Firuz Tughluq’s reign, based on his agrarian measures, achievements in civil

engineering, public works, and the decline of the Sultanate:

1. Nature of Kingship
- Firuz Tughluq, after Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s death in 1351, emphasized
benevolent kingship, focusing on the welfare of the people.
- He revived some of the benevolent policies from Jalaluddin Khalji’s era.
- His reign featured the establishment of new departments like Diwan-i-Khairat
for orphans and widows, and initiatives for public welfare such as marriage and
employment bureaus.
- He was religiously orthodox and implemented Islamic law, including the
imposition of Jaziya on Brahmans.
- He also worked towards winning over various sections (nobles, soldiers,
clergymen, peasants) which were alienated during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign.

2. Agrarian Measures
- Firuz was deeply concerned with agriculture and attempted to improve
irrigation facilities, thus boosting agricultural productivity.
- He is credited with building canals for irrigation, one of his key civil
engineering achievements.
- His efforts were aimed at developing a stable agricultural base, although
these were not always sustainable in the long term.

3. Achievements in Civil Engineering and Public Works

- Irrigation Projects: He built canals and undertook projects for water
management to aid agriculture.
- Public Works: He constructed several roads, mosques, and buildings, including
Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
- Established madrassas, hospitals, and promoted education and public welfare.

4. Military Expeditions
- Firuz led several military campaigns, notably to Bengal (1353-54 and 1359-60),
Orissa, Nagarkot, and lower Sindh, though they did not expand Delhi Sultanate
territory.
- His campaigns were often unsuccessful or ended in negotiated peace, reflecting
his preference for diplomacy over military confrontation.

5. Religious Intolerance and Orthodoxy

- As Firuz aged, he became more religiously intolerant, with a stricter
interpretation of Islamic law.
- He banned many practices he deemed un-Islamic, including the use of gold and
silver utensils, and destroyed temples he considered contrary to Islamic law.
- He ordered the destruction of Hindu temples and imposed the Jaziya tax on
Brahmans.
- Despite some of his acts of intolerance, Firuz's policies were not entirely
oppressive toward Hindus; he respected Hindu chiefs and allowed them to sit in his
court.

6. Decline of the Sultanate

- Administrative reforms led to a weakening of the central government. Firuz’s
efforts to consolidate power by making military and nobility positions hereditary
gave more power to nobles, undermining central control.
- The military, particularly with its hereditary structure and reliance on
grants of land, became inefficient.
- Firuz’s increasing reliance on nobles and soldiers from specific families
created division within the administration, leading to conflicts after his death.

7. Administrative Reforms
 - Firuz reformed the administrative system by introducing hereditary iqtas,
which made the nobles more powerful and led to a decentralization of authority.
- The army was largely paid through grants of land (wajh), a system that also
became hereditary.
- His dependence on the nobility led to a dual administration system, as he also
gathered a large number of slaves to serve as a personal guard and counterbalance
the power of the nobles.

8. Legacy
- While Firuz’s reign saw substantial public works and agricultural reforms, his
intolerance, emphasis on religious orthodoxy, and attempts to stabilize through a
hereditary nobility weakened the Sultanate in the long term.
- His focus on religious orthodoxy and intolerance led to a decline in the
inclusive policies of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and his administrative reforms
contributed to the fragmentation of central power, leading to the eventual decline
of the Sultanate.

significant aspects of Firuz Tughluq’s rule and the factors contributing to the
decline of the Sultanate during his reign.

Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian Measures, Achievements in Civil Engineering, and Decline of

the Sultanate

Agrarian Measures
1. Writing off Sondhar: Firuz Tughluq forgave the loans (Sondhar) given to peasants
by Muhammad bin Tughluq, aiming to relieve their burden.

2. New Valuation (Jama):

- Firuz appointed Khwaja Hisamuddin Junaid to reassess revenue collection.
- A team of officials conducted a six-year tour, establishing a fixed valuation
of 6.75 crores tankas, based on rough estimates.
- Revenue was shared between the peasants and the State based on production,
without altering the valuation throughout his reign.

3. Improved Cropping Patterns:

- Efforts were made to encourage the cultivation of superior crops, such as
wheat and sugar-cane, replacing inferior ones.

4. Gardens:
- Firuz was known for planting 1,200 gardens around Delhi, contributing
significantly to his income from crops like grapes and dry fruits.

5. Abolition of Taxes and Miscellaneous Cesses (Abwabs):

- Firuz abolished 21 taxes not sanctioned by the shara, including house taxes
(ghari) and market cesses. However, the effectiveness of this abolition is debated
as some taxes were reinstated under Akbar and Aurangzeb.

6. Irrigation Projects:
- Firuz initiated extensive irrigation works, including the construction of
canals from the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers to Hissar and Ferozpur. This increased
agricultural output and enabled multiple crops (rabi and kharif) in previously
barren areas.
- Additionally, he constructed wells, dams, and reservoirs, contributing to
agricultural growth.

Achievements in Civil Engineering and Public Works

1. Public Prosperity:
- The increased agricultural output led to a fall in commodity prices,
benefiting peasants, artisans, and traders.
 - Firuz levied a 10% charge on the newly cultivated lands (haqq-i-sharb), which
contributed to his personal income.

