, [x2 ] = 0. x = 1. .

√
(2) 1 ≤ x < 2 : [x] = 1, [x2 ] = 1 x2 − 1 = x − 1. x = 0 or 1.
x=1 .
√
√ √ 1± 5
(3) 2 ≤ x < 3 : [x] = 1, [x2 ] =2 x2 − 2 = x − 1. x = .
√ 2
1+ 5
x= .
2
√
(4) 3 ≤ x < 2 : [x] = 1, [x2 ] = 3 x2 − 3 = x − 1. x = 2 or −1.
.
√
1+ 5
(1)–(4) x = 1, ··· ♦
2

2[x2 ] − [x] = 2 (1 < x ≤ 2)

3.4 117

3.4.3
3.4.3

x [100x] .

1 2 19
x+ + x+ + ···+ x + = 2000
100 100 100

19 .

1 2 19
, , ...,
100 100 100

1 [x] [x + 1] .
.

a
x+ 100 = k, (1 ≤ a ≤ m)
b
x+ 100 = k + 1, (m + 1 ≤ b ≤ 19)

,
mk + (19 − m)(k + 1) = 2000

, 19k = m + 1981 . 0 ≤ m ≤ 19 , 1981 ≤ 19k ≤ 2000 .

104.2 < k < 105.3 k = 105 m = 14 .

14 15
x+ = 105, x+ = 106
100 100

,x 105.85 ≤ x < 105.86 . ··· 10585 ♦

x [100x] .

19 20 54
x+ + x+ + ··· + x + = 321
100 100 100
118

x .
3.4.1
7[x] − 2 > 0

x .
3.4.2
3[x]2 − 7[x] − 6 > 0

[x] = 1, [y] = 2, [z] = −3 , [x + y − z]

3.4.3 . , [x] x .

.
3.4.4
2x − [x] = 2

.
3.4.5
2x2 − [x] = 2

[x] + [1 − x] .
3.4.6
3.4 119

x − x =0 ?
3.4.7

[a] a . x,
3.4.8 y ,x ,
x+y .

y = 2[x] + 3, y = 3[x − 2] + 2

x 0 0 , x 0 1
3.4.9 . , .

.
3.4.10
x − [x2 ] = x2 − 5[x] (2 < x < 4)

x .
3.4.11
2[x]2 − 7[x] − 8 > 0
120

[x + y] = [x] + [y] + [{x} + {y}] . , [x] x

3.4.12 , {x} x − [x] .

a b a, b
3.4.13 .

an [] .
3.4.14
a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = 2, a4 = 2, a5 = 3, a6 = 3, a7 = 4, . . .

√
[x] = [ x ] .
3.4.15

[a + b + c] ≥ [a − 2d] + [b + d] + [c + d]
3.4.16 .
3.4 121

.
3.4.1 [mα]n
α

,m n ,α n .

.
3.4.2
[x] + [y] + [x + y] ≤ [2x] + [2y]

m, n , .
3.4.3 n n+1 n+m−1
n= + + ··· +
m m m

3.4.4
2 3 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 · · ·

√
[n + n + 12 ] .
122
4
124

4.1

.
. ,
.
.

1
2 .

( 1) ( 2) ( 3)

∠AP B O ( 1), ∠AP B O

( 2) . ∠AP B
O ( 3) .
OAP ∠QOA = 2∠OP A , P OB ∠QOB = 2∠OP B
.

∠AOB = ∠QOB − ∠QOA = 2∠OP B − 2∠OP A = 2∠AP B

1
AB AB 2

90◦ .
4.1 125

.
, 1/2 .

.
.
.

(1) 180◦ .
(2) .

( 4) ( 5)

( 4) ( 5)
. .

,
.
126

(1)

(1) AB P, Q , ∠AP B = ∠AQB

, A, B, P , Q .
(2) 180◦ .
(3) .

A C ,C C ∠C CA = ∠R
.

∠BCA = 90◦ − ∠C CB . ∠C AT = 90◦ ∠BAT =

90◦ − ∠C AB . ∠C CB =
∠C AB . ∠BAT = ∠BCA .

? ( 5) B C C
. A CD BC C
?
4.1 127

.
(Brahmagupta 598–660?) .

( )
ABCD , O
BC OE BC AD .

AB ∠ADB = ∠ACB . OEC

∠ECO + ∠EOC = ∠R , OBC ∠BOE + ∠EOC = ∠R
. ∠ECO = ∠BOE . ∠BOE ∠F OD
. ∠F OD = ∠F DO . FD = FO .
AF = F O .
AF = F D .

. PQ
P BQ P BQ .
∠P BQ ∠P BQ .

(Möbius 1790–1868) 1827

. ‘ ’ .

( )
O, O A, B A O, O
P, Q ∠P BQ .
128

AB AB ∠AP B ∠AQB
. P BQ

∠AP B + ∠AQB + ∠P BQ = 180◦

∠P BQ = 180◦ − (∠AP B + ∠AQB) . ∠AP B ∠AQB

∠P BQ .

( (Euler) 9 )
ABC D, E, F L, M, N H
P, Q, R , 9 .

ABC LN BC LM = 12 AC , ADC

1
N A = N C = N D = AC
2

. , LM DN .
180◦ D, L, M , N . AHC PN HC
ABC AB MN

∠AF C = ∠P N M = ∠R
4.1 129

. ∠P N M = ∠P DM D, M , N , P .
.

(1) .
(2) AB, CD P PA ·
PB = PC · PD .
(3) P
T , A, B PT2 = PA · PB .

.
.

, .
,
.
130

(2)

AB, CD ( ) P PA · PB = PC · PD
, A, B, C, D .

.
.

( )
ABCD AB + CD = BC + DA ,
.

BA BA BC = BP P
. AD DC = DQ Q CP ,
CQ, P Q

AB −BC = DA−CD AP = AQ . AP Q, BCP ,

DCQ . ∠A, ∠B, ∠D P Q,
CP , CQ , P CQ O . O AB,
BC, CD, DA E, F , G, H .
OE = OF = OG = OH .(
.) O , OE ABCD
.
4.1 131

4.1.1
4.1.1

(1903 Eötvös ) A, B, C, D ,
k1 B, C, D , k2 A, C, D , k3
A, B, D , k4 A, B, C .B
k1 k3 C k2 k4
.

(
, )
, .

a, b, c, d, e . (k3 k4
c .)

A
c
bc de
a
B D
C

b c
. , d
c . b=c=d , a+b+c =
c + d + e = 180◦ a=e . , k1 k3
k2 k4 .

(1904 Eötvös )
, .
132

4.1.2
4.1.2

( ,4 )
.

EA, ED F A, F B AED, ABF ,

BEC, CF D AED, ABF K
.

∠EAK ∠EDK EK , ∠EAK ∠BF K

BK . , ∠CDK = ∠CF K C, D, F , K
. CDF K . BCE
K .

( )
.
4.1 133

4.1.3
4.1.3

(1894 Eötvös ) P, Q .
, P ,
Q .P Q
?

O ABC , AB AC P
Q . BC A , P AQ
. ,A PQ M
. ,P Q O .

P
Q

, O P Q , PQ M O
A . AP AQ O B, C
ABC .
, O P, Q
M O . ,
,P Q O R ≤ r+d . ,R
O ,r M MP, d
MO . ♦

(1895 Eötvös ) ABC ,

N N BC, N CA, N AB
.
134

‘ (1)’ (2) . ,
4.1.1 180◦
.

‘ (2)’ . , AB,
4.1.2 CD P PA · PB = PC · PD
, A, B, C, D .

P, Q X, Y .X
4.1.3 P, Q A, D ,Y P,
Q B, C . ABCD
.

P, Q X .X
4.1.4 P, Q A, C; B, D . AB//CD
.

ABC AC O BC
4.1.5 D . , AC DE O
E . ADE .
4.1 135

(1971 ) DEB ,
4.1.6 DE = 3 EB = 5 .O .
OE C . EC = 1
, .

(1) . ,
4.1.7 ABCD AB + CD = BC + DA
.

(2) ABCDEF .
AB + CD + EF = BC + DE + F A .

(1999 ) P , Q, R, S
4.1.8 , PQ SR QR = SR
. T , QT
RQT . .

(1) P S = QR,

(2) P QT QR, QS 3 .

. 180◦
4.1.9 .
136

(1998 Intermediate ) 10,

4.1.10 17 X, Y XY = 16 .
XY . P XQ
P, Q . PQ
.