2. Founding and Renovating Cities:

- Firuz founded several well-planned cities like Hissar-Feroza, Ferozpur,
Fatehabad, and Ferozabad, and renovated Jaunpur and other sites.
- These cities were important for agricultural trade, housing grain markets and
artisan crafts.

3. Infrastructure Projects:
- Firuz built roads, canals, rest houses (120 established), mosques, madarsas,
hospitals (Dar-ul-Safa), and tanks for water supply.
- He brought two Ashokan pillars to Delhi, using them for construction purposes.

4. Restoration and Repair:

- Firuz’s reign was marked by the repair of older buildings and mausoleums,
including the Qutub Minar, the tomb of Iltutmish, and the Shamsi Tank.

Decline of the Sultanate Under Firuz Tughluq

1. Succession Struggles:
- After Firuz’s death in 1388, there was a struggle for power among his sons and
grandsons, weakening the Sultanate.

2. Religious Intolerance:
- Firuz’s policies alienated the Hindu majority due to his religious
intolerance, which diminished his support base.

3. Influence of the Ulemas:

- Firuz’s reliance on the ulemas led to their dominance in administration,
fostering selfish and arrogant groups that undermined his authority.

4. Decentralization of Power:
- Firuz granted extensive powers to his nobles and military, weakening central
authority and contributing to disintegration.
- His attempt to make the nobility hereditary further strengthened their
influence at the expense of the Sultanate.

5. Inefficient Military:
- The hereditary nature of Firuz’s military reforms led to inefficiency, with
soldiers unable to maintain horses for military service.
- His creation of a central corp of 180,000 slaves, many of whom were artisans
and some soldiers, resulted in a disjointed military system that countered the
nobility’s power.

6. Failed Military Campaigns:

- Firuz’s campaigns to Bengal, Orissa, and Sindh were unsuccessful in expanding
the Sultanate’s territory, reflecting his limitations as a military leader.

7. Economic Policies:
- Firuz’s grant of high salaries and land-based iqtas to the nobility benefitted
them but limited the central treasury’s resources, affecting the Sultanate’s
economic stability.
- His economic policies, while ensuring peace and prosperity for a time,
eventually contributed to the decline of the Sultanate due to the growing power of
the nobles.

8. Conclusion:
- Firuz Tughluq’s policies, though initially beneficial for agriculture and
infrastructure, ultimately weakened the Delhi Sultanate. His failure to address
succession, military inefficiency, religious intolerance, and decentralization
contributed to the kingdom’s disintegration.

decline of the Sultanate

1. Absence of Succession Law:

- The Sultanate lacked a universally accepted law of succession, leading to
power struggles after a Sultan’s death.
- The hereditary principle was inconsistently followed, and power was often
determined by the sword.

2. Nobility Struggles:
- Conflict between the Sultan and the nobility (umara) was a constant. Nobles
aimed to maximize their political and economic power.
- Factions often emerged, and after the death of strong rulers, these conflicts
became more pronounced.

3. Iqta System:
- Initially, the iqta system supported the Sultan’s authority by ensuring
transfers of land and non-permanence.
- Under Feroz Tughluq, the system became hereditary, leading to the weakening of
central authority.

4. Mongol Invasions:
- The Mongol threat, though significant, did not substantially weaken the
Sultanate. Various rulers, including Balban, Alauddin Khalji, and Muhammad Tughluq,
resisted Mongol invasions successfully.

5. Nature of Kingship:
- Kingship lacked a clear succession system, and power struggles often revolved
around which factions could seize control.
- After Iltutmish’s death, his family and the nobility contested succession,
leading to internal strife.

6. Decline of Central Authority:

- The Mongols did not significantly impact the economy, but the lack of a stable
succession and constant power struggles weakened the Sultanate.
- Key rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq attempted to centralize
power, but ultimately their efforts faltered due to noble rebellions.

7. Regional Fragmentation:
- As central authority weakened, regional states and governors gained autonomy,
further eroding the Sultanate’s power.
- Notable governors like Khwaja Jahan and Dilawar Khan declared independence,
and kingdoms like Bengal and Gujarat became semi-independent.

8. Economic and Military Decline:

- The decentralization of power led to the loss of revenue-rich provinces like
Bengal, Gujarat, and Malwa.
- The Sultanate's military power declined as the nobility focused more on local
control, leaving the central government with fewer resources to suppress
rebellions.

9. Fall of the Sultanate:

- The Timurid invasion in 1398 exposed the Sultanate’s vulnerability, triggering
the establishment of independent regional powers.
- During the reigns of the Sayyids and Lodis, the Sultanate’s authority was
increasingly nominal, with frequent rebellions and territorial losses, leading to
the eventual demise with Babur’s invasion in 1526.

Ibn Battuta's account of his travels to India, as recorded in his *Rihla*

(Journey), offers invaluable insights into the socio-political, cultural, and
economic conditions of the time, especially during the reign of Muhammad bin
Tughluq.

1. Ibn Battuta’s Background and Arrival in India:

- Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan explorer, traveled extensively across the Islamic
world and beyond. He arrived in India in 1334, passing through Afghanistan.
- He sought official employment in Delhi, eventually becoming a judge under
Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq.

2. Employment and Personal Life in Delhi:

- Battuta worked as a Qazi (judge) and took on additional responsibilities, such
as overseeing a mausoleum.
- He married the daughter of a court official involved in a rebellion, which led
to his temporary suspicion by the Sultan.
- Battuta was closely involved in the Sultan’s extravagant lifestyle, including
hunting expeditions.

3. Escape from Delhi:

- Due to the political turmoil under Muhammad bin Tughluq and the execution of a
Sufi holy man, Ibn Battuta faced potential danger and was placed under guard.
- The Sultan, aware of Ibn Battuta’s travel interests, sent him on a diplomatic
mission to China in 1341, offering a chance for escape.

4. Attacks and Challenges:

- On his journey, Ibn Battuta’s group faced several attacks, including one by
Hindu rebels, and he was robbed and imprisoned by local bandits.
- Despite these challenges, he continued his journey to China, which was marked
by the destruction of several ships and another failed attempt to reach his
destination.

5. Cultural and Social Observations:

- Ibn Battuta offered detailed descriptions of social customs, including the
practice of Sati (widow burning) and the status of women in India.
- He observed the caste system, slavery, and the social mobility of various
groups in India.
- He was particularly impressed by the mango and jack-fruit, which he called the
“loveliest of all fruits in Hindustan.”

6. Administration and Policies of Muhammad bin Tughluq:

- Battuta’s account reflects on the Sultan’s harsh policies, including the
forced relocation of Delhi’s population to Daulatabad and the inefficiency of some
administrative measures.
- He notes the Sultan’s extravagant spending, his strict rule over both Muslims
and non-Muslims, and the famous coinage experiments (though not mentioned by Ibn
Battuta).

7. Espionage and Communication Systems:

- He highlights the effective postal system in the Sultanate, which utilized
both horse riders and foot couriers to relay information over vast distances, thus
facilitating trade and communication.

8. Insights into Indian Economy and Society:

- Battuta described India’s rich agricultural economy, with crops like rice,
sugarcane, wheat, and cotton grown in various regions.
 - He also noted the thriving village industries, such as oil pressing, jaggery
production, and indigo dyeing.
- Urban centers were bustling with trade, particularly in textiles, and Delhi
and Daulatabad were some of the largest cities in India.

9. Religious and Cultural Interactions:

- Battuta’s account provides insights into the tensions between Hindus and
Muslims during the time. He records instances of conflict, though his personal bias
is evident in his negative remarks about the local Hindu population.
- He also discusses the divisions between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with a marked
preference for Sunni practices.

10. Marriage and Social Customs:

- Battuta’s views on marriage were influenced by the cultural practices of
different regions, including temporary marriages in the Maldives and polygamy in
India, where Muslim men were allowed up to four wives.
- He also comments on the different customs surrounding food, highlighting
regional specialties like *rasoi* (a dish from Kerala) and the prevalence of
coconut in the diet.

alchemist, [05-12-2024 20:44]

11. Military and Administrative Insights:
- He describes the recruitment of soldiers, the role of nobility in governance,
and the relationship between the Sultan and his courtiers.
- Ibn Battuta also observed the military strength of the Sultanate,
particularly in dealing with local rebellions and conflicts.

Ibn Battuta’s *Rihla* offers a rich, though sometimes biased, account of medieval
India, highlighting its administrative systems, cultural practices, and the
challenges faced by both the rulers and common people during the reign of Muhammad
bin Tughluq. His observations remain an essential source for understanding the
socio-political and economic dynamics of the time.

Ibn Battuta’s accounts related to slavery during his travels in the Tughluq
Sultanate:

1. Slavery and Slave Market:

- Slaves (both male and female) were openly sold in markets and exchanged as
gifts, much like other commodities.
- Ibn Battuta bought several slaves during his travels, including two Greek
female slaves with whom he fathered children. He also mentions the cheapness of
slaves in places like Chittagong.
- The price of female slaves, often employed for domestic labor, was
particularly low. Many families kept one or two slaves if they could afford them.

2. Giving Slaves as Gifts:

- Ibn Battuta describes purchasing horses, camels, and slaves, including female
slaves, as gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
- He mentions that when Chinese emissaries arrived in Delhi with 100 slaves and
valuable gifts for the Sultan, Muhammad bin Tughlaq reciprocated with gifts
including 200 Hindi slaves, songstresses, and dancers.

3. Sexual Relations with Slaves:

- Ibn Battuta's sexual relations with his slaves were legal under medieval
Islamic laws.
- He fathered children by at least two of his female slaves, one of whom bore
him a daughter who died in India.

4. Roles of Slaves:
 - Slaves in the Sultan’s court were often captured in raids. Some female slaves
were skilled in music and dance, while others performed domestic duties.
- Male slaves were needed for tasks like carrying important people on palanquins
or spying on nobles.

5. Prostitution of Slave Girls:

- Ibn Battuta mentions the practice of slave girls being put into prostitution,
where they had to pay regular dues to their master. He criticizes this as immoral
but approves of concubinage (sexual relationships with female slaves).

6. Runaway Slaves:
- Ibn Battuta recounts incidents of his own slaves running away, but the
punishment for such actions is not clearly stated.