AB C AB, AC, CB
4.1.11 k1 , k2 , k3 . k2
k3 k2 , k3
D, E . C AB
k1 F . F DCE
.

ABC AC AC
4.1.12 . P , BP
∠ABC .

(1998 Senior Contest) ABCD

4.1.13 AC BD M . AB N ,
NP CD CD P .
M, N, P .
4.1 137

ABCD , k1 B, C, D , k2
4.1.1 A, C, D , k3 A, B, D , k4
A, B, C .B k1 k3
C k2 k4
. .

(1973 , 1976 ,
4.1.2 1988 ) O O
AB . XY
, AX BY P .

P, Q . P AB
4.1.3 . AP · P B
AB .

(1917 Eötvös )A B k
4.1.4 .A B k
( ) .
138

4.2

,
. .

. .
.
.
.

.
, .
.

F
E

B D C

ABC I D, E, F .
I . ID, IE, IF I
. .
4.2 139

(1)

I . AF I AEI

F I = EI, ∠AF I = ∠AEI = 90◦ , AI

. , ∠F AI = ∠EAI , AI ∠A
. BI, CI ∠B, ∠C .

(2)

‘ ?’

‘ ?’

?
.

. ,
,
.
.
140

. ∠B, ∠C I
AI ∠A .I BC, CA, AB
D, E, F .

BDI ≡ BF I, CDI ≡ CEI

, F I = DI = EI .

AF I ≡ AEI

, AI ∠A .

ABC I a, b, c, r .

1
S = r(a + b + c) = rs
2

. ,s .

I A, B, C ABI, BCI, CAI

1 1 1
. 2 rc, 2 ra, 2 rb ABC
1
2 r(a + b + c) .

. .
.
4.2 141

F E
O

B C
D

ABC O . AO, BO, CO O

. .

(1)

. O
D, E, F . AF O, BF O .

AO = BO, ∠AF O = ∠BF O = 90◦ , FO

. AF = BF ,O AB
. O BC, CA .

(2)

,
.
142

, .
AB, AC O ,O BC
D . BD = CD .

AF O ≡ BF O, AEO ≡ CEO

BO = AO = CO ,

BDO ≡ CDO

, BD = CD .

.
.
.

F E

B D C

.
4.2 143

. BC, AC D, E AD, BE
G . CG AB . AD

| ABD| = | ADC|, | GBD| = | GDC|

, | ABG| = | ACG| . | ABG = | BCG| ,

| ACG| = | BCG|

. , CG AF = BF .

2:1 .

ABG BDG 2 : 1 AG :
GD = 2 : 1 .

E
H

B D C

.
144

. AD BE
H AB F , F , H, C
. , CH
AB F CF ⊥ AB .

. A, B D,
E H . CH ⊥ AB
. ∠AEB = ∠ADB ABDE .
HDCE . ,

∠ABE = ∠ADE(= ∠HDE) = ∠HCE(= ∠ACF )

ABE ACF . , ∠AF C = ∠AEB = 90◦ .

.
.

B E C

D
F

O AB, BC, CA D, E, F .

BOD ≡ BOE, COE ≡ COF

4.2 145

OD = OE = OF . , O OD
AB, AC BC . ABC
2AD .

.
146

4.2.1
4.2.1

ABC D, E, F . ABC DEF

.

D EF D .
BC EF DD ⊥ EF DD ⊥ BC. BC ⊥ EF ,
DD BC .
E FD ,F DE E,F .
EE , F F AC, AB ABC DEF
.

ABC BC, CA, AB D, E, F .

BC, CA, AB EF , F D, DE D,E,F
. ABC DEF .
4.2 147

4.2.2
4.2.2

ABC D, E, F . ABC DEF

.

AD EF D .

1 1
F D = BD, D E = DC, , FD = D E
2 2

, DD DEF . .
,G DEF .

ABC A1 , B1 , C1 A 1 B1 C 1
A 2 , B2 , C 2 . ABC, A1 B1 C1 , A 2 B2 C 2
ABC .
148

4.2.3
4.2.3

EAD ?

,I , 1 .

1
∠ABE = ∠ACE = ∠C
2
1
∠ABD = ∠B
2

1 1 130◦
∠EBD = (∠B + ∠C) = (180◦ − ∠A) =
2 2 2

. EAD 2∠EBD 130◦ . , EAD

130◦ 13
2π × ◦
= π
360 18 ♦

1 ABC ,
I . BI CI D, E ,
∠DIE = 110◦ . BE CD ?
4.2 149

4.2.4
4.2.4

O ABC .