7. Criticism of the 'Rehla':

- Some of Ibn Battuta’s accounts are criticized for inaccuracies, including a
mix of personal observations, hearsay, and chronological errors.
- Scholars believe that Ibn Battuta may not have visited all the places he
described and that his account, while valuable, cannot always be taken at face
value.

8. Historical Significance:
- Despite some flaws, Ibn Battuta’s travels provide a significant insight into
the social, economic, and political life of the Tughluq Sultanate, particularly
with regard to slavery and its role in the empire.

This summary highlights the role of slavery in the Tughluq Sultanate as recorded by
Ibn Battuta, while also noting the limitations and potential inaccuracies in his
accounts.

Shams Siraj Afif’s account in *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi***:

1. **Overview of *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi* as a Source of History:

- Written by Shams Siraj Afif, the book details the reign of Sultan Firuz Shah
Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD).
- It was composed some years after Timur’s invasion of Delhi in 1398 and serves
as a continuation of Barani’s *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi*.
- Afif is said to have written three books about the Tughluq rulers, but only
*Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi* survives.

2. Historical Value and Accuracy:

- The book is considered one of the most accurate and authentic contemporary
accounts of Firuz Shah Tughlaq's reign.
- Afif had direct interactions with the Sultan and provides a detailed account
of both political and military events.
- He is praised for writing without self-interest or prejudice, giving an honest
depiction of the Sultan’s reign.

3. Agrarian and Administrative Reforms:

- Afif provides a detailed account of Firuz Shah’s agrarian reforms, including
the extension of agriculture, improvements in cropping patterns, and the
introduction of irrigation systems like the Rajabwah and Ulughkhani canals.
- He describes the establishment of new agricultural settlements along these
canals, which enabled the cultivation of two harvests per year in the eastern
Punjab.

4. Social and Economic Life:

- Afif offers valuable insights into the life and conditions of the common
people, an aspect often overlooked by other historians of the time.
 - He describes prosperity during Firuz Shah’s reign, highlighting cheap food
prices, high wages, and a general improvement in living conditions.
- However, he also notes the economic disparity between different classes,
especially the lavish lifestyle of the nobles.
- Afif records the abolition of taxes not authorized by Islamic law (Shariat)
and the collection of land revenue based on the produce rather than measurement.

5. Military and Administrative Criticism:

- Afif critiques the corruption in administration, particularly in the Diwan-i-
Arz (the military department), where officials took bribes.
- He hints at a decline in the central army's effectiveness during Firuz Shah's
reign.

6. Monuments and Cultural Contributions:

- Afif provides valuable information about Firuz Shah’s contributions to
architecture, including the introduction of the practice of striking hours and the
installation of a water-clock (tas gharial) in Ferozabad.
- He describes the movement of Ashokan pillars from Topra (Haryana) and Meerut
(U.P.) to their present locations.

7. Firuz Shah as a Ruler:

- Afif portrays Firuz Shah as a saintly and ideal Muslim ruler, though this is
likely an exaggeration, and his reign had its flaws.
- He emphasizes the Sultan’s piety and concern for public welfare but overlooks
or downplays the challenges of his reign.

8. Limitations and Biases:

- Afif’s account contains exaggerations, particularly when he describes the
prosperity of the time (e.g., every peasant’s house supposedly having wealth, clean
bed-sheets, and ornaments).
- There are chronological errors and occasional reliance on hearsay rather than
direct evidence.
- The account also reflects Afif’s personal and religious preferences, which may
affect its objectivity.

9. Legacy:
- Despite these limitations, *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi* remains a valuable source
for understanding the social, economic, and political conditions under Firuz Shah
Tughlaq.
- It offers a more comprehensive view of life in medieval India under a Muslim
ruler than other contemporary works, such as those of Minhaj or Barani.

In summary, Shams Siraj Afif’s *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi* provides crucial insights

into the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq, his reforms, and the conditions of the
people, while also acknowledging some limitations in the account’s accuracy and
objectivity.

Khalji Revolution under Alauddin Khalji:

Background:
- Post-Balban period (1286): After Balban’s death, there was confusion in Delhi.
His successor, Prince Mahmud, died in battle, and Bughra Khan, another son, chose
to rule Bengal.
- Khalji Nobles’ Rise: A group of Khalji nobles, led by Jalaluddin Khalji, took
advantage of this instability. They overthrew the weak rulers of the Slave Dynasty
(1290), marking the beginning of the Khalji Revolution.
- Nature of the Revolution: It was a rebellion by non-Turkish elements (like the
Khaljis) against the Turkish dominance in the nobility and state. It also ended the
monopoly of the Turkish nobles on high offices, creating a broader ruling class.
Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296):
- Benevolent Rule: Jalaluddin introduced a more liberal approach compared to his
predecessors, aiming to gain the support of the nobility and people.
- Religious Tolerance: He allowed Hindus to practice their religion freely, despite
some opposition from the Ulemas. He believed the state should reflect the support
of the people, including Hindus.
- Policy of Tolerance: His approach was humane, trying to reduce the harsh aspects
of Balban’s reign, but he faced revolts from nobles who had been sidelined.
- Political and Administrative Changes:
- He introduced market regulations (fixed prices), created a new administrative
machinery (Shuhna, Barids), and reorganized land revenue.
- Centralized Power: The Sultan’s power was centralized, with no reliance on
Ulemas or other centers of authority.
- Expansion: Faced Mongol invasions, and his rule was characterized by a policy of
consolidating power rather than expansion.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316):

- Consolidation and Centralization:
- After murdering Jalaluddin, Alauddin Khalji established a highly centralized
government, viewing himself as the "Shadow of God" and disregarding the Ulemas'
religious influence in state matters.
- His focus was on a strong military and maintaining control through fear rather
than benevolence, which was seen as weak by his supporters.
- He introduced several administrative reforms to strengthen the state,
including:
- Revocation of grants (Waqf, Inams) to eliminate rebellion risks.
- Spying network to keep control over nobles and people.
- Strict control over nobles, including forbidding gatherings and marriages
without the Sultan’s permission.
- Military Reforms: Maintained a large standing army, introduced horse branding
and a register of soldiers to reduce corruption.

Conquests and Territorial Expansion:

- Gujarat (1299): First major expansion, driven by the region’s wealth. The
capital, Anhilwara, was sacked, and Gujarat was annexed.
- Malwa (1305): The fort of Mandu was captured, bringing more territories under
control.
- Ranthambhor (1300): A lengthy siege resulted in the fall of the kingdom and the
death of its ruler.
- Chittor (1303): Another successful campaign in which the Sultan made the region
part of his control.
- Deccan and Southward Expansion:
- Devagiri (1306-1307): Alauddin plundered the region, making it a protectorate
rather than annexing it.
- Southern expeditions (Warangal, Dwarasamudra, Madura): Wealth was extracted,
but territories were made protectorates, showing a focus on control and economic
gain rather than direct annexation.
- Mongol Threat: Alauddin defended against Mongol incursions and solidified his
territorial control.

Key Policies and Reforms:

1. Agrarian and Economic Measures:
- Land revenue reforms aimed at better administration and increasing state
control.
- Revocation of land grants (Waqf, Inams) to prevent rebellion.
2. Military Measures:
- Introduced horse branding and soldier registration to strengthen the military.
- Cash payments to soldiers and the abolition of the Jagir system.
3. Political and Social Reforms:
- Spying system for surveillance of nobles and common people.
- Restriction on social gatherings and marriages among nobles.
- Banning wine to prevent its use in rebellion.

Conclusion:
- Alauddin Khalji's reign marked a turning point in the Delhi Sultanate, with
militaristic expansion and centralized power. While his policies were often harsh,
they laid the foundation for the Sultanate’s consolidation and territorial
expansion across northern and central India. Despite the cruelty of his reign, his
reforms in administration, military, and economics were significant in the long
term.

Alauddin Khalji's Agrarian and Economic Measures

Agrarian Reforms:

1. Khalisa Land Expansion:

- Land between Dipalpur, Lahore, and Kara (modern Allahabad) was brought under
direct royal control (Khalisa).
- State demand set at 50% of the produce.
- Land was measured and revenue fixed based on each unit's yield. Revenue
collected was largely in kind (grain).
- Kharaj, Jazia, and other taxes were levied on peasants.

2. Curbing Privileges of Intermediaries:

- Intermediaries (Khots, Muqaddams, etc.) lost their privileges, being reduced
to the level of ordinary peasants.
- They were forced to pay the same revenue rate (50% of produce) and lost their
perquisites, including grazing and house tax exemptions.
- Reforms aimed to reduce the power of intermediaries and eliminate their
exploitation of peasants.

3. Revenue Administration Reform:

- Direct interaction with peasants expanded the role of revenue officials like
accountants (mutsarrif), collectors (amils), and agents (gumashtas).
- Strict measures were introduced to prevent corruption, with severe punishments
for any mismanagement or bribery.

4. Mode of Payment:
- Preferred payment in grain over cash to ensure food security and control over
prices.
- Revenue collected in kind for areas like the Doab, with half of Delhi’s
revenue collected in cash.
- These measures aimed to stockpile grain for emergencies and control food
prices.

5. Impact on Agrarian Economy:

- 50% land revenue demand was the highest in Indian history, burdening peasants
but ensuring state revenue.
- Corruption among revenue officials led to widespread imprisonment of
officials.
- Despite eliminating intermediaries, peasants faced heavy taxation and few
benefits.

### Market Reforms:

1. Price Control:
 - Alauddin Khalji implemented the first systematic price control in India.
- Established three markets in Delhi to control prices:
- Food grain market: Government controlled supply to prevent artificial
scarcity.
- Cloth market (Sarai-i-Adl): Merchants were forced to sell at fixed prices.
Imported goods were sold at government rates.
- Horse, cattle, and slave markets: Prices were controlled to ensure
affordability for the military and nobility.

2. Regulations:
- Market officers (Shahna-i-Mandi, barids, munhiyan) were appointed to enforce
price control.
- Granaries were set up in Delhi and Rajasthan to ensure the availability of
food grains.
- Hoarding and price manipulation were strictly prohibited.

3. Objectives of Market Reforms:

- Military Needs: Price control allowed Alauddin to recruit a large army without
depleting state resources.
- Social Control: Aimed to weaken the economic power of the Hindu traders and
prevent rebellion.
- Public Welfare: To combat famine and ensure the availability of cheap food.