MN ?

AB O L .O AC
D
AOL ≡ ADO, CDO ≡ CN O

, AD = AL, DC = CN .

BL + BN = AB + BC + CA = 26

BL = BN BN = 13. ♦

ABC AC O .
O AB L BL = 9 . ABC
.
150

∠A = 90◦ , BC = a, r , ABC
4.2.1 .

ABC I , ∠BIC ∠A .
4.2.2

ABC I BC AB, AC
4.2.3 D, E . ADE AB, AC,
BC .

ABC O, CO AB
4.2.4 P , BO AC Q . , BP = P Q =
QC ∠A = 60◦ .

4.2.5 .
4.2 151

ABC S
4.2.6 AB + BC − CA
S= ×r
2

. r ∠B ABC
.

.
4.2.7 ?

ABC I, AI BC D .
AI
4.2.8 .
ID

n n
1 √
4.2.9 , T 3T
3
.

ABC O, H, AC D .
4.2.10 BO ABC E
. , H, D, E .
152

ABC r1 , r2 , r3
4.2.1 r . .

1 1 1 1
+ + =
r1 r2 r3 r

, , .
4.2.2

AB = AC ABC AB, AC P, Q
4.2.3 ABC . PQ
ABC .

ABC .
4.2.4 , ABC
, .
5
154

5.1

.
?

. ?
.

.
. 3
.

.
5.1 155

.
?
.

.
, . ‘
’ .
.

G = (V, E)

V ,E .
G = (V, E) ,

V = {a, b, c, d} , E = {(a, b), (a, b), (b, c), (b, c), (a, d), (b, d), (c, d), (d, d)}
. (d, d)
.
156

a ,
deg(a) .

, .
. deg(a) = deg(c) = 3, deg(b) = deg(d) = 5 .

. .

1
2
.

.
.

.
.
. ♦
5.1 157

. ,

, .
,
.

.
.( .)

.
158

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

.
, . (a), (b), (c)
.
. (d), (e), (f)
. .

?
. ( , )
? , . ,
.

,
. ,
.
.(
.)
5.1 159

, ,
.

. ,
.
.
.

,
,
.
,G .
(
) .
.

x1 − x2 − · · · − xn − x1

. ,G ,
x2 , . . . , xn .
xi e . (= )
xi ,
xi − xi+1 − · · · − xn − x1 − · · · − xi
160

. xi e
. ,
. xi
.

x y ,x y
.
.

. x−y ,

v 1 − · · · − v m − x − y − w1 − · · · − w n − v 1

. x−y

y − w1 − · · · − wn − v 1 − · · · − v m − x

4
5.1 161

deg(a) = 2, deg(b) = 4, deg(c) = 4,

deg(d) = 3, deg(e) = 3 d, e .
. , d−b−
a−c−d−e−b−c−e . ♦
162

5.1.1
5.1.1

n n , n
.
.

3 .
4 .
. ♦

.
5.1 163

5.1.2
5.1.2

, 0 6
. 28 .

28
?

7 . 0 6
. . ,1
6 [1, 6] .

.
6
, . ♦

0 9 ?

?
164

.(
5.1.1 .) ,
.
?

.
5.1.2 ?

x=y
5.1.3 , x=y=
z=x .

? ‘ ’ ,
.
5.1 165

20 ,
5.1.4 ?
?

.
5.1.5 a, b . a b
, a, b
.

n , ,
5.1.6 .
.

n .
5.1.7 n
. ,n
, n
.
166

.
5.1.1
?

2k .
5.1.2 ‘ ’ k
.
5.2 167

5.2

.
, , ( )
. ?

v, e,
f .

(1) (2) (3)

(1) v = 11, e = 15, f = 5

(2) v = 4, e = 5, f = 2
(3) v = 6, e = 9, f = 4 ♦

v, e, f ?
. .

v−e+f .

.
168

( )

G v,
e, f
.
v−e+f =1

v−e+f = 1−0+0 = 1 .

.
(1) .
(2) .
v−e+f . (1)
. , (2)
. ,
v−e+f . ,
v−e+f =1 .

‘ ’
. .
?