4. Impact on Economy and Society:

- Positive: Prices were stabilized, hoarding and black marketing reduced.
Regular supply of food grains was ensured, even during famines.
- Negative: Merchant profits were severely restricted. Cultivators were left
with minimal produce after taxes, leading to dissatisfaction.
- Cultural Impact: Economic stability and price control attracted artisans and
scholars to Delhi, contributing to the composite culture.

5. Military Strength:
- The surplus from market reforms funded Alauddin’s military expansion,
consolidating his rule and increasing social stability.

In summary, while Alauddin Khalji’s agrarian and market reforms had significant
impacts on the economy—both positive and negative—they were primarily designed to
stabilize his administration and military. The reforms, although harsh, helped in
dealing with immediate threats, such as Mongol invasions, while reshaping Delhi's
economic and social structures.

The Mongol problem during the Sultanate period involved significant challenges for
the Delhi Sultanate, primarily during the 13th century. Here are the key points:

1. Strategic Importance of Khyber and Bolan Passes:

- India’s north-western frontier was vulnerable, as the Khyber and Bolan passes
allowed Mongol incursions into India.
- Afghanistan, particularly the Kabul-Ghazni-Qandahar region, was critical for
controlling invasions into India and maintaining links with Central Asia.

2. Mongol Threat:
- After the Khwarizm Shah’s defeat, the Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan, posed
a direct threat to Delhi.
- Genghis Khan reached the Indus in 1221, after defeating the Khwarizm prince
Jalaluddin Mangbarni, who sought refuge in India but was turned away by Iltutmish,
the Sultan of Delhi.

3. Iltutmish's Response: Aloofness:

 - Iltutmish followed a defensive policy, avoiding confrontation with the
Mongols, recognizing the Sultanate’s weakness.
- He refused to aid Jalaluddin and did not engage in aggressive expansion
towards the Mongols.

4. Appeasement and Internal Distractions:

- After Genghis Khan's death (1227), Mongols were distracted by internal issues
and expansion in Central Asia, giving Delhi a brief respite.
- However, in 1234, Mongol incursions resumed under Ögedei Khan, leading
Iltutmish to confront them at the Salt Ranges, but he died shortly after.
- His successors, including Raziya, continued the appeasement approach due to
the internal instability of the Mongol Empire.

5. Mongol Attacks on Lahore:

- In 1241, Tair Bahadur led a devastating attack on Lahore, causing significant
destruction. The city was repeatedly raided in the years that followed.
- By 1246, the Mongols controlled the Koh-i-Jud and Multan regions, threatening
the Delhi Sultanate.

6. Balban’s Policy: Resistance and Diplomacy:

- Balban, after becoming Sultan, initially pursued both military and diplomatic
measures, attempting to rebuild Delhi's defenses.
- He reinforced forts in strategic areas like Bhatinda and Lahore to counter
Mongol incursions.
- Although Balban managed to stabilize the frontiers, the Mongol threat
continued until his death, especially after the loss of his son, Prince Muhammad,
in 1285.

7. Mongol Domination of Punjab:

- Despite Balban’s efforts, the Mongols continued to dominate western Punjab and
threatened Multan and Sindh.
- They did not directly attack Delhi but maintained a constant threat, forcing
Delhi to stay on high alert.

8. End of the Mongol Threat:

- By 1290, the Mongol threat gradually diminished, but Delhi's survival was due
to its military preparedness and constant vigilance at the frontier.

Jalaluddin Khalji and the Mongol Threat

1. Mongol Invasion in 1292:

- The Mongol army, led by Abdullah (a grandson of Halaku), invaded India.
Jalaluddin Khalji, the newly ascended Sultan, confronted the Mongols.
- After some skirmishes, the Mongols withdrew following an agreement, and some
Mongol leaders, including Ulaghu (another grandson of Halaku), embraced Islam with
their followers.

2. Mongol Relations Under Jalaluddin:

- Ulaghu and 4,000 of his followers were allowed to settle near Delhi, and a
diplomatic relationship was established, with a marriage alliance between
Jalaluddin's daughter and Ulaghu.
- This event marked the beginning of the "Nau Muslims" (new Muslims), with
Mongols embracing Islam.

3. Rise of the Ogtai-Chaghtai Mongols:

- The Ogtai-Chaghtai branch's rise altered the situation, as Mongol chief Dawa
Khan expanded his influence, overran Afghanistan, and reached the Ravi River.
- This marked the beginning of renewed Mongol hostility towards Delhi.
4. Alauddin Khalji's Response to Mongol Threat:
- In 1297-98, Dawa Khan's army crossed the Beas and Sutlej rivers, prompting
Alauddin to send a large army under Ulugh Khan, resulting in a major victory
against the Mongols.
- In 1299, Qutlugh Khan led another Mongol invasion of Delhi, but after initial
success, the Mongols retreated due to strong defenses and lack of resources.

5. Mongol Advances in 1303-1305:

- The Mongols attacked Delhi again in 1303 under Targhi, while Alauddin was
away. The Mongols inflicted destruction but failed to capture the city due to
Alauddin's strategic defense.
- A third invasion in 1305, led by the Mongols crossing Punjab, was repelled by
Alauddin's army under Malik Nayak, signaling the end of the Mongols' invincibility
in India.

6. Defensive Measures by Alauddin:

- Alauddin built a protective wall around Delhi and repaired forts along the
Mongol invasion routes, strengthening the defense.
- He reorganized the military, recruited a larger army, and stationed forces at
key points like Samana and Dipalpur to counter future threats.

7. Mongol Decline:
- After Dawa Khan's death in 1306, Mongol forces weakened due to internal
strife, and they ceased to pose a serious threat to Delhi.
- Tughlaq Shah (Ghazi Malik) successfully repelled Mongol incursions in West
Punjab, pushing them back to the Indus River.

8. Long-term Impact:
- The Mongol threat decreased significantly after Alauddin's reign, with key
areas like Lahore and Dipalpur becoming insurmountable barriers to Mongol forces.
- However, the Mongols continued to trouble India intermittently, with invasions
during Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq's and Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reigns.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq's failed Khurasan expedition reflected his strategic
foresight, though his failure also highlighted the challenges in managing the
north-west frontier.

9. Conclusion:
- Despite the constant Mongol threat, the Delhi Sultanate, particularly under
Alauddin Khalji, effectively countered Mongol invasions through military strategy
and fortification efforts.
- While the Mongol menace continued in different forms, the Sultanate's
defensive measures ensured that Delhi and its territories remained intact,
preserving the Sultanate's power.

Measures Adopted by Balban to Combat the Mongol Menace:

1. Diplomatic Steps:
- As a Naib, Balban sent an envoy to Halaku, the Mongol Il-Khan of Iran, to
maintain diplomatic ties. After Halaku's death, Balban no longer enjoyed the same
goodwill with the Mongols.

2. Building a Powerful Army:

- Balban focused on maintaining a large, well-trained, and efficient army,
ensuring it was always in a state of readiness to defend against Mongol invasions.

3. No Territorial Expansion:
- Balban refrained from expanding the Delhi Sultanate's territories or raiding
neighboring kingdoms (e.g., Malwa, Gujarat) to avoid provoking Mongol attacks,
keeping his focus on the north-west frontier.

4. Construction of Forts:
- To secure the north-west frontier, Balban ordered the construction of forts,
such as those at Bhatinda, Sarsa, Bhate, and Abohar, strategically positioned to
deter Mongol invasions.

5. Appointment of Powerful Chiefs:

- Balban appointed skilled Afghan soldiers, like his cousin Sher Khan, to
oversee the north-western frontier. After Sher Khan's death, Balban's son,
Muhammad, took over, effectively managing the frontier's defense.

6. Securing the Capital:

- Balban concentrated on ensuring the security of the capital, Delhi, focusing
on internal stability by establishing a strong spy network to monitor potential
threats and rebellions.

7. Focus on Internal Security:

- Balban employed a heavy-handed approach to maintain internal security, making
sure that he could handle external threats without worrying about internal revolts.

Mongol Invasions During Balban's Reign:

- 1279 Attack on Lahore: Mongols attacked and defeated forces led by Muhammad,
Bughra Khan, and Mubarak Bakhtiyar.
- 1285 Attack on Punjab: The Mongols, led by Taimur Khan, were defeated by
Muhammad, but he died fighting bravely.
- Despite Mongol invasions, Balban successfully contained them at the Multan-
Dipalpur-Sunam line, though he couldn't push them beyond Lahore.

Conclusion:
Balban managed to prevent significant Mongol incursions into the heart of the
Sultanate, maintaining a defensive strategy without engaging in expansionism. His
careful attention to the frontier and internal security ensured that Delhi remained
protected from Mongol threats, though he could not entirely push the Mongols out of
the region beyond Lahore.

major projects, agrarian measures, and bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughluq:

1. Annexation and Expansion

- Muhammad bin Tughluq aimed to expand the Delhi Sultanate to its peak,
conquering regions such as Warangal, Mabar, Madurai, and Dvar Samudra.
- His goal was to bring every territory under direct control, and his ambition
led to significant territorial expansion.

2. Welfare and Governance

- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Muhammad’s father) had a welfare-oriented approach,
acknowledging the importance of agriculture and handicrafts.
- Muhammad bin Tughluq continued this approach but also focused on moderation in
taxation to prevent ruin.
- He tried to combine both spiritual and political authority, though he was
criticized for trying to merge the role of prophet and sultan.

3. Religious and Cultural Inclusiveness

- Muhammad bin Tughluq was the first Sultan to participate in Hindu festivals
like Holi and gave grants to Hindu temples.
- He appointed Hindus and even low-born individuals to high positions based on
talent.
 - He respected Sufis, visiting the tomb of Muinuddin Chishti and establishing
mausoleums for other saints.

4. Administrative Reforms
- Muhammad bin Tughluq sought to improve administration through reforms, such as
issuing numerous orders (manshurs), though many had little impact.
- His major administrative experiment was the relocation of the capital to
Daulatabad, which ended in failure due to the dissatisfaction of the people.