20 30 .
?
5.2 169

v = 20, e = 30 . v−e+f = 1 20−30+f = 1

f = 11. ♦

2 5 .
.

e = 2v, e = f + 5 v−e+f =1 .

1
e − e + (e − 5) = 1
2

e = 12 , v = 6. ♦

v−e+f .

.
? ‘ ’
.
. , ,
?

G k G k
.
170

( )

G k , , v, e, f
.
v−e+f =k

vi − ei + fi = 1 .(i =
1, . . . , k)

(v1 + · · · + vk ) − (e1 + · · · + ek ) + (r1 + · · · + rk ) = k

.v vi (v1 + · · · + vk ) ,e
f . ,

v−e+f =k

3 . 4,
10 ?
5.2 171

5.2.1
5.2.1

( : )
. , , v, e, f

v−e+f =2

.
. .

v−e+f =1

, f 1 ,

v−e+f =2

k .

v−e+f =k+1

.
172

5.2.2
5.2.2

8 . 3
. ?

.
2 . .

3 2e = 3v = 24 . ,
e = 12 .

v−e+f =1

, 8 − 12 + f = 1 f =5 . ♦

12 20
. , , .
5.2 173

12 10 12
5.2.1 3 20 .
, , , v−e+f =2
.

.
5.2.2 v =e+1 .

n , k
5.2.3 . n k
.

A, B .
5.2.4 v−e+f a, b .
n ,
C .
c , a, b, c
.
174

v−e+
5.2.5 f =0 .

k
5.2.6 . , , ( ,
) v + , e+ , f +

v + − e+ + f + = 2

. ,
.

. 8
5.2.7 ,
.
. 7
, ?
5.2 175

n v−
5.2.1 e+f .

3 .
5.2.2 v−e+f
.
176

5.3

. .

. .
.

?
.
.

. n Kn .

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .
5.3 177

n=6 K6 .

5 ,
.

: , ?
: . .
: ? .
: . .
: , . .
: . . .
?
: . , .
: .
? , .
: , 5 X , Y .
.
?

?
: . . ?
: ? ...
178

?
.
. .

G V X, Y ,
X , Y
.

3 4 .
.
.
. n ,
m , Kn,m .

K3,2 K3,3

.
.
5.3 179

, ,
. K4
.

K4
.

G
.

?
, .

. ♦
180

, , . A, B, C ,
, .
?
• •
• •
• •

.
? ‘K3,3 ’
. K5 , K3,3 .

R R R
deg(R) .
.

.( ,
.)

1
2
2 .
2 .
5.3 181

deg(P ) = 9, deg(Q) = 3, deg(R) = 9, deg(S) = 3 .

3 + 9 + 3 + 9 = 24
12 .

G v,
e e ≤ 3v − 6 .

f R1 , R2 , . . . , Rf .
.
3 .
.

2e = deg(R1 ) + deg(R2 ) + · · · + deg(Rf ) ≥ 3f

f = 2−v+e
.

K5 .

K5 .
182

K5 5 10 . e = 10
3v − 6 = 9 . e ≤ 3v − 6 K5
.
5.3 183

5.3.1
5.3.1

. K5 .

. ♦

K3,3 .
184

5.3.2
5.3.2

i K2,i .

K2,i 2 i
.

.
5.3 185

5.3.3
5.3.3

Gn .
(1) {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } .
(2) gcd(i, j) = 1 vi , vj .
, Gn n .

G5 .

G6 , G7 n 6
.

n=6 .

n≥7 . v1 , v2 , v3 , v5 , v7
i, j K5 ,
.
, Gn n 6 . ♦

G3,n .
(1) {u1 , u2 , u3 ; v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } .
(2) gcd(i, j) = 1 ui , vj .
, G3,n n .
186

k ,
5.3.1 k . ,A B B A
,k≥1 .
.

v e = 3v − 6
5.3.2 .

4
5.3.3 , .

5.3.4 .

10
5.3.5 ?
5.3 187

,
5.3.6 . ,
v, e .

5 10
e≤ v−
3 3

7 ?
5.3.7

v(≥ 3) e
5.3.8 e ≤ 2v − 4 .

K3,3
5.3.9 .
188

. K7
5.3.1 ?

K5
5.3.2 .
?

.n
5.3.3 T , 1 n .

. , T
?