5. Military Expeditions
- Focused on securing the north-western frontier, leading campaigns to Kalanaur
and Peshawar to counter Mongol threats.
- His expeditions, like the Qarachil region campaign, were disastrous, wasting
resources and weakening his authority.

6. Agrarian and Economic Measures

- Revenue System: Extended Alauddin Khalji's revenue system, including measuring
land for taxation, and introduced new taxes that increased the financial burden on
peasants.
- Agricultural Loans: Introduced loans (sondhar) for agriculture but they were
poorly implemented, leading to little benefit for peasants.
- Agricultural Reforms: Introduced crop rotation and promoted new crops, though
the model farm experiment failed due to corruption and poor land choices.

7. Token Currency Experiment

- Introduced a token currency of copper and brass alloy, reckoning it at the
value of silver tanka, to address financial needs for military expeditions.
- The experiment failed due to rampant counterfeiting and currency depreciation,
disrupting trade and economy.

8. Failures and Criticism

- Muhammad bin Tughluq was criticized for his hasty decisions, excessive
reliance on his judgment, and issuing ill-conceived policies without proper
preparation.
- His governance faced internal dissent, and after his death in 1325, his son
Ulugh Khan (Muhammad bin Tughluq) ascended the throne.

These measures and reforms, while ambitious, were largely unsuccessful and led to
economic hardship, social unrest, and a weakening of Muhammad bin Tughluq’s
authority.

bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughlaq and his major projects, agrarian measures, and
rebellions during his reign:

Bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughlaq:

1. Progressive Administrative Machinery: Muhammad Tughlaq aimed to build a
progressive administrative system, focusing on merit rather than narrow racial or
religious considerations.
2. Diverse Recruitment:
- Nobility: Traditional Turkish elites continued to hold power but he also
welcomed individuals from various backgrounds:
- Foreigners: He gave patronage to Khurasanis, Afghans, and Mongols, e.g.,
Malik Makh and Malik Shahu.
- Indian Converts: Figures like Aziz-ud-din Khammar (a distiller) were
appointed to high positions (e.g., Governor of Malwa).
- Hindus: Many Hindus like Kishan Bazran Indri were also given significant
positions.
- Artisans & Lower Classes: Artisans and individuals from despised classes
(gardeners, barbers, weavers, etc.) were appointed, e.g., Najba (singer) became in
charge of multiple regions.
3. Criticism and Internal Struggles:
- Barani’s Criticism: Barani criticized the appointment of low-caste individuals
to high positions, questioning their competence in administration.
- Lack of Cohesion: The diverse composition of the bureaucracy led to internal
conflicts, lack of unity, and ultimately, failure to manage rebellions effectively.
- Foreign vs. Indian Division: A significant divide existed between the foreign
(Turkish and Mongol) nobles and the Indian (Hindu and converted Muslim) elites,
leading to tensions within the nobility.
4. Failures of the Bureaucracy: Despite some competent appointments, many of the
lower-class individuals failed in military matters due to lack of military training
and experience.

Major Rebellions During Muhammad Tughlaq's Reign:

1. First Phase (1324-1335):
- Muhammad Tughlaq worked to consolidate his kingdom and faced several
rebellions, such as in Multan, Lakhanauti, and Sindh, which were successfully
crushed.
- He failed in some of his grand schemes, including the token currency
experiment and the Deogiri relocation, but his prestige remained high, as noted by
Ibn Battutah.

2. Second Phase (1336-1345):

- Rebellions intensified, with the Mabar campaign and famine in the Doab as key
events.
- His failure in the Mabar campaign led to the loss of southern territories like
Bengal.
- Rebellions from the nobles and the Indian elites, like Ainul Mulk, highlighted
the growing divide between foreign and Indian factions.
- The Sultan also faced opposition from religious figures (e.g., sufis and
ulema), resulting in drastic actions against them, including executions.

3. Third Phase (1346-1351):

- Major rebellions broke out in Kulbarga, Malwa, and Gujarat.
- Muhammad Tughlaq personally led campaigns, but the Gujarat rebellion led to
significant losses, including the fall of Daultabad and the rise of the Bahmani
kingdom.
- His prolonged absence in Gujarat led to difficulties in managing the empire,
though rebellions in the north were contained by a regency.

Assessment of Muhammad Tughlaq’s Reign:

- Strengths: Despite his rash temperament, Muhammad Tughlaq’s administration was
innovative in several respects, including:
- The token currency experiment, a forward-thinking but ultimately impractical
reform.
- Efforts to create a composite ruling class that included both Hindus and
Muslims, as well as individuals from different castes and occupations.
- Indications of agricultural expansion and growth.
- Weaknesses:
- His centralized administration and attempts to impose uniform policies across
a vast empire led to tensions and inefficiencies.
- His hasty decisions and the large-scale rebellions throughout his reign were
exacerbated by his suspicious nature and heavy-handed punishment of dissenters.
- Internal divisions within the nobility, coupled with a lack of loyalty from
his diverse bureaucracy, contributed to the failure of many of his projects.

Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign is marked by ambitious reforms and a large-scale

administration, but his inability to manage the vast empire effectively, along with
internal conflicts and over-ambitious projects, led to many failures. However, some
of his reforms did have long-term significance, particularly in terms of currency
and the inclusion of various social groups in governance